CONTINUITY & CHANGE

ORGANISMS

D3.1. Reproduction
GUIDING QUESTIONS
• How does asexual or sexual reproduction exemplify themes of change or
continuity?
• What changes within organisms are required for reproduction?
 D3.1.1—Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction ORGANISMS

● Asexual reproduction takes place in

CONTINUITY & CHANGE

different ways, including fission,

budding, fragmentation and
parthenogenesis.
● As asexual reproduction normally
involves mitosis followed by cell
division, the offspring are clones of the
parents and are therefore genetically
identical to the parent, and to each
other.
 D3.1.1—Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction ORGANISMS

ADVANTAGES:
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
● A large number of offspring can be produced within a relatively
short period of time. This acts as an advantage in a relatively
stable environment, as all the organisms are well-adapted to the
environment and can colonise a habitat faster.
● Less costly in terms of energy and time, and definitely a less
complex process.
DISADVANTAGES:
● Chances of genetic variation are low → decreases genetic
diversity. This may have disastrous consequences when the
environment changes (e.g. disease).
● Harmful mutations in genes could be catastrophic to the
existence of asexually reproducing organisms.
 D3.1.1—Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction ORGANISMS
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
● Sexual reproduction requires
two parents.
● It involves the union of
specialised sex cells or gametes,
one from each parent.
● The gametes are produced by
meiosis. The offspring are similar
but not genetically identical to
their parents or to each other.
 D3.1.1—Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction ORGANISMS
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
ADVANTAGES:
● Sexual reproduction results in genetic
variation.
● Species are better adapted to a changing
environment, increasing their survival rate.
DISADVANTAGES:
● Sexual reproduction is more expensive in
terms of time and energy, and is complex
process.
● May be difficult for isolated organisms
 D3.1.2—Role of meiosis and fusion of gametes in the sexual life cycle ORGANISMS

Meiosis is produces haploid gametes from

CONTINUITY & CHANGE
●
diploid cells in plants and animals. Gametes
are used in sexual reproduction.
● Meiosis occurs:
○ In the testes of male animals (sperm)
and the ovaries of female animals
(ovum, ova)
○ In the anthers and ovaries of flowering
plants
● The fusion of gametes during fertilisation
produces new combinations of alleles leading
to genetic variation
 D3.1.3—Differences between male and female sexes in sexual
ORGANISMS
reproduction
● During the process of fertilisation, two gametes fuse
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
together to produce the zygote.
● In humans and most multicellular animals, the gametes
differ in size and form. The smaller of the two is the male
gamete or the sperm, while the larger is the female gamete
or the egg.
● Sperm are small and motile; whereas the eggs are
non-motile with a large cytoplasm and food reserves.
● Millions of sperm are made every day in males to increase
the chances of one reaching the egg. In contrast, females
are born with thousands of eggs but only a few mature
each month for ovulation.
 HL B2.3.10—Adaptations of sperm and egg cells CELLS

NOT capable of locomotion Capable of locomotion

FORM & FUNCTION

~100 million
Female is sperm produced
born with every day from
thousands of puberty until
immature death.
eggs in each
ovary. A few
mature each
month from
200µm 45µm
puberty until
menopause.
 HL B2.3.10—Adaptations of sperm and egg cells CELLS

Sperm cell structure Function

FORM & FUNCTION

Acrosome

Tail

Midpiece

Head
 HL B2.3.10—Adaptations of sperm and egg cells CELLS

Egg cell structure Function

FORM & FUNCTION

Zona pellucida

Cortical granules

Mitochondria

Centrioles
 HL B2.3.10—Adaptations of sperm and egg cells CELLS

Annotate the diagrams with the adaptations of the sperm and egg.
Include the following structures:
FORM & FUNCTION

Sperm: Egg:
● Nucleus ● Nucleus
● Acrosome ● Zona pellucida
● Midpiece ● Corona radiata
● Flagellum ● Cortical granules
● Cytoplasm
 D3.1.4—Anatomy of the human male and female reproductive systems ORGANISMS
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
 D3.1.4—Anatomy of the human male and female reproductive systems ORGANISMS
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
 D3.1.5—Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and their
ORGANISMS
CONTINUITY & CHANGE hormonal regulation

● The menstrual cycle is comprised of

the ovarian and uterine cycles.
● It starts in early adolescence in girls
and is controlled by hormones.
● The average menstrual cycle is 28 days
long.
 D3.1.5—Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and their
ORGANISMS
hormonal regulation
Day 1 of the menstrual cycle is considered to be the first
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
●
day of bleeding.
● From day 1-5, the uterus lining, or endometrium, breaks
down (this is menstruation, or a period).
● From day 1 through to day 12 are the follicular phase: the
endometrium breaks down during menstruation then
repairs and thickens in preparation for the next ovulation.
● The release of an egg (ovulation) occurs around day
14, and the egg then travels down the oviduct/
fallopian tube to the uterus.
● The luteal phase is day 16-28: the endometrium is
maintained in case of fertilization.
● Failure to fertilize the egg leads to menstruation.
 D3.1.5—Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and their
ORGANISMS
hormonal regulation
● Four hormones control the events that
CONTINUITY & CHANGE

occur during the menstrual cycle:

○ Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
○ Luteinising hormone (LH)
○ Estradiol
○ Progesterone
● FSH and LH are produced by the pituitary
gland in the brain; estradiol and
progesterone are produced in the ovaries.
 D3.1.5—Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and their
ORGANISMS
CONTINUITY & CHANGE hormonal regulation
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
● Stimulates the development of several immature egg cells
in follicles in the ovary.
● Stimulates the secretion of estradiol by the follicle wall
(positive feedback).
Luteinising hormone (LH)
● LH is secreted when estradiol levels peak around day 14.
● This triggers ovulation: the mature egg cell breaks out from
the follicle and is released from the ovary.
● The shedding of the mature egg cell leaves behind an
empty egg follicle called the corpus luteum.
● LH stimulates the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone
throughout the luteal phase (positive feedback).
 D3.1.5—Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and their
ORGANISMS
hormonal regulation
Estradiol (the primary form of oestrogen in a human female)
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
● Released by the follicle cells in the ovary.
● Rises to a peak during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle.
This causes the endometrium to thicken post-menstruation.
● It increases FSH receptors, making the follicle more responsive
to FSH (positive feedback).
● At peak levels, it inhibits FSH so other follicles regress and only
one fully matures (negative feedback).
Progesterone
● Produced by the corpus luteum
● Inhibits the secretion of FSH and LH (negative feedback).
● Causes uterine lining to thicken further and changes into a
secretory layer, in preparation for a potential implantation.
 D3.1.5—Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and their
ORGANISMS
hormonal regulation
● The follicular phase, ovulation and
CONTINUITY & CHANGE

luteal phase all constitute the ovarian

cycle. This refers to the cyclic changes
seen in the ovaries.
● The uterine cycle refers to changes
seen in the uterus. This is comprised of
three stages: proliferative stage,
secretory stage and menstruation.
 D3.1.5—Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and their
ORGANISMS
hormonal regulation
Menstruation
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
● Corpus luteum breaks down due to lack of fertilization. Progesterone (and estradiol) levels drop therefore the
lining is no longer maintained. The endometrial lining and unfertilized egg are shed through menstruation.
● Low estradiol and progesterone levels at the end of the luteal phase mean FSH and LH are no longer inhibited, so
the cycle begins again.
 D3.1.5—Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and their
ORGANISMS
hormonal regulation
Proliferative phase
CONTINUITY & CHANGE

● Takes place during the follicular phase as the endometrium is rebuilding post-menstruation.
This is largely driven by rising estradiol levels.
 D3.1.5—Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and their
ORGANISMS
hormonal regulation
Secretory phase
CONTINUITY & CHANGE

● Takes place post-ovulation during the luteal phase. The endometrium continues to thicken and
transitions to a secretory layer that is receptive to implantation. This is largely driven by
progesterone secreted by the corpus luteum.
 D3.1.5—Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and their
ORGANISMS
CONTINUITY & CHANGE hormonal regulation
 D3.1.6—Fertilization in humans ORGANISMS

5. The sperm nucleus enters the egg (the

CONTINUITY & CHANGE
midpiece and tail are destroyed)
4. The plasma membrane of
the sperm fuses with the 6. The nuclear
plasma membrane of the egg. membranes surrounding
Cortical reaction takes place. the egg and sperm
nuclei dissolve.

3. The sperm binds with the

7. The chromosomes
plasma membrane of the oocyte.
from the egg and sperm
combine and undergo
mitosis to produce two
2. Enzymes released by diploid nuclei.
the acrosome digest the
zona pellucida
1. The sperm comes into contact with
the egg
 D3.1.6—Fertilization in humans ORGANISMS

● The sperm that enter the female

CONTINUITY & CHANGE
reproductive tract move towards the oocyte.
● The cell membranes of both the sperm and
the egg fuse together.
● When the sperm binds to the egg, the
nucleus of the sperm enters the cytoplasm
of the egg, while the midpiece and tail are
destroyed.
 D3.1.6—Fertilization in humans ORGANISMS

● This triggers the egg cell to complete

CONTINUITY & CHANGE
meiosis II.
● The nuclear membranes of the male and
female pronuclei dissolve, chromatin from
both nuclei condense to form chromosomes
● The two sets of chromosomes come
together to form a single-celled diploid
organism.
● The diploid zygote now undergoes mitotic
division to form two diploid nuclei.
 HL D3.1.15—Mechanisms to prevent polyspermy ORGANISMS

● Chemicals released by the egg cells guide the

CONTINUITY & CHANGE

sperm towards the egg.

● Multiple sperm will arrive at the egg
simultaneously; however, it is very important
that only one sperm fertilizes the egg. If multiple
sperm attempted to fertilize the egg, this is called
polyspermy.
● The process of fertilization has a number of
mechanisms to prevent polyspermy from
happening.
 HL D3.1.15—Mechanisms to prevent polyspermy ORGANISMS

4. CORTICAL REACTION
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
1. ACROSOME The cortical granules are
REACTION. thousands of vesicles located
As the sperm makes close to the cell membrane.
contact with the zona The sperm nucleus fusing to the
pellucida, it releases the membrane triggers the cortical
contents of the granules to release their contents.
acrosome via
exocytosis.
5. The release of the
2. The acrosome enzymes in the cortical
contains hydrolytic granules results in the
enzymes that digest 3. PENETRATION OF THE EGG MEMBRANE digestion of binding
through the zona The first sperm to break through the zona proteins so no more sperm
pellucida. pellucida and make contact with the egg cell can bind and the overall
membrane is the sperm that fertilizes the egg. hardening of the zona
Receptors on the sperm cell membrane bind to pellucida.
proteins on the egg membrane, fusing the two
membranes and triggering the cortical reaction.
 D3.1.6—Fertilization in humans ORGANISMS

● The nuclear membranes of the male

CONTINUITY & CHANGE

and female pronuclei dissolve,

chromatin from both nuclei condense
to form chromosomes
● The two sets of chromosomes come
together to form a single-celled diploid
organism.
● The diploid zygote now undergoes
mitotic division to form two diploid
nuclei.
 D3.1.6—Fertilization in humans ORGANISMS
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
 D3.1.7—Use of hormones in in vitro fertilization (IVF) treatment ORGANISMS

● In vitro fertilisation (IVF) is a fertility treatment used if either a

CONTINUITY & CHANGE
male or female is unable to conceive naturally.
● The first step involves giving a drug that suppresses LH and FSH
to suspend the female’s natural cycle. This allows doctors to
control the timing of ovulation.
● The female is then given daily injections of high concentrations of
FSH to stimulate multiple follicles to mature → superovulation.
● The female is given an injection of human chorionic gonadotropin
(hCG) to stimulate the follicles to rupture and release the mature
eggs.
● These eggs are then removed from the ovaries and mixed with
donor sperm to fertilize them.
● If fertilization is successful, the embryos are placed back inside
the uterus after around 48h for implantation.
 HL D3.1.13—Control of the developmental changes of puberty by ORGANISMS
gonadotropin-releasing hormone and steroid sex hormones
During puberty, reproductive hormones cause secondary
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
●
sexual characteristics to develop.
● This is under the control of hormones, two types of sex
hormones include:
○ Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
○ Steroid sex hormones (estradiol and testosterone)
● The onset of puberty is triggered by the release of
hormones from the hypothalamus in the brain which
secretes GnRH.
● This triggers the pituitary gland to secrete LH and FSH.
 HL D3.1.13—Control of the developmental changes of puberty by ORGANISMS
CONTINUITY & CHANGE gonadotropin-releasing hormone and steroid sex hormones

● In males, FSH stimulates testes

growth and LH stimulates
testosterone secretion by Leydig cells.
As such, both are involved in sperm
production.
● Testosterone causes the changes in
secondary sexual characteristics
(deepening of voice, pubic hair, penis
growth).
 HL D3.1.13—Control of the developmental changes of puberty by ORGANISMS
CONTINUITY & CHANGE gonadotropin-releasing hormone and steroid sex hormones

● In females, FSH stimulates follicle

development in the ovary, which
stimulates the release of estradiol. LH
triggers ovulation and the formation
of the corpus luteum.
● Estradiol causes the changes in
secondary sexual characteristics
(breast development, pubic hair, hip
widening)
 HL D3.1.14—Spermatogenesis and oogenesis in humans ORGANISMS

Gametogenesis is the process by which gametes are formed.

CONTINUITY & CHANGE
●
The gametes are the sperm and egg (in most animals).
● Spermatogenesis and oogenesis are the process by which
the sperm and egg (ovum/ oocyte) are generated.
● Both processes involve:
○ Mitosis (to increase the number of germ cells- cells
that go on to produce the gametes)
○ Cell growth (so that the cells are an appropriate size)
○ Two meiotic divisions (to halve the number of
chromosomes and include genetic variation)
○ Differentiation (so that the gametes are specialised
for their function: fertilization).
 HL D3.1.14—Spermatogenesis and oogenesis in humans
CONTINUITY & CHANGE ORGANISMS
 HL D3.1.14—Spermatogenesis and oogenesis in humans ORGANISMS

SPERMATOGENESIS
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
● Production of sperm cells in the testes.
● Testes are composed of a mass of
narrow tubes called seminiferous
tubules. There are cells that fill the
gaps (called interstices) between the
tubules called interstitial cells, or
Leydig cells.
● The seminiferous tubules are made out
of layers of cells. The outermost layer is
called the germinal epithelium.
● Germinal epithelial cells continue to divide throughout a male’s lifetime. As such, men produce sperm for
their entire lives.
 HL D3.1.14—Spermatogenesis and oogenesis in humans ORGANISMS

The different gametes (sperm and egg) have

CONTINUITY & CHANGE
●
different roles in fertilization. As such, their
development is different.
● The sperm needs to travel to the egg, penetrate
through its wall and deposit it’s nucleus within the
egg cytoplasm.
● Each sperm germ cell goes through the process of
meiosis and forms four spermatids. The cytoplasm
decreases with every division, so the resulting sperm
cells have very little cytoplasm.
 HL D3.1.14—Spermatogenesis and oogenesis in humans
CONTINUITY & CHANGE ORGANISMS
 HL D3.1.14—Spermatogenesis and oogenesis in humans ORGANISMS

OOGENESIS
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
● Production of egg cells (oocytes/ ova) in the ovary.
● Begins in the fetus with specialised cells called germ cells.
● These germ cells divide by mitosis and distribute themselves through the cortex of the developing ovary.
● When the fetus is 20-24 weeks, these germ cells begin to divide by meiosis. However, meiosis is arrested in
prophase I.
● By 28 weeks, these cells are surrounded by follicle cells. This is called a primary follicle. The cells remain
arrested in prophase I surrounded by follicle cells until puberty.
● Females are born with around 400,000 primary follicles and do not produce any more in their lifetime.
● After puberty, every month a small number of primary follicles are stimulated to develop by a hormone, FSH. One
(but sometimes two or more) of these goes on to become a mature follicle which contains the secondary
oocyte.
 HL D3.1.14—Spermatogenesis and oogenesis in humans ORGANISMS

The corpus luteum is a

CONTINUITY & CHANGE
●
cellular structure formed
from the follicle cells left
behind from the secondary
follicle after ovulation and
the release of the ovum.
● It secretes progesterone
and estrogen. If fertilisation
Meiosis II arrested at
does not take place, the
metaphase II.
corpus luteum breaks down
which triggers menstruation.
 HL D3.1.16—Development of a blastocyst and implantation in the ORGANISMS
endometrium
● After fertilization, the zygote divides
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
by mitosis to form a two-cell embryo.
It then divides again and again to form
a ball of cells.
● Some of these divisions are unequal
and cells migrate throughout the ball
of cells to form the blastocyst.
● At 7 days, the blastocyst is formed of
around 125 cells and made its way to
the uterus from the ovary.
 HL D3.1.16—Development of a blastocyst and implantation in the ORGANISMS
endometrium
● At this stage, the zona pellucida
CONTINUITY & CHANGE

that surrounds the blastocyst

breaks down and the blastocyst
has used up the energy reserves
in the original egg cell.
● To obtain food and nutrients, the
blastocyst implants in the
endometrium (uterus lining) in
a process called implantation.
 HL D3.1.16—Development of a blastocyst and implantation in the ORGANISMS
CONTINUITY & CHANGE endometrium

● The outer layer of the blastocyst

(trophoblast) forms finger-like
projections that allow the
blastocyst to penetrate through
the uterine lining.
● This also allows the exchange of
materials (oxygen, nutrients, etc)
between the mother and the
foetus. This eventually develops
into the placenta.
 HL D3.1.17—Pregnancy testing by detection of human chorionic ORGANISMS
gonadotropin secretion
● Progesterone and estrogen are two
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
hormones that are involved in the
maintenance of the uterine lining (the
endometrium).
● During pregnancy, it is very important that
the endometrium is maintained for the
embryo to implant and develop.
● Early in pregnancy the embryo produces a
hormone, human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG) which stimulates the hCG increases during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy to stimulate the

corpus luteum in the ovary to continue to release of oestrogen and progesterone; after 12 weeks hCG declines
as the placenta takes over secreting progesterone.
secrete progesterone and estrogen.
 HL D3.1.17—Pregnancy testing by detection of human chorionic ORGANISMS
gonadotropin secretion
These hormones maintain the
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
●
development of the uterine wall
throughout pregnancy.
● hCG is the hormone that is being
detected in pregnancy tests. The level of
the hormone will throughout the first
trimester.
● How early a pregnancy can be detected
depends on the sensitivity of the test
used (i.e. what’s the lowest concentration
of the hormone it can detect).
 HL D3.1.17—Pregnancy testing by detection of human chorionic ORGANISMS
gonadotropin secretion
● Monoclonal antibodies are used in pregnancy tests.
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
● Monoclonal antibodies bind to a specific antigen.
● During pregnancy, the developing embryo and the placenta secrete a
hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). This is
excreted in the urine of the mother.
● Pregnancy tests detect hCG in the urine of pregnant women. A
pregnancy test contains three sections:
○ Section (b) contains free Anti-hCG antibodies attached to a
dye.
○ Section (c) contains monoclonal antibodies specific to hCG
bound to a membrane (i.e. fixed).
○ Section (d) contains another monoclonal antibody attached
to a membrane that is specific to the anti-hCG antibodies
(i.e. fixed).
 HL D3.1.17—Pregnancy testing by detection of human chorionic ORGANISMS
gonadotropin secretion
1. Urine is applied to the end of the test strip (a)
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
2. If hCG is present, it will bind to the anti-hCG antibodies in section
(b)
3. The hCG will also bind to the immobilised monoclonal antibodies in
section (c). The dye attached to the anti-hCG antibodies will
generate a blue line.
4. If no hCG is present in the urine then none will bind to the free
anti-hCG antibodies in section (b). As such, none will bind to the
immobilised antibodies in section (c), therefore there will be no
blue line generated.
5. Section (d) is a control section to show the test has worked: free
antibodies from section (b) will flow to the section (d) and bind to
the monoclonal antibody found there. There will be unbound free
antibodies regardless of whether hCG is present or not.
 HL D3.1.18—Role of the placenta in foetal development inside the uterus
CONTINUITY & CHANGE ORGANISMS

● Placenta is an organ composed of fetal tissues

that exchanges materials between mother and
fetus.
● The placenta is connected to the mother via the
uterine wall and to the foetus via the umbilical
cord.
● The foetus also develops membranes that form
the amniotic sac, which contains amniotic fluid.
These are both essential for support and
protection of the developing foetus.
 HL D3.1.18—Role of the placenta in foetal development inside the uterus ORGANISMS

● The placenta is composed of placental villi (singular:

CONTINUITY & CHANGE
villus). These increase in number as development
progresses to keep up with the increasing demands of
the foetus.
● Maternal blood flows in the intervillous spaces that
surround the villi.
● Fetal blood circulates in the capillaries close to the
surface of the villi. This ensures foetal blood and
maternal blood are in very close proximity to each other,
but don’t actually mix.
● The cells that physically separate the maternal and
foetal blood are called the placental barrier. This is
selectively permeable to let some substances pass, but
not others.
 HL D3.1.18—Role of the placenta in foetal development inside the uterus ORGANISMS

● Some mammals like marsupials

CONTINUITY & CHANGE

(e.g. kangaroos, koalas) do not

form a placenta when carrying
their young.
● They birth their young much
earlier than placental animals in
order to provide adequate
nutrients to the embryo.
 HL D3.1.19—Hormonal control of pregnancy and childbirth
CONTINUITY & CHANGE ORGANISMS

● Progesterone is secreted by the corpus luteum and then the

placenta throughout pregnancy. This is essential to maintain
the pregnancy.
● Oxytocin is the hormone secreted by the pituitary gland that
stimulates labour and birth of the foetus.
● Progesterone inhibits oxytocin production. High levels of
progesterone prevent labour from happening too early in the
pregnancy.
● At the end of pregnancy, the fetus secretes hormones that
signal to the placenta to stop producing progesterone.
Therefore, oxytocin is secreted and labour is initiated.
 HL D3.1.19—Hormonal control of pregnancy and childbirth ORGANISMS

● Estradiol levels significantly rise towards the end of

CONTINUITY & CHANGE
pregnancy to prepare the uterus for childbirth.
● Estradiol induces the production of oxytocin receptors on
the myometrium.
● Oxytocin stimulates contractions of the muscle fibres in the
myometrium. This triggers stretch receptors which
feedback to the pituitary gland to increase oxytocin
secretions.
● More oxytocin increases the frequency and strength of
contractions, which increases the stimulation of the stretch
receptors and, therefore, triggers the release of more
oxytocin → positive feedback.
 HL D3.1.19—Hormonal control of pregnancy and childbirth ORGANISMS
● After the baby has been delivered, uterine contractions continue and the placenta will separate from the
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
uterine wall.
● The mother will then birth the placenta and remains of the umbilical cord.
 HL D3.1.20—Hormone replacement therapy and the risk of coronary heart ORGANISMS
disease
● Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is a treatment used
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
to relieve the symptoms of the menopause.
● The menopause is when a female stops having periods for
longer than 12 months. It's a natural part of ageing that
usually happens between 45 and 55 years old.
● During the menopause the ovaries have stopped releasing
eggs (ovulating) and stopped producing most of their
oestrogen and progesterone, this is in response to the
ovaries no longer responding to FSH and LH, two
hormones released from the pituitary gland in the brain.
● Due to a decrease in oestrogen and progesterone there is
no longer a negative feedback loop from the ovaries to the
pituitary gland and so LH and FSH levels increase.
 HL D3.1.20—Hormone replacement therapy and the risk of coronary heart ORGANISMS
disease
● These hormonal changes can cause many symptoms
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
in the woman including
○ Hot flushes
○ Breast tenderness
○ Headaches
○ Sleep issues
○ Emotional changes
● Estrogen also has many effects all over the body
including blood vessels, bone strength, the skin, the
urinary tract, the uterus and the brain
● HRT can be given to a woman experiencing the
menopause. This replaces the hormones oestrogen
and progesterone.
 HL D3.1.20—Hormone replacement therapy and the risk of coronary heart ORGANISMS
disease
● Almost 40 years ago, epidemiological observational study on the effect of
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
HRT showed that the use of HRT led to a small decrease in the risk of
developing coronary heart disease (CHD). The effect was deemed to be a
cause-and-effect relationship
● This lead to many women choosing, and being advised, to take HRT for this
benefit.
● Randomised controlled trials in the 1990s showed that the use of HRT may
cause increased risk of heart disease.
● The correlation between HRT and decreased incidence of CHD is not
actually a cause-and-effect relationship: in general, women who take HRT
are more educated, wealthier, have healthier lifestyles, and have fewer
Risk of death or admission to hospital due to heart
cardiovascular risk factors. failure or myocardial infarction (primary endpoint)
over 16 years of follow-up including 11 years of
● A meta-analysis study showed that the previously observed reduced risk randomised treatment (source).
for CHD among HRT users was decreased when analysis controlled for
socioeconomic status.
 D3.1.9—Features of an insect-pollinated flower ORGANISMS
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
● Flowers are the reproductive structures in
flowering plants or angiosperms.
● A typical flower is a complex structure
composed of four layers:
○ Petals
○ Sepals
○ Stamens – male reproductive
structures
○ Pistils (carpels) – female Some plants have both male and female
reproductive structures reproductive organs (hermaphrodite).
 D3.1.9—Features of an insect-pollinated flower ORGANISMS
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
 D3.1.8—Sexual reproduction in flowering plants ORGANISMS

Male gamete production

CONTINUITY & CHANGE

● Each stamen consists of two parts: the filament and

a the anther.
● Within the anther are the pollen grains. These are
haploid cells produced by diploid cells in the anther.
● Each haploid pollen grain goes through a mitotic
division to form:
○ Tube cell
○ Generative cell
● The tube cell will form the pollen tube at fertilization.
● The generative cell undergoes another division to
form two sperm cells.
 D3.1.8—Sexual reproduction in flowering plants ORGANISMS

Female gamete production

CONTINUITY & CHANGE
● The carpel is located in the centre
of the flower and consists of three
regions:
○ the ovary
○ the stalk or style
○ the stigma.

● The ovary contains the ovules. Inside each ovule are multiple cells called megasporocytes.
○ Each megasporocyte divides by meiosis to form four haploid cells (three of these degenerate)
○ The remaining cell divides three times by mitosis to form 8 haploid nuclei.
○ One of these cells is the female gamete; the other seven assist in fertilization and embryo
development.
 D3.1.8—Sexual reproduction in flowering plants ORGANISMS

Sexual reproduction in plants involves the fusion of the male

CONTINUITY & CHANGE
●
gametes (sperm cells) within the pollen with the female
gametes (the egg) to form a diploid zygote.
● Pollen grains need to be transferred from the stamen to the
carpel through pollination. This assisted by modulators, e.g.
insects and other animals, wind and water.
● Once a pollen grain reaches the stigma, it begins to germinate.
The tube cell elongates forming the pollen tube.
● The pollen tube grows down the length of the style into the
ovary.
● The sperm cells move through a tiny opening called the
micropyle into the ovule.
 D3.1.8—Sexual reproduction in flowering plants ORGANISMS

● One of the sperm nuclei fuses with

CONTINUITY & CHANGE

the egg to form the diploid zygote.

● This develops into the embryo.
● The flower undergoes a series of
changes to protect the plant
embryo inside a seed, ready for
germination.
 D3.1.10—Methods of promoting cross-pollination ORGANISMS

● Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from one

CONTINUITY & CHANGE
plant to another. This increases genetic diversity.
● Cross-pollination is assisted by animals (e.g. insects)
and wind, that help transfer pollen to different plants.
● It also promotes hybrid vigour: a phenomenon
where the offspring of two different plants tend to
grow healthier and stronger than either parent plant
did.
● In hermaphrodite plants, self-pollination is possible,
but it is not very advantageous to the plant population
as it leads to inbreeding and reduced vigour.
 D3.1.10—Methods of promoting cross-pollination ORGANISMS

● As such, plants have evolved different

CONTINUITY & CHANGE

mechanisms to avoid self-pollination:

○ Some are very well adapted for pollination by
modulators (insects, animals, wind).
○ Stamens and pistils are physically separated
on the plant.
○ Separation of stamens and pistils on different
plants.
○ Maturation of stamens and pistils occurring at
different times.
 D3.1.11—Self-incompatibility mechanisms to increase genetic variation
ORGANISMS
CONTINUITY & CHANGE within a species
● Some hermaphrodite plants have
mechanisms that will prevent successful
fertilization in the event of self-pollination.
● Self-incompatibility is where “self” cells
are rejected to prevent self-fertilization.
● This involves various self-incompatibility
alleles that are expressed in the
reproductive organs and gametes.
● Gametes with the same self-incompatibility
as the style of the plant will not fertilize
successfully.
 D3.1.12—Dispersal and germination of seeds ORGANISMS

● It is important that the seeds of a plant are

CONTINUITY & CHANGE

dispersed away from the parent plant to avoid

competition for resources.
● There are a number of mechanisms of seed
dispersal, including:
○ Wind
○ Water
○ Animals
NB. Don’t confuse this with pollination- the dispersal
of pollen from one plant to another.
 D3.1.12—Dispersal and germination of seeds ORGANISMS
● Seeds undergo a period of dormancy until conditions are
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
optimal for germination.
● Three factors are required for successful germination:
○ Water - seed swells, causing the seed coat (testa)
to burst, allowing the growing embryo plant to exit
the seed. Water also activates some of the enzymes
in the embryo to begin germination.
○ Oxygen - required for respiration, as germination is
energy-intensive.
○ Temperature - germination is enzyme- controlled,
so the temperature needs to be warm (but not too
hot) for the reactions to take place.
 D3.1.12—Dispersal and germination of seeds ORGANISMS
CONTINUITY & CHANGE
● The seed contains large food reserves in the form
of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. These
support the growing plant until it forms leaves
and can photosynthesize.
● As germination begins, these food reserves are
mobilized to support the developing plant.
● Some of the enzymes activated by water are
involved in converting the food stores to forms
accessible to the embryo (e.g. starch to glucose).