RT 224 – Imaging

equipment &
maintenance
Prepared by:

RONGELL L. ESTONILO, RRT

BSRT Program Chair
University of Eastern Philippines
The X-ray
Imaging
System
INTRODUCTION
Regardless of its design, every x-
ray imaging system has three
principal parts: the x-ray tube,
the operating console, and the
high-voltage generator.
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
In some types of x-
ray imaging
systems, such as
dental and portable
machines, these
three components
are housed
compactly.
https://images.app.goo.gl/T7upzdRnsxjq75um7
INTRODUCTION
With most systems, the x-ray
tube is located in the examination
room, and the operating console
is located in an adjoining room
with a protective barrier
separating the two.
INTRODUCTION
The
Operating
Console
OPERATING CONSOLE
The part of the x-ray
imaging system most
familiar to the Radiologic
Technologist is the operating
console. The operating
console allows the radiologic
technologist to control the x-
ray tube current and voltage
so that the useful x-ray
beam is of proper quantity
and quality.
OPERATING CONSOLE
The operating console usually
provides for control of line
compensation, kVp, mA, and
exposure time. Meters are
provided for monitoring kVp, mA,
and exposure time. Some
consoles also provide a meter for
mAs. Imaging systems that
incorporate automatic exposure
control (AEC) may have separate
controls for mAs.
OPERATING CONSOLE
All of the electric circuits
that connect the meters
and controls on the
operating console are at
low voltage to minimize
the possibility of
hazardous shock.
OPERATING CONSOLE
The line compensator measures the voltage
provided to the x-ray imaging system and
adjusts that voltage to precisely 220 V. Older
units required technologists to adjust the
voltage while observing a line voltage meter.
Today’s x-ray imaging systems have automatic
line compensation and hence have no meter.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
The power supplied to the x-ray imaging
system is delivered to the autotransformer.
The voltage supplied from the autotransformer
to the high-voltage transformer is controlled
but variable. It is much safer and easier to
control a low voltage and then increase it than
to increase a low voltage to the kilovolt level
and then control its magnitude.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
The autotransformer has
a single winding and is
designed to supply a
precise voltage to the
filament circuit and to
the high voltage circuit
of the x-ray imaging
system.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Adjustment of kVp
Some older x-ray operating
consoles have adjustment
controls labelled major kVp
and minor kVp; by selecting
a combination of these
controls, radiologic
technologists can provide
precisely the required
kilovolt peak.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Adjustment of kVp
The minor kilovolt
peak adjustment “fine
tunes” the selected
technique. The major
kilovolt peak
adjustment represent
two separate series of
connections on the
autotransformer.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Adjustment of kVp
Appropriate connections can be selected
with an adjustment knob, a push button, or
a touch screen. If the primary voltage to
the autotransformer is 220 V, the output of
the autotransformer is usually controllable
from about 100 to 400.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Adjustment of kVp
This low voltage from the
autotransformer becomes
the input to the high-
voltage step-up
transformer that increases
the voltage to the chosen
kilovolt peak. (Transformer
Law for Voltage)
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Adjustment of kVp
The kVp meter is placed
across the output terminals
of the autotransformer and
therefore actually reads
voltage, not kVp. The scale of
the kVp meter, however,
registers kilovolts because of
the known multiplication
factor of the turns ratio.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Adjustment of kVp
On most operating consoles,
the kVp meter registers, even
though no exposure is being
made and the circuit has no
current. This type of meter is
known as pre-reading kVp
meter. It allows the voltage
to be monitored before an
exposure.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Control of mA
The x-ray tube current, crossing from
cathode to anode, is measured in
milliamperes (mA). The number of
electrons emitted by the filament is
determined by the temperature of the
filament.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Control of mA
The filament temperature is in
turn controlled by the filament
current, which is measured in
amperes (A). As filament current
increases, the filament becomes
hotter, and more electrons are
released by thermionic emission.
Filaments normally operate at
currents 3 to 6 A.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Control of mA
A correction circuit has to be incorporated
to counteract the space charge effect. As
the kVp is raised, the anode becomes more
attractive to the electrons that would not
have enough energy to leave the filament
area. These electrons would also join the
electron stream, which effectively increases
the mA with kVp.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Control of mA
X-ray tube current is controlled through a
separate circuit called the filament circuit.
Connections on the autotransformer
provide voltage for the filament circuit.
Precision resistors are used to reduce this
voltage to a value that corresponds to the
selected milliamperage.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Control of mA
X-ray tube current normally
is not continuously variable.
Precision resistors result in
fixed stations that provide
tube currents of 100, 200,
or 300 mA, and higher.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Control of mA
The falling load generator constitutes an
exception. In a falling load generator, the
exposure begins at the maximum mA, and
the mA drops as the anode heats. The
result is minimum exposure time.
The product of x-ray tube current (mA) and
exposure time (s) is mAs, which is also
electrostatic charge (C).
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Control of mA
The voltage from the mA selector switch is
then delivered to the filament transformer.
The filament transformer is a step-down
transformer; therefore, the voltage
supplied to the filament is lower (by a
factor equals to the turns ratio) than the
voltage supplied to the filament
transformer.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Control of mA
Similarly, the current is increased across
the filament transformer in proportion to
the turns ratio (Transformer Law for
Current).
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Control of mA
X-ray tube current is monitored with an mA
meter that is placed in the tube circuit. The
mA meter is connected at the center of the
secondary winding of the high-voltage step-
up transformer. The secondary voltage is
alternating at 60 Hz such that the center of
the winding is always at zero volts.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Control of mA
In this way, no part of the meter is in
contact with the high-voltage, and the
meter may be safely put on the operating
console. Sometimes this meter allows that
mAs can be monitored in addition to mA.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Filament transformer
The full title for this
transformer is the Filament
Heating Isolation Step-
down Transformer. It steps
down the voltage to
approximately 12 V and
provides the current to heat
the filament.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Filament transformer
Because the secondary
windings are connected to
the high voltage supply for
the x-ray tube, the
secondary windings are
heavily insulated from the
primary.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
Filament transformer
In the filament transformer,
the primary windings are of
thin copper and carry a
current of 0.5 to 1 A and
approximately 150 V. The
secondary windings are thick
and at approximately 12 V
electric potential and carry a
current of 5 to 8 A (not mA!).
EXPOSURE TIMERS
For any given radiographic examination,
the number of x-rays that reach the image
receptor is directly related to both the x-ray
tube current and the time that the tube is
energized. X-ray operating consoles provide
a wide selection of x-ray beam-on times
and, when used in conjunction with the
appropriate mA station, provide and even
wider selection of values for mAs.
EXPOSURE TIMERS
Paramount in the design of all timing
circuits is that the radiographer starts the
exposure and the timer stops it. During
fluoroscopy, if the radiographer releases the
exposure switch or the fluoroscopic foot
switch, the exposure is terminated
immediately.
EXPOSURE TIMERS
As an additional safety feature, another
timing circuit is activated on every
radiographic exposure. This timer, called a
guard timer, will terminate an exposure
after a prescribed time, usually
approximately 6 s. Thus, it is not possible
for any timing circuit to continuously
irradiate a patient for an extensive period.
EXPOSURE TIMERS
The timer circuit is separate from the other
main circuits of the x-ray imaging system.
It consists of an electronic device whose
action is to “make” and “break” the high
voltage across the x-ray tube. This is nearly
always done on the primary side of the
high-voltage transformer, where the voltage
is lower.
EXPOSURE TIMERS
There are four types of timing circuits
(synchronous timers, electronic timers,
mAs timers, AEC). Three are controlled by
the RadTech, and one is automatic.
EXPOSURE TIMERS
Synchronous timers
X-ray imaging systems with synchronous
timers are recognizable because of the
minimum exposure time possible is 1/60 s
and timing intervals increase by multiples
thereof, such as 1/30 s, 1/20 and so on.
Synchronous timers cannot be used for
serial exposures because they must be
reset after each exposure.
EXPOSURE TIMERS
Electronic timers
Electronic timers are the most
sophisticated, most complicated, and most
accurate of the x-ray exposure timers.
Electronic timers consist of rather complex
circuitry based on the time required to
charge a capacitor through a variable
resistance.
EXPOSURE TIMERS
Electronic timers
Electronic timers allow a wide-range of time
intervals to be selected and are accurate to
intervals as small as 1 ms. Because they
can be used for rapid serial exposures, they
are particularly suitable for interventional
radiology procedures.
Most exposure timers are electronic and are
controlled by a microprocessor.
EXPOSURE TIMERS
mAs timers
Most x-ray apparatus is designed for accurate
control of tube current and exposure time.
However, the product of mA and time – mAs –
determines the number of x-rays emitted and
therefore the exposure of the image receptor.
A special kind of electronic timer, called an
mAs timer, monitors the product of mA and
exposure time and terminates exposure when
the desired mAs value is attained.
EXPOSURE TIMERS
mAs timers
The mAs timer is usually designed to
provide the highest safe tube current for
the shortest exposure for any mAs
selected. Because the mAs timer must
monitor the actual tube current, it is
located on the secondary side of the high-
voltage transformer.
mAs timers are used on falling-load and
capacitor discharge imaging systems.
EXPOSURE TIMERS
Automatic Exposure Control
The automatic exposure control (AEC)
requires a special understanding on the
part of radiologic technologist. The AEC is a
device that measures the quantity of
radiation that reaches the image receptor.
It automatically terminates the exposure
when the image receptor has received the
required radiation intensity.
EXPOSURE TIMERS
Automatic Exposure Control
The type of AEC caused by most
manufacturers incorporates a flat, parallel
plate ionization chamber positioned between
the patient and the image receptor. This
chamber is made radiolucent so that it will not
interfere with the radiographic image.
Ionization within the chamber creates a
charge. When the appropriate charge has been
reached, the exposure is terminated.
EXPOSURE TIMERS
Automatic Exposure Control
When an AEC x-ray imaging system is
installed, it must be calibrated. This calls
for making exposures of a test object and
adjusting the AEC for the range of x-ray
intensities required for quality images. The
service engineer usually takes care of this
calibration.
EXPOSURE TIMERS
Automatic Exposure Control
After the AEC is in clinical operation, the
RadTech selects the type of examination,
which then sets the appropriate mA and
kVp. At the same time, the exposure timer
is set to the backup time. When the electric
charge from the ionization chamber
reaches a preset level, a signal is returned
to the operating console, where the
exposure is terminated.
EXPOSURE TIMERS
Automatic Exposure Control
The AEC is now widely used and often is
provided with addition to an electronic
timer. The AEC mode requires particular
care, especially in the examinations that
use low kVp such as mammography.
Because of the varying tissue thicknesses
and composition, the AEC may now
respond properly at low kVp.
EXPOSURE TIMERS
Automatic Exposure Control
When radiographs are taken in the AEC
mode, the electronic timer should be set to
1.5 times the expected exposure time as
backup timer in case the AEC fails to
terminate. This precaution should be
followed for the protection of the patient
and the tube. Many units set this
precaution.
EXPOSURE TIMERS
Automatic Exposure Control
Solid-state radiation detectors are now
used for exposure-timer checks. These
devices operate with a very accurate
internal clock based on a quartz-crystal
oscillator. They can measureexposure times
as short as 1 ms and, when used with an
oscilloscope, can display the radiation
waveform.