Topic 3 Hardware - What you need to know – Add your notes to this!

3.1 Computer architecture

1.

a) Understand the role of the central processing unit (CPU) in a computer.

The CPU processes instructions and data that are input into the computer so that the
result can be output.
The central processing unit (CPU) executes and processes of all the instructions and data in a computer.

b) Understand what is meant by a microprocessor.

A microprocessor is a type of integrated circuit on a single chip.

Microprocessor or processor are both other names for the CPU.

2.

a) Understand the purpose of the components in a CPU, in a computer that has a Von Neumann architecture
including:

– Units: arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU).

The ALU allows the needed arithmetic (+ - or shifting) and logic (AND, OR) operations to
be carried while a program is being run. The control unit (CU) reads an instruction from
memory. The address of the location where the instruction can be found is stored in the
program counter (PC).

– Registers: program counter (PC), memory address register (MAR), memory data
register
(MDR), current instruction register (CIR) and accumulator (ACC).

– Buses: address bus, data bus and control bus.

1
Address bus
As the name suggests, the address bus carries addresses throughout the computer system. Between
the CPU and memory, the address bus is unidirectional (i.e. bits can travel in one direction only); this
prevents addresses being carried back to the CPU, which would be an undesirable feature.
Data bus
The data bus is bidirectional (allowing data to be sent in both directions along the bus). This means
data can be carried from CPU to memory (and vice versa) and to and from input/output devices. It is
important to point out that data can be an address, an instruction or a numerical value. As with the
address bus, the width of the data bus is important; the wider the bus the larger the word length
that can be transported. (A word is a group of bits which can be regarded as a single unit e.g. 16-bit,
32-bit or 64-bit word lengths are the most common.) Larger word lengths can improve the
computer’s overall performance.
Control bus
The control bus is also bidirectional. It carries signals from the control unit (CU) to all the other
computer components. It is usually 8-bits wide. There is no real need for it to be any wider since it
only carries control signals.

b) Describe the process of the fetch–decode–execute cycle including the role of each component in the
process:
 How instructions and data are fetched from random access memory (RAM) into
the CPU,
how they are processed using each component and how they are then executed
 Storing data and addresses into specific registers.
 Using buses to transmit data, addresses and signals.
 Using units to fetch, decode and execute data and instructions.

2
1. Fetch:
 The CPU fetches the next instruction from the memory.
 The address of the instruction to be fetched is stored in the program counter (PC).
 The program counter is then incremented to point to the next instruction.
2. Decode:
 The fetched instruction is decoded to determine what operation needs to be
performed.
 The decoder translates the instruction into a set of control signals that will
coordinate the activities of other parts of the CPU.
3. Execute:
 The CPU executes the decoded instruction, which involves performing the
operation specified by the instruction.
 This might involve operations like arithmetic calculations, data movement, or
control transfers.
4. Write Back (optional):
 If the executed instruction involves the result that needs to be stored, the CPU
writes the result back to the appropriate location in memory or a register.
5. Repeat:
 The cycle then repeats by going back to the fetch stage to get the next instruction
in the sequence.
 The program counter is again incremented to point to the next instruction.

3. Understand what is meant by a core, cache and clock in a CPU and explain how they can affect
the performance of a CPU.

The number of cores, size of the cache and speed of the clock can affect the
performance of a CPU:

3
The system clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all computer operations. The
clock speed can be changed by accessing the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) and
altering the settings. By increasing clock speed, the processing speed of the computer is
also increased (a typical current value is 3.5GHz – which means 3.5 billion clock cycles a
second). However, by upgrading the clock you don’t necessarily improve the overall
performance of the PC.

Additionally, you must be aware of the possibility of overclocking. However, using a clock
speed higher than the computer was designed for can lead to problems, for example:
execution of instructions outside design limits can lead to seriously unsynchronised
operations (i.e. an instruction is unable to complete in time before the next one is due to
be executed), and the computer would frequently crash and become unstable ii
overclocking can lead to serious overheating of the CPU again leading to unreliable
performance.

The control bus transmits timing signals ensuring everything is fully synchronised, so
increasing bus width (data and address buses) increases the performance and speed of a
computer system.

Cache memory is found within the CPU, so it has much faster data access times than
RAM, so the lager cache memory a PC has the better.

The use of multiple cores can improve your computer performance. However, if you have
too many cores, it will make it harder to communicate between cores, which will reduce
the overall performance.

4. Understand the purpose and use of an instruction set for a CPU.

An instruction set is a list of all the commands that can be processed by a CPU
and the commands are machine code.

In a computer system, instructions are a set of operations which are decoded in

sequence. Each operation will instruct the ALU and CU (which are part of the CPU). An
operation is made up of an opcode and an operand. The opcode informs the CPU what
operation needs to be done. The operand is the data which needs to be acted on or it can
refer to a register in the memory.

5. Describe the purpose and characteristics of an embedded system and identify devices in which
they are commonly used.

An embedded system is used to perform a dedicated function, e.g. domestic appliances,

cars, security systems, lighting systems or vending machines. This is different to a
general
purpose computer that is used to perform many different functions, e.g. a personal
computer (PC) or a laptop.

Microcontrollers: this has a CPU in addition to some RAM and ROM and other
peripherals all embedded onto one single chip (together they carry out a specific task).
Microprocessor: integrated circuit which only has a CPU on the chip (there is no RAM,
ROM or peripherals – these need to be added).
System on chips (SoC): this may contain a microcontroller as one of its components
(they almost always will include CPU, memory, input/output (I/O) ports and secondary
storage on a single microchip).

4
There are definite benefits and drawbacks of devices being controlled using embedded
systems:

Embedded systems are used in devices like:

 Motor vehicles
 Set-top box
 Security systems
 Lighting systems
 Vending systems
 Washing machines

3.2 Input and output devices

1. Understand what is meant by an input device and why it is required.

Including:

1) Barcode scanner:

 A barcode scanner shines a red laser at the barcode to illuminate it. The
white lines reflect the light, whereas the black bars absorb some of the
light leading to less light being reflected. The strength of the reflection
from each line/bar is interpreted by the microprocessor and converted into
a binary value.

 It is used for scanning goods at supermarket checkout, checking library

books in and out, and Tracking packages out for delivery.

5
  They are used because they allow for faster checkout queues, reduce
errors from manual input, give more detailed tracking information, and
help in stock control.

2) Digital camera:

 In a digital camera, as light enters the camera, it falls onto a sensor made
up of millions of pixels. Each pixel measures the light intensity, and a
microprocessor converts these values into digital data representing colour
values.

 It is now seen in every smartphone, it is used in professional photography

with dedicated high-end cameras, and in surveillance and security
systems.

 They are used because they allow for instant photographs with no
development required, Digital photos can be easily transferred via
Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, and Embedded software can be used to retouch and
adjust the picture.

3) Keyboard:

 Each key on a keyboard has a corresponding character set value, Key

presses are converted into a data signal, which is then interpreted by the
computer.

 It Is used in most desktops via a wired cable or Bluetooth or Wi-Fi, it is built

into laptops, and Tablets and smartphone use virtual keyboards through
touchscreens.

 It is required as it is one of the most common forms of text-based data

input.

4) Microphone:

 In a microphone, vibrations caused by the sound waves cause a coil to

move around a magnet, leading to changes in the electromagnetic field.
These changes are converted by a microprocessor and an ADC into a
digital (binary) representation of the sound.

 It is used in music recording, Dictation, Security, Telephone calls, Radio &

TV, and in Online communication.

 It is required to capture any real-world sound and store it as a digital

approximation, and to modify those sounds.

5) Optical mouse:

 An optical mouse uses a red LED and a sensor to determine the movement
of the mouse relative to the surface beneath. A microprocessor analyses
the speed and distance of the movement and replicates it on-screen via a
visual cursor.

 It is used for navigation and interaction with the elements of the Graphic
User Interface (GUI).

6
  It is required as it facilitates easy interactions with applications and other
GUI elements, it has no moving parts except for the scroll wheel unlike
mechanical mice which makes it more dependable, and There is no need
for a special surface such as a mouse pad.

6) QR code scanner:

 QR codes are read using a camera (typically on a mobile device). An

application then processes the image, converting the squares into
readable data.

 It is used for advertising products, adding links to websites, sharing

contact details, and in electronic ticket passes such as flights.

 It is required as it contains more information than a traditional barcode (a

barcode holds thirty digits whereas a QR code holds 7089 digits).

7) Touch screen (resistive, capacitive, and infra-red):

 A touch screen is both an input and output device (although for the exam
it is only considered as an input device. They are a popular way of
replicating the users input like a mouse. There are three main types of
touch screens:

 Resistive Touchscreens: A type of touch screen that uses two conductive

layers which make contact where the screen has been touched.
 Contains two conductive layers.
 The top layer is made up of a flexible polyester material.
 The two layers are separated by an insulating layer (air gap)
 When the screen is touched/pressed, the two layers come in
contact completing a circuit.
 They are cheap to produce, can be activated with almost any
object, and are very resistant to surface contaminants.
 However, they have lower image clarity and precision compared to
other types of touchscreens.

 Infra- red Touchscreens: A type of touch screen that uses infra-red beams
and sensors to detect where the screen has been touched.
 LEDs shine an infra-red light across the screen, forming a matrix.
 When the screen is touched, the beams are interrupted, and it is
interpreted by the CPU where the screen is touched.
 They have excellent image quality, Unlimited touch-life, and they
scale very well.
 However, they are sensitive to interference from ambient light,
water, and snow.

 Capacitive Touchscreens: A type of touch screen that uses the change in

the screen’s capacitance (the ability to store an electrical charge) when it
is touched by a finger or stylus.
 Composed of a protective layer, transparent conductive layer, and
a glass substrate
 Touching the screen with a bare finger or special stylus interrupts
the electrostatic field of the conductive layer.
 They have excellent image clarity, very high precision, Durable
touch screens that allows for multiple touches at the same time.
 However, the require a stylus or bare finger for activation.

8) Two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) scanners:

7
  2D or flatbed scanners shine a bright light across a document to measure
the levels of reflected light and create a digital version of it,

 3D scanners shine a laser over the surface of an object to record its

geometry and dimensions and create a digital model of it.

 2D scanners are used for creating digital versions of documents and

photographs, and for reading passports at airports.

 3D scanners are used for creating 3D models for use with computer aided
design (CAD) software or for creating working replicas with a 3D printer, it
is also used in dentistry, product development, quality inspection and
research.

 It is required as it is a cheap and effective way of generating a digital

representation of 2D/3D.

2. Understand what is meant by an output device and why it is required.

Including:

1) Actuator:

 Actuators have various versions with each version being purpose built for a
specific function, but all of them conduct the same objective of conducting
a form of physical movement.

 They are used for various processes including starting and stopping a
pump or flow control device, opening, and closing an automatic door,
turning a wheel, opening, and closing a valve, starting, and stopping a
conveyer belt, operating an airplanes wing flap.

 Actuators are required as they are commonly used along with a motor to
convert signals into real world movements of physical objects in various
distinct manners.

2) Digital light processing (DLP) projector:

 DLP projectors use a matrix grid composed of millions of micro mirrors

which are placed on the microchip within the projector. White light is
shone through a rotating colour filter to produce an image, while an angle
mirror changes the colour intensity.

 They are used for projecting a computer output onto a wall, projector
screen or a whiteboard, and in personal/home and professional settings.

 They are used because in comparison to LCD projectors they provide a

higher contrast ratio, they are quitter, provide a smoother video, they are
smaller, lighter, and more portable, and are better suited to dusty or
smoky atmosphere.

3) Liquid crystal display (LCD) projector:

 LCD projectors use three mirror filters to separate an image into its RGB
wavelengths. These images are then passed through a prism and
recombined. Finally, the full colour image is passed through a lens and
projected.

 They are used for projecting a computer output onto a wall, projector
screen or a whiteboard, and in personal/home and professional settings.

8
  They are used because in comparison to DLP projectors they provide a
sharper image, better colour reproduction, are cheaper, and have a lower
power consumption and heat production.

4) Inkjet printer:

 Inkjet printers force tiny droplets of liquid ink through extremely fine
nozzles onto a sheet of paper to replicate a digital document or an image.

 They are mostly used for small scale print jobs, for personal use as they
are smaller and cheaper, and for printing out high-quality photographs.

 They are used because they can produce physical copies of information
stored in a digital format, and because the printouts can be viewed locally
without the requirement of a network connection.

5) Laser printer:

 Laser printers operate by using toner cartridges containing powdered,

electro-optically charged ink. Using a laser, a mirror image of the printer
page is drawn onto a drum by creating negatively charged areas. The
drum then picks up the positively charged ink particles and bonds them to
the paper using heat.

 They are used for high quality inexpensive printing, fast and accurate non
colour (monochrome) documents and images, lower cost per page
compared to inkjet printers, and are often used in schools and offices.

 They are used because they can produce physical copies of information
stored in a digital format, and because the printouts can be viewed locally
without the requirement of a network connection.

6) Light emitting diode (LED) screen:

 LED displays use tiny LEDs to produce a bright image instantly without the
need for any additional backlighting, each LED is either red, green, or blue
in colour. By varying the electric current sent to each LED, its brightness
can be controlled, producing a vast range of colours.
.
 They are used in TVs, laptops, mobile devices where they are replacing
LCD screens, and multiple LED screens can be joined together, making
them ideal for large displays such as those used in sporting stadiums.

 LED technology is required as it is better than LCD technology as it offers

better image quality and viewing angles, has a longer lifespan, and require
no additional backlighting resulting in them being thinner and lighter.

7) Liquid crystal display (LCD) screen:

 LCDs are made up of millions of tiny liquid crystals, forming a matrix of

crystals, which are affected by changes in applied electrical fields. LCD
screens require a form of backlighting, often provided by a fluorescent
lamp or LEDs.

 They are used for TVs, laptops, mobile devices, however they are gradually
being phased out and being replaces by LED and OLED displays.

9
  They are required to display digital information in a visual way.

8) Speaker:

 Speaker works in the opposite way to a microphone; a digital

representation of the sound is passed onto the digital to analogue
converter which is passed on to an amplifier to boost the sound and is then
passed to the speaker to create analogue sound waves.

 They are used for TV, film, video games, live music, music recording
playback, and alarms.

 They are used because they provide us a way to take digital sounds or
recordings and output them into a form which can be heard and
understood by the human ear.

9) 3D printer:

 3D printers are based on inkjet and laser printing technology, they work by
depositing layers of material (often plastic) on top of each other to slowly
construct a 3D object. They can also use powdered resin, metal,
paper, ceramic, or concrete.

 It is used for inexpensive prosthetics, spare parts, rapid prototyping, and

personalised items.

 It is used as it allows to produce real world models of virtual objects

created using Computer Aided Design (CAD) software, and it can create
objects with intricate internal spaces and moving parts and provides a
means of manufacturing with minimal waste.

3.
a) Understand what is meant by a sensor and the purposes of sensors.
Limited to:

Sensors are input devices which read or measure physical properties from their
surroundings. As the data in the real world is analogue in nature and the computer can
only understand digital data, after the sensor retrieves the analogue data, it is converted
into digital data by an Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC). Sensors send out constant
values.

1) Acoustic Sensors:

 Acoustic sensors are microphones that convert detected sound into

electric signals/pulses.

 They are used to pick up the noise of footsteps in a security system and to
detect the sound of liquids dripping at a faulty pipe joint.

2) Accelerometer:

 Accelerometers are sensors that measure acceleration and motion of an

application, that is the change in velocity (a piezoelectric cell is used)

 They are used in cars to measure rapid deceleration and apply air bags in
a crash and are used by mobile phones to change between portrait and
landscape mode.

3) Flow rate sensors:

10
  Flow rate sensors measure the flow rate of a moving liquid or gas and
produce an output based on the amount of liquid or gas passing over the
sensor.

 They are used in respiratory devices and inhalers in hospitals, and to

measure gas flows in pipes (for example, natural gas)

4) Gas Sensors:

 The most common gas sensors are oxygen or carbon dioxide sensors, they
use various methods to detect the gas being monitored and produce
outputs that vary with the oxygen or carbon dioxide levels present.

 They are used to monitor pollution levels in the air at an airport, to monitor
oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in a greenhouse, and to monitor oxygen
levels in a car exhaust.

5) Humidity Sensors:

 Humidity sensors are slightly different to moisture sensors, they measure

the amount of water vapour in e.g.: a sample of air (because the
conductivity of air will change depending on the amount of water present)

 Humidity sensors are used for the monitoring of humidity levels in a

building, monitoring humidity levels in a factory manufacturing microchips,
and the monitoring/control humidity levels in the air in a greenhouse.

6) Active Infra-red scanners:

 Active infra-red scanners use an invisible beam of infrared radiation picked

up by a detector, if the beam is broken, then there will be a change in the
amount of infrared radiation reaching the detector (sensor)

 They are used for turning on car windscreen wipers automatically when it
detects rain on the windscreen, and in security alarm system (intruder
breaks the infrared beam)

7) Passive infra-red scanners:

 Passive infra-red scanners measure the heat radiation given off by an

object.

 They are used for security alarm system (detects body heat), and for
monitoring the temperature inside an industrial freezer or chiller unit.

8) Level Sensors:

 Level sensors use ultrasonics (to detect changing liquid levels) or

capacitance/conductivity (to measure static levels) – note, level sensors
can also be optical or mechanical in nature.

 They are used to monitor levels in a petrol tank in a car, levels in a

pharmaceutical process where powder levels in tablet production need to
be monitored, and in leak detection in refrigerant (air conditioning)

9) Light Sensors:

11
  Light sensors use photoelectric cells that produce an output (in the form of
an electric current) depending on the brightness of the light.

 Light sensors are used for the switching street lights on or off depending
on light levels, and the switching on car headlights automatically when it
gets dark.

10) Magnetic field Sensors:

 Magnetic field sensors measure changes in magnetic fields (the signal

output will depend on how the magnetic field changes).

 They are used to detect magnetic field changes (for example, in mobile
phones and CD players), and are also used in anti-lock braking systems in
cars.

11) Moisture Sensors:

 Moisture sensors measure the water levels in e.g.: soil (it is based on the
electrical resistance of the sample being monitored)

 Moisture sensors are used to control/monitor moisture levels in soil in a

greenhouse, and for monitoring the moisture levels in a food processing
factory.

12) pH Sensors:

 pH sensors measure acidity through changes in voltages in, for example,

soil.

 They are used to monitor/control acidity levels in the soil in a greenhouse,

and to control acidity levels in a chemical process.

13) Pressure Sensors:

 a pressure sensor is a transducer and generates different electric currents

depending on the pressure applied.

 They are used for weighing of lorries at a weighing station and measure
the gas pressure in a nuclear reactor.

14) Proximity Sensors:

 Proximity sensors detect the presence of a nearby object.

 They are used to detect when a face is close to a mobile phone screen and
switches off screen when held to the ear.

15) Temperature Sensors:

 Temperature sensors measure temperature of the surroundings by

sending signals; these signals will change as the temperature changes.

 Temperature sensors are used for the control of a central heating system,
the control/monitor a chemical process, and the control/monitor
temperature in a greenhouse.

Sensor – ADC – microprocessor – pre-set values – DAC – actuator

12
b) Identify the type of data captured by each sensor and understand when
each sensor
would be used, including selecting the most suitable sensor for a given context

3.3Data storage

1. Understand what is meant by primary storage

 Primary storage is directly accessed by the CPU.
 Primary storage devices are volatile (all except for ROM) and have smaller storage
capacity than secondary storage devices, but have much faster access speeds.
 Including the role of:
o Random Access Memory (RAM)
o Read Only Memory (ROM)
 Including why a computer needs both RAM and ROM, and the difference between
them.

RAM
The RAM is a temporary storage of instructions and data. It holds information being
executed by the processor. It is volatile and has a smaller storage capacity, but is much
faster than the hard disk and other secondary storage devices.
ROM
The ROM is a small piece of read-only memory located in the motherboard. It is non-
volatile, as it holds startup instructions for the computer (the bootstrap).

2. Understand what is meant by secondary storage

Secondary storage is not directly accessed by the CPU and is necessary for storage of
programs and data when the power is off, more permanent storage, and backing up or
archiving data. This is because RAM is volatile, meaning it can’t store the data when the
power is off, and ROM is read-only.

3. Describe the operation of magnetic, optical and solid-state (flash memory)

storage and give examples of each.
Drive: The device that reads and writes data from secondary storage.
Media: What the data is actually stored on (magnetic, solid-state and optical).

There are three main types of secondary storage:

1) Magnetic: HDD (Hard Disk Drives)

 Magnetic storage uses a series of platters (disks) which have been coated
in a magnetic material.
 Each one has data encoded in them as a series of changes of direction of
magnetisation.
 As the discs spin, the read head is then able to recognise these changes as
a string of data.
 Magnetic HDDs are a very reliable way to store data, although they
are susceptible to magnetic fields, and due to the moving parts can
be damaged by dropping them.
 Hard disks have very slow data access times compared to other memory
sources such as RAM or SSD, resulting in latency (the lag in the system)
resulting in messages such as “please wait” or “not responding”.
 As time continues, the HDD undergoes numerous deletions and editing
which leads to sectors of the drive getting fragmented (deterioration of the
performance of the HDD).
 However, they are very cheap, and often have a high capacity (200GB to
1TB are common in computers these days, although they can go to 4TB
and beyond).

2) Solid State: SSD (Solid State Drives)

13
  SSDs significantly reduce the latency issues seen in HDDs as there are no
moving parts and all data is retrieved at the same rate.
 The most common types of SSDs store data by controlling the movement
of electrons within the NAND or NOR chips.
 SSDs use a dielectric coating which separates two transistors, allowing the
floating gate transistor to retain its charge, the floating gate transistor has
a value of 1 when charged and a value of 0 when it isn’t charged.
 To program one of the intersections cells a voltage is applied to the control
gate and electrons from the electron source are attached to it.
 They have fast read and write access, thinner, more reliable, more energy
efficient, lighter, much cooler and portable forms of storage.
 Most SSDs are only guaranteed at a limited number of write read or write
within its usable life cycle this is known as SSD endurance.
 However, they are usually more expensive than other forms of storage.
 Memory Sticks (also known as pen drives) also utilise solid state
technology and usually connect through a USB port.

3) Optical:

 Optical discs make use of a laser to etch bumps (pits) into the surface of a
disc.
 Another laser is then able to read these, along with the lands which
correspond to un-etched bits of data and read them as a binary string. A
pit is a 0 and a land is a 1.
 They are a very cheap, lightweight way of storing data, but are susceptible
to damage by scratching.
 There are three main types of Optical storage: CDs, DVDs & Blu-ray Discs.
 Both CDs and DVDs use a thin layer of metal alloy or light-sensitive organic
dye for data storage, both employ a single, spiral track from the centre to
the edge while spinning.
 The optical head in both systems moves along the spiral track, providing
direct data access in sectors, similar to HDD functionality.
 Data is stored in 'pits' and 'lands' on the spiral track, and a red laser is
used for reading and writing. CDs and DVDs can be designated as 'R' (write
once) or 'RW' (rewritable).
 DVD technology introduces distinctions, with the potential for dual
layering, significantly increasing storage capacity. Standard, single-layer
DVDs offer a larger storage capacity than CDs due to smaller 'pit' size and
track width.
 DVDs use lasers with a wavelength of 650 nanometres, while CDs use 780
nanometres; the shorter wavelength contributes to enhanced storage
capacity.
 Blu-ray discs are another form of optical storage, Blu-ray discs use a blue
laser, rather than a red laser, is used to carry out read and write
operations; the wavelength of blue light is only 405nanometres (compared
to 650nm for red light).
 The use of blue laser light allows the ‘pits’ and ‘lands’ to be much smaller;
consequently, Blu-ray can store up to five times more data than normal
DVD. A single-layer Blu-ray discs uses a 1.2mm thick polycarbonate disk,
whereas dual layer Blu-rays and normal DVDs both use a sandwich of two
0.6mm thick disks (i.e. 1.2mm thick)
 Blu-ray disks automatically come with a secure encryption system that
helps to prevent piracy and copyright infringement, the data transfer rate
for a DVD is 10Mbps and for a Blu-ray disc it is 36Mbps.

14
  A standard dual-layer DVD has a storage capacity of 4.7GB, A single-layer
Blu-ray disc has a storage capacity of 27GB, A dual-layer Blu-ray disc has a
storage capacity of 50GB.
 Blu-ray discs allow us to record HD television programs, skip quickly to any
part of the disc, create playlists of recorded movies and television
programmes, edit or re-order programmes recorded on the disc,
automatically search for empty space on the disc to avoid over-recording,
access websites and download subtitles and other interesting features.

4. Describe what is meant by virtual memory, how it is created and used and
why it is necessary
Pages of data are transferred between RAM and virtual memory when needed.
Virtual memory is held on the hard disk and is needed when there is not enough physical
RAM available to store open programs.
Programs are transferred back to virtual memory from RAM when hey are not currently
being executed. Programs are transferred back to RAM from virtual memory when they
are needed.

5. Understand what is meant by cloud storage

Cloud storage is the concept of storing and retrieving data virtually via the internet
instead of a local storage device.
• Cloud storage can be accessed remotely in comparison to storing data locally
• Physical servers and storage are needed to store data in cloud storage

Advantages
Data can be accessed at any time and from any device, as long as it has internet access.
Data can easily be shared without physical transfer.
Easy collaboration with shared documents.
Storage is considered to be limitless from the user’s perspective.

Disadvantages
Can be expensive.
It is slow to access if you have poor internet connection, and if you don’t have internet
connection you can’t access it.

6. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of storing data on the cloud in

comparison to storing it locally.

3.4Network hardware

1. Understand that a computer needs a network interface card (NIC) to access

a network
A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to connect to a network (such as the internet). It
usually contains the MAC address. Wireless network interface cards/controllers (WNICs) are the same but
wireless. They would normally plug into the USB port or be part of an internal integrated circuit.

2. Understand what is meant by and the purpose of a media access control

(MAC) address, including its structure
• A network interface card is given a MAC address at the point of manufacture
• MAC addresses are usually written as hexadecimal

• MAC addresses are created using the manufacturer code and the serial code
The MAC address assigned to a NIC is unique, static, and set by the manufacturer.

15
3.
a) Understand what is meant by and the purpose of an internet protocol (IP)
address

An IP address gives a unique address to each device connected to a network identifying

its location, it can be either static (it can’t change) or dynamic (it can change). It is used
to route packets on a Wide Area Network (WAN). The IP address is unique on that
network but might be the same as an IP address on a separate network. When a router
connects to a network it is given a unique public IP address.

b) Understand that there are different types of IP address

• An IP address is allocated by the network, and they can be static or dynamic

1) Static IP addresses:

 Static IP addresses are permanently assigned to a device by the internet

service provider (ISP).
 Since static IP addresses don’t change, they allow each device to be fully
traceable.
 They allow for faster upload and download speeds.
 However, they are more expensive to maintain since the device must be
constantly running so that information is always available.

2) Dynamic IP addresses:

 Dynamic IP addresses are assigned by the ISP each time a device logs onto
the internet, this is done using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP).
 Dynamic IP addresses offer greater privacy since they change each time a
user logs on.
 Dynamic IP addresses can be an issue since this type of addressing is less
reliable as it can disconnect and change the IP address causing the
connection to fail.

• Including the characteristics of and differences between IPv4 and IPv6

1) IPV4:

16
  IPV4 addresses are 32 bits in size.
 There are four numbers between 0 and 255 separated by periods (for e.g.:
192.89.01.255).
 A router has a unique WAN facing IP address and a LAN facing IP address,
enabling a LAN device to have the same IP address as a device on a
different LAN.

2) IPV6:

 IPV6 addresses are 128 bits in size.

 There are eight groups of 16-bit hexadecimal values separated by colons
(e.g.: 6009:6db9:42a0:0420:6900:6a9e:0420:6969).
 They are replacing IPV4 as IPV4 static addresses are running out.

• A router sends data to a specific destination on a network

1) MAC addresses:

 MAC addresses identify the physical address of a device on the network,

they unique for device on the network.
 They assigned by the manufacturer of the device and is part of the NIC.
 They can be universal or local.
 When a packet of data is sent and received, the MAC address is used to
identify the sender’s and recipient’s devices.
 They use 48 bits.
 Can be either UAA or LAA.

2) IP addresses:

 IP addresses identify the global address on the internet, may not

necessarily be unique.
 Dynamic IP addresses are assigned by ISP using DHCP each time the
device connects to the internet.
 Dynamic IP addresses change every time a device connects to the
internet, static IP addresses don’t change.
 IP addresses are used in routing operations as they specifically identify
where the device is connected to the internet.
 Use either 32 bits (IPv4) or 128 bits (IPv6), can be static or dynamic.
4. Describe the role of a router in a network
• A router can assign IP addresses
• A router can connect a local network to the internet
Routers enable data packets to be routed between different networks. The router takes
data transmitted in one format from a network (which is using a particular protocol) and
converts the data to a protocol and format understood by another network, thereby
allowing them to communicate. Broadband routers sit behind a firewall. The firewall
protects the computers on a network.

A typical router has a cable connecting it to the internet, several other cables connecting
to computers and other devices on the LAN, and wireless connectivity.
Routers use the devices IP address to route traffic to other routers, and they can assign
IP addresses to different devices on a local network.

Exam papers:

March 2019 Paper 12, question 2, 3b, 6

2.a) i) An input device is any device that allows you to pass information from the outside
world into a computer system.
ii) Example: barcode scanner.

17
 b) i) An output device is any device that can take data stored in digital form and
convert it into another form humans can process such as sound, images, and vibrations.
ii) Actuator.
3.b) i) Proximity and acoustic.
ii) Sensor – ADC – microprocessor – pre-set values – DAC – actuator.
6.b) i) Laser printer.
ii) It prints at a faster speed, and it prints text at a high quality.
iii) Expensive to purchase printer.
c) ii) − Storage device has platters
− Platters/disk divided into tracks
− Storage platter / disk is spun
− Has a read/write arm that moves across storage media
− Read/writes data using electromagnets
− Uses magnetic fields to control magnetic dots of data
− Magnetic field determines binary value
iii) − Magnetic is cheaper per unit of data
− Magnetic has more longevity // Magnetic can perform more read/write cycles

June 2019 Paper 12, question 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 10

1.a) Keyboard, optical mouse, and microphone.
b) Speaker, actuator, and LED screen.
2.a) Off-line storage is a type of storage that is kept away from the network.
b) i) RAM
ii) SSD card and flash memory

June 2019 Paper 13, question 2a, 2b, 3, 6

Nov 2019 Paper 11, question 1, 2c, 4, 7d, 8
Nov 2019 Paper 12, question 2, 3, 6, 9c, 11
Nov 2019 Paper 13, question 1a, d, 7a
March 2020 Paper 12, question 1, 2d, 3, 7
June 2020 Paper 11, question 1,3,5,6,8
June 2020 Paper 12, question 1, 6, 8a, 8b, 9, 10c
June 2020 Paper 13, question 2, 5, 7a, 8
2023 Specimen Paper 1, question 4 and 8

18