COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE TO SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS Table of Contents 1. Introduction to Sensors * Definition * Classification of Sensors 2. Proximity Sensors © Principle of Operation Types: Inductive and Capacitive Proximity Sensors * Applications 3. Velocity and Motion Sensors * Tachogenerator * Optical Encoders 4, Force Sensors * Strain Gauge as Force Sensor 5, Fluid Pressure Sensors © Tactile Sensors * Other Pressure Sensor Types 6. Flow Sen: © Ultrasonic Flow Sensors * Laser Flow Sensors 7. Level Sensors # Ultrasonic Level Sensors * Capacitive Level Sensors 8, Temperature Sensors * Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) © Thermistors and Thermocouples 9. Light Sensors * Photo Diodes * Applications of Photo Diodes 10. Digital Output of Sensors * Light Sensors with Digital Output * Digital Output of Angular MotionIntroduction to Sensors Definition A ensor is a device that detects a change in a physical parameter and converts it into a readable signal. This signal may not necessarily be another form of energy but is generally converted into an electrical signal for further processing. Classification of Sensors Sensors can be classified based on various criteria: 1. Based on Type of Input (Measured Parameter) Category Examples Physical Sensors Temperature (thermocouples, RTDs), Pressure (strain gauges), Humidity, Flow, Proximity Chemical Sensors Gas sensors, pH sensors, Humidity sensors based on hygroscopic materials Biological Sensors « Glucose sensors, DNA sensors, Enzyme-based sensors 2. Based on Energy Conversion Mechanism Type Description Examples Active Sensors (Self- Generating) Generate output without external power Thermocouples, Piezoelectric sensors Passive Sensors 3. Based on Contact Type Require extemal power RTDs, Light Dependent Resistors (LoRs) Type Description Examples Contact Sensors Require direct physical contact Thermocouples, RTDs, Strain gauges Non-Contact Sensors « No direct contact required Based on Output Signal Type Infrared sensors, Ultrasonic sensors, Radar sensors Type Description Examples Analog Sensors Continuous output signal Thermistors, Strain gauges, Potentiometers igital Sensors 5. Based on Ap} Discrete (binary) output Digital temperature sensors, IR sensorsIndustry Sensor Applications Industri ‘Automation, manufacturing, robotics Biomedical Healthcare and medical devices Environmental Climate monitoring, weather prediction Automotive Vehicle control systems lot Smart devices, home automation Show Image Proximity Sensors Principle of Operation Proximity sensors detect the presence or movement of objects without physical contact. They operate by emitting energy or a field and then monitoring for changes caused by an object's presence Show Image Types of Proximity Sensors 1. Inductive Proximity Sensors * Based on electromagnetic induction © Generate an electromagnetic field using a coil with alternating current * When a metallic object enters the field, eddy currents are induced, lowering the amplitude of the electromagnetic field ‘© The sensor's output switches when the amplitude decreases below a predetermined level Characteristics: * Can detect only metallic objects * Non-contact detection «Fast response time‘© Immune to dust and moisture Applications: * Industrial automation (detecting metal parts on conveyor belts) © CNC machines for metal positioning ‘* Robotics (position sensing in robotic arms) * Security systems (metal object detection) ‘* Automotive (vehicle detection in parking sensors) ‘* Machine tools (detecting position of moving parts), 2. Capacitive Proximity Sensors Working Principle: * Based on changes in capacitance when an object approaches * Generate an electrostatic field using a capacitive plate * Can detect both metallic and non-metallic objects ‘The approaching object acts as a second capacitive plate, increasing measured capacitance ‘© Output state changes when capacitance threshold is metCharacteristics: Can detect both metallic and non-metallic materials ‘* More versatile than inductive sensors Somewhat affected by environmental factors like humidity Usually shorter sensing range than inductive sensors Diagram: Capacitive Proximity Sensor Applications: * Liquid level detection (water, oil, chemicals in tanks) * Touch screens (smartphones, laptops) ‘Industrial automation (detecting plastic, wood, paper, glass) ‘* Packaging industry (detecting transparent materials) * Agriculture (monitoring grain or fertilizer levels) © Moisture control * Non-invasive content detection Comparison of Inductive vs. CapaFeature Inductive Sensors Capacitive Sensors Detectable Materials Only metals Both metals and non-metals Sensing Range Typically longer Typically shorter Environmental Sensitivity Less affected by moisture More affected by moisture Cost Generally less expensive Generally more expensive Typical Applications Metal detection, positioning Level sensing, material detection Velocity and Motion Sensors Tachogenerator Definition: A tachogenerator is a device used for the measurement of linear and angular velocity, converting mechanical rotation into an electrical signal proportional to speed. ‘* Based on Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction ‘* When an electrically conducting object is placed in a magnetic field, an eddy current is generated * According to Lenz's Law, the eddy current creates a magnetic field opposing the original field Types and Operation: 1. Variable Reluctance Tachagenerator * Consists of a magnet with a coil wound over it and a toothed wheel + The toothed wheel rotates within the magnetic field © This causes a changing magnetic flux that induces EMF in the coil * The induced EMF is proportional to the angular speed 2. DC Tachogenerator * Uses an armature attached to the object being measured © The armature rotates within a stationary magnetic field * The induced voltage is proportional to the shaft speed © The polarity of the induced voltage determines the direction of motion Diagram: Basic TachogeneratorApplications: * Electric motors - speed monitoring '* Engines - RPM measurement * Conveyor belts - speed control ‘* Machine tools - precision speed monitoring * Elevators, escalators - safety monitoring * Rolling mills, presses, fans - industrial speed control Optical Encoders Definition: Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear or angular displacement, widely used in servo motors to measure shaft rotation. Components: © Adisc with concentric tracks of equally spaced holes © Light source (typically LED) * Light sensors (photodetectors) Working Principle: The disc is attached to a rotating shaft * Light passes through holes in the disc as it rotates * Light sensors detect these light pulses ‘* The pattem of pulses provides information about position, speed, and direction Types of Optical Encoders: 1. Incremental Encoder* Provides pulses during rotation * Direction determined by phase relationship between two channels * Rotation measured by counting pulses 2. Absolute Encoder * Provides unique code for each angular position * Position known immediately upon power-up * No need to count from a home position Diagram: Optical Encoder Typical Three-Track Encoder Disc: ‘© Inner track: Single hole for home’ position ‘* Middle track: Equally spaced holes * Outer track: Holes offset from middle track by half a hole width* This arrangement allows direction determination: * Clockwise: outer track pulses lead middle track * Counter-clockwise: outer track pulses lag middle track Resolution: * Determined by the number of holes on the disc * Example: 100 holes = 3.6° resolution (360°/100) Applications: ‘© Motor shafts - position and speed feedback * Conveyor belts - tracking movement ‘* Machine tools - precision positioning * Robots - joint angle measurement ‘* Factory automation - equipment control * Office printers/copiers - paper movement * Antennas and telescopes - aiming systems * Elevators - position tracking * Printing equipment - registration control Force Sensors Strain Gauge as Force Sensor Definition: A strain gauge is a device used to measure strain (deformation) on an object when subjected to an external force within its elastic limit. Working Principle: * The electrical resistance of the strain gauge changes when it is subjected to force * This change in resistance is related to the induced stress in the object, ‘© When force is applied, the object (and attached strain gauge) either: * Becomes longer and narrower (increasing resistance) ‘* Becomes shorter and broader (decreasing resistance) Mathematical Relationships: © Strain (@ = (le Lvs © Where Lr is original length and Lz is deformed length * Gauge Factor (GF) = [AR / (RG x &)]© Where AR is change in resistance, RG is resistance of undeformed gauge, and ¢ is strain Diagram: Strain Gauge Construction and Operation Measurement Circuit: ‘© Wheatstone bridge circuit commonly used * Detects small resistance changes * Bridge imbalance is proportional to applied strain/force ‘© Output voltage can be amplified for easier measurement Diagram: Wheatstone Bridge with Strain Gauge Applications:* Force and weight measurement * Pressure sensing ‘* Tension monitoring in cables and structures * Structural health monitoring in civil engineering * Torque measurement in machinery ‘© Material testing and quality control + Industrial and automotive pressure sensors * Scales and weighing systems © Aerospace structural testing Example: A strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2.0 and resistance of 120 ohms is attached to a metal beam. When a SON force is applied, the strain produced is 0,001. The change in resistance would be: AR = GF x RG x € = 2.0 x 1200 x 0.001 = 0.240 This change in resistance can be measured using a Wheatstone bridge circuit and converted to a voltage signal proportional to the applied force. Fi Pressure Sensors Tactile Sensors Definition: Tactile sensors are devices that measure information arising from physical interaction with their environment, often modeled after the human sense of touch, Working Principle: ‘* Most common principle is capacitive sensing * Pressure changes the capacitance between two conductive plates separated by a dielectric material The change in capacitance is proportional to the applied pressure Construction: * Thin, flexible substrates with electrically conductive materials * Deposited in rows and columns © Pressure-sensitive material between the rows and columns © Intersections form a pressure sensing array Diagram: Basic Tactile Sensor ArrayApplications: Touchscreen devices * Robotics - for grip control ‘Medical devices - for pressure distribution mapping Industrial automation - for material handling ‘© Smart prosthetics Other Pressure Sensor Types 1. Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors ‘© Measure change in electrical resistance when material is subjected to pressure ‘Often use silicon or germanium in a flexible diaphragm © Resistance change measured via Wheatstone bridge ‘© Output voltage proportional to pressure ‘© Widely used in industrial and automotive applications oelectric Pressure Sensors © Use crystal materials (quartz, ceramic) that generate voltage when pressure is applied * Voltage proportional to applied pressure ‘* Measured using charge amplifier * Good for dynamic pressure measurements 3. Capacitive Pressure Sensors‘* Measure changes in capacitance due to pressure * Common in medical equipment ‘High sensitivity and stability 4. Optical Pressure Sensors Use light to measure pressure changes * Suitable for environments with electrical interference 5. Resonant Pressure Sensors ‘* Measure changes in resonant frequency due to pressure * Used in high-precision applications Diagram: Diaphragm-Based Pressure Sensor Flow Sensors Definition: Flow sensors measure the flow rate of a fluid (gas or liquid) by detecting changes in the fluid's physical attributes. Ultrasonic Flow SensorsWorking Principle: * Send ultrasonic waves across a pipe containing the flow, both with and against the direction of flow ‘* Measure the transit time difference between upstream and downstream signals This difference is proportional to the flow velocity Types of Ultrasonic Flow Measurement: 1. Transit Time Method * Sound waves sent along a diagonal to the flow * Measurements taken in both directions © Can measure flow rate regardless of flow direction 2, Doppler Shift Method * Sound waves projected along flow path * Frequency of return signal measured © Uses frequency shift caused by particulate matter in fluid © Suitable for waste matter, water, and other open channel liquids Diagram: Ultrasonic Flow Meter (Transit Time) Operation: ‘* Transmitters send short bursts of ultrasonic signals through fluid * Transmitter sending waves along flow direction sees increased signal speed * Transmitter sending waves against flow sees decreased signal speed * The time difference indicates flow velocity Applications:‘© Water flow measurement in utilities * Oil industry - flow monitoring * Ultrasonic blood flow meters in medical applications * Industrial process control ‘© Wastewater management Laser Flow Sensors Working Principl ‘Uses laser light to measure flow * May involve detecting movement of particles within fluid © Can use Doppler shift of reflected laser light to determine speed ‘Comparison: Laser vs. Ultrasonic Sensors for Flow Measurement Feature Laser Sensors Ultrasonic Sensors Medium Uses light Uses sound waves Precision Very high precision Good precision Transparent Objects May pass through Can measure through transparent containers Ambient Light May be affected Not affected Range Can be longer range Typically shorter range Cost Generally higher Generally lower Surface Properties Affected by reflectivity Less affected by surface properties Level Sensors Definition: Level sensors monitor, maintain, and measure liquid (and sometimes solid) levels, converting the detected level into an electric signal. Classificatio 1. Pe * Indicate whether liquid has reached a specific point it Level Measurement * Examples: Capacitance, Optical, Conductivity, Vibrating, Float Switch sensors 2. Continuous Level Measurement * Provide precise liquid level measurements throughout the range * Examples: Ultrasonic and Radar sensors Ultrasonic Level SensorsWorking Principle: ‘© Emit sound waves from a transducer ‘* Sound waves travel until reaching liquid/solid surface ‘© Waves reflect back to transducer ‘+ Measure time of flight (from emission to reception) * Calculate distance based on sound velocity and time Diagram: Ultrasonic Level Sensor Advantages: * No moving parts * Compact design * Reliable operation * Non-invasive (non-contact) * Unatfected by material properties © Self-cleaning due to vibrationsDisadvantages: * Can be expensive © Environmental factors may affect performance * May have issues with foam or turbulent surfaces Application Example: Hot asphalt tank in a shingle manufacturing plant - sensor placed at top of tank away from hot asphalt to monitor level and trigger fil requests. Capacitive Level Sensors Working Principle: © Based on change in capacitance * Insulated electrode acts as one capacitor plate * Tank wall (or reference electrode) acts as second plate ‘* Capacitance changes with fluid level ‘© Empty tank = lower capacitance © Filled tank = higher capacitance Diagram: Capacitive Level Sensor Characteristics:Small form factor Less expensive than many alternatives * Invasive (contacts the product) * Accurate measurement * No moving parts * Requires calibration «Limited to certain liquid types Application Example: Water treatment facility storage tanks - ideal application for monitoring water levels Temperature Sensors Definition: Temperature sensors detect and measure the temperature of mechanical systems by ‘observing changes such as expansion/contraction or changes in electrical properties. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) Working Principle: ‘© Operate on the principle that electrical resistance of a metal changes with temperature In metals, resistance increases with heating * Follows linear relationship: Rt = RO (1 + aT) Rt resistance at temperature T (°C) © RO: resistance at 0°C © temperature coefficient of resistance Construction: Resistor element connected to a Wheatstone bridge ‘Small current continuously passes through coil ‘* Temperature changes cause resistance changes * Detected by Wheatstone bridge circuit Materials Used: Platinum: Range up to 650°C, most stable and accurate ‘© Copper: Range up to 120°C * Nickel: Range up to 300°C Diagram: RTD Construction and CircuitCharacteristics: Good linear response over wide temperature range High accuracy and stability Relatively expensive Requires external current source Slower response than thermocouples Application Examples: Air conditioning and refrigeration Food processing Stoves and grills Textile production Plastics processing Petrochemical processing Microelectronics Fluid temperature measurement in pipes and tanks Exhaust gas temperature measurementTher ors and Thermocouples Thermistors: * Change resistance based on temperature Unlike RTDs, usually have a non-linear response * Can have either Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) or Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) * Provide continuous (analog) output signal ‘© Widely used in manufacturing process monitoring Thermocouples: * Convert temperature directly into electrical voltage * Active sensor (self-generating) * Based on Seebeck effect * Junction of two different metals generates voltage proportional to temperature * Do not require external power source © Wide temperature range * Good for extreme temperatures # Less accurate than RTDs * Widely used in manufacturing processes Diagram: Thermocouple Basic Structure Heat Transfer Mechanisms in Temperature Measurement: * Conduction: Direct heat flow between two solid materials in contact.* Convection: Heat transfer through movement of liquids or gases * Radiation: Heat transfer via electromagnetic waves Light Sensors Photo Diodes Defi (voltage or current), also called a Photodetector, Photo Sensor, or Light Detector. jon: A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light energy into electrical energy Working Principle: * Operates in reverse bias condition ‘* When a photon strikes the diode, it creates an electron-hole pair (inner photoelectric effect) ‘* Near the depletion region, the built-in electric field sweeps these carriers away * This produces a photocurrent Total current = dark current + photocurrent Structure ‘© PN junction semiconductor device ‘* Some have an intrinsic layer between P and N layers (PIN structure) * Photon absorption intensity directly proportional to photon energy ‘+ Lower photon energy leads to higher absorption Operating Modes: 1. Photovoltaic Mode (Zero Bias) * Voltage produced when irradiated by light * Good for low frequency and ultra-low light applications © Limited dynamic range and non-linear characteristic 2. Photoconductive Mode (Reverse Biased) * Faster response ‘* Reduced junction capacitance with increased reverse voltage * Produces some electronic noise 3. Avalanche Diode Mode (High Reverse Bias) Internal gain due to avalanche breakdown * Increased device response Diagram: Photodiode Structure and Circuitins of Photo Diodes Applica 1. Cameras and Photography * Light meters Automatic shutter control Auto-focus systems Photographic flash control 2. Medical Devices © CAT scanners (X-ray detection) * Pulse oximeters * Blood particle analyzers 3. Industrial Applications * Bar code scanners # Light pens * Brightness controlsEncoders Position sensors Surveying instruments Copiers (toner density) 4, Safety Equipment * Smoke detectors ‘Flame monitors * Security inspection equipment * Intruder alert systems 5. Automotive * Headlight dimmers * Twilight detectors * Climate control (sunlight detector) 6, Communications * Fiber optic links © Optical communications * Optical remote control Example: Using a Photodiode in a Simple Light Meter CircuitWhen light hits the photodiode, it generates current causing a voltage drop across the resistor. More light results in more current and a larger voltage drop, providing a measurable signal proportional to light intensity. ital Output of Sensors Light Sensors with Digital Output While photodiodes naturally produce analog output (continuous current proportional to light intensity), they can be integrated with additional components to provide digital output Methods for Digital Conversion: 1. Using a Comparator: * Analog signal from photodiode fed into comparatorLight Sensors and Angular Motion Detection: Digital Output Systems 1. ight Detection and Digital Output How Light Sensors Work Light sensors like photodiodes are semiconductor devices that convert light energy into electrical energy. When photons strike the diode, they create electron-hole pairs, generating a photocurrent proportional to light intensity. Converting Analog to Digital Output A photodiode naturally produces an analog signal (continuous range of values). To obtain a digital output, additional circuitry is required Method 1: Using a Comparator ‘* How it works: The comparator compares the photodiodes voltage to a reference threshold © Output: Binary signal (HIGH/LOW) © Iflight intensity > threshold + Output = 1 * If light intensity < threshold ~ Output = 0 Example: A simple light-activated switch * When room becomes dark: Output = 0 + Tum on lights © When room is bright: Output = 1+ Tum off lights Method 2: Using an Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)© How it works: ADC samples analog signal and converts to digital numbers * Output: Multi-bit digital values representing light intensity levels * Resolution: Depends on ADC bit depth (8-bit ADC gives 256 possible values) Example: Digital light meter © 0-50: Very dark © 51-100: Dim light © 101-200: Normal light © 201-255: Bright light 2. Digital Output of Angular Displacement/Motion Optical Encoders Optical encoders are specialized motion sensors that provide digital output for angular displacement and motion. Components of an Optical Encoder Types of Optical Encoders 1. Incremental Encoders © Dise Pattern: Equally spaced holes/slots in tracks * Output: Series of pulses as disc rotates * Information Provided:* Pulse count - Angular displacement * Pulse frequency — Rotation speed * Phase relationship between tracks — Direction of rotation ![Incremental Encoder Disc Pattern] Example: Reading an incremental encoder * 360 holes on disc + 360 pulses per revolution * Ifyou count 90 pulses — 90/360 = 1/4 rotation = 90° * If you receive 3600 pulses per second + 10 revolutions per second = 600 RPM * If Track A leads Track B ~+ Clockwise rotation * If Track B leads Track A + Counterclockwise rotation 2. Absolute Encoders * Disc Pattern: Multiple concentric tracks forming binary code patterns © Output: Unique digital code for each angular position * Information Provided: * Direct absolute position (not relative) ‘* No need to count from reference position * Position known immediately at power-up ![Absolute Encoder Disc Pattern] Example: Reading a 4-bit absolute encoder * At position 5: Tracks read "0101" = binary 5 © At position 12: Tracks read "1100" = binary 12‘* Resolution = 360° = 16 position: 22.5° per position Resolution * Determined by number of slots/holes on the disc ‘© More slots = Higher resolution = More precise measurement © Example: * 1000 slots + 0.36° resolution '* 4096 slots + 0.088" resolution 3. Comparison of Sensor Types Photodiode with Incremental Aspect Absolute Encoder Comparator Encoder Output Binary (0/1) Multi-level digital Pulse train Binary code Type Relative position, Information | Light presence/absence Light intensity levels Absolute position speed Depends on slot | Depends on track Resolution | Low Depends on ADC bits count count Complexity | Low Medium Medium High Proximity detection, light | Light meters, exposure | Motor control, Precision Use Cases barriers control robotics positioning « 4, From Analog Transducer to Digital Output: General Process 1. Physical Phenomenon: Light, motion, temperature, etc. 2, Transducer/Sensor: Converts physical phenomenon to electrical signal 3. Signal Conditioning: Amplification, filtering, analog-to-digital conversion 4, Digital System Processing: Analysis, storage, display, control actions Note: An analog transducer combined with an ADC is sometimes referred to as a digital transducer in some contexts.