9

T h e Role o f T r a n s p o r t P h e n o m e n a i n
C h e m i c a l Engineering T e a c h i n g and
Research: Past, Present, and Future

R. BYRON BIRD, WARREN E. STEWART, and EDWIN N. LIGHTFOOT

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Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Wisconsin,

Publication Date: June 1, 1980 | doi: 10.1021/ba-1980-0190.ch009

Madison, WI 53706

Experience during and after World War II showed the need

for more powerful approaches to the solution of engineering
problems. Among these was the unified description of
heat, mass, and momentum transfer, referred to as "trans­
port phenomena." The development of this new engineer­
ing discipline took place almost simultaneously in many
parts of the world. Wisconsin contributions, emphasized
in this chapter, took place in the context of a strong engi­
neering science program initiated by Professor O. A.
Hougen. This chapter begins with a survey of the role of
transport phenomena in chemical engineering. The his­
tories of the basic equations, and of engineering education
in transport phenomena, are then reviewed. Finally, some
predictions and suggestions are made regarding future
directions of activity in this field.

/ l
T he subject of transport phenomena deals with the transport of mass,
A
momentum, energy, and other entities. These various phenomena
can be examined at three different levels: (1) the molecular level, where
one describes the viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusivities of
macroscopic materials in terms of models of the constituent molecules; (2)
the continuum level, where one ignores the molecular motions and
focuses on the partial differential equations (the "equations of change")
which describe the profiles of velocity, temperature, and concentration;
and (3) the equipment level, in which one is concerned mainly with
relations among input and output quantities for some piece of equipment
0-8412-0512-4/80/33-190-153$05.00/l
© 1980 American Chemical Society
In History of Chemical Engineering; Furter, W.;
Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
 154 HISTORY O F C H E M I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
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Publication Date: June 1, 1980 | doi: 10.1021/ba-1980-0190.ch009

Figure 1. This figure emphasizes that the subject of transport phenomena is one
of the engineering sciences which is needed for the understanding and further
development of chemical engineering design. The figure is intended to be illus­
trative and not all-inclusive. Certainly chemical engineering has goals other
than that of chemical reactor design. In many biochemical and biomedical areas,
such subjects as biology, bacteriology, genetics, and biochemistry are key basic
sciences. Other activities in which chemical engineers become involved (e.g.,
nuclear fuel processing, photographic materials, transistor technology, and
lubrication engineering) would have diagrams somewhat different from the above,
but transport phenomena would be included as one of the engineering sciences.

or a portion thereof. These three approaches are intertwined inexor­

ably, and the chemical engineer can be called upon to use results from all
three.
In order to put the role of transport phenomena in chemical engi­
neering into perspective, consider the diagram in Figure 1. The chem­
ical reactor is shown as a focal point of the field of chemical engineering.
Surrounding it are the various engineering subjects which are connected
intimately with reactor engineering: separation and mixing processes,
heat transfer operations, catalysis, fluid and particle dynamics, instru­
mentation and control, and materials of construction. These subjects are
clearly essential to the design and operation of a chemical reactor.

In History of Chemical Engineering; Furter, W.;

Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
 9. BIRD E T A L . The Role of Transport Phenomena 155

In the next layer of subjects we list the "engineering sciences" which

are needed i n various ways for understanding and further developing the
core engineering subjects: thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electro­
chemical phenomena, and transport phenomena. These engineering
sciences, which are themselves interrelated, form the basis for the ana­
lytical and numerical description of the chemical reactor and its periph­
eral equipment. F o r example, the subject of transport phenomena can
be used to analyze diffusion-controlled reactions, separation schemes,
transient processes i n reactors, thermal processes, flow patterns in react­
ing systems, corrosion, diffusion in porous media, and other problems
connected with reactor engineering.
Transport phenomena occur i n many other fields: acoustics, zoology,
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micrometeorology, plasma physics, combustion, nuclear engineering,

fermentation, biomedical engineering, electrochemistry, soil physics,
Publication Date: June 1, 1980 | doi: 10.1021/ba-1980-0190.ch009

ocean engineering, atmospheric pollution, pharmacology, and polymer

processing. In each of these fields the equations of change (i.e., the
equations of continuity, motion, and energy) can form the starting point
for the description, organization, and systematization of substantial parts
of the subject material. The knowledge which a chemical engineering
student acquires about the solution of problems in transport phenomena
is thus easily transferable to other fields.
It can, of course, be argued that the subject of transport phenomena
is really nothing more than a grouping together of three well-known
subjects: fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and diffusion. Bringing the
subjects together into one subject is, however, advantageous for several
reasons: (1) in nature, i n biological systems, and in the chemical industry,
the three phenomena often occur simultaneously; (2) the mathematical
descriptions of the three phenomena are related closely and hence con­
siderable use may be made of analogies among the various phenomena;
(3) there are also important differences among the three fields, and these
can be emphasized when the subject material is juxtaposed. A person
who has studied transport phenomena from this unified viewpoint is i n an
excellent position to proceed to the study of special treatises and ad­
vanced texts on fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and diffusion as well as
rheology, electrochemistry, acoustics, combustion, turbulence, boundary-
layer theory, and a host of other related fields.

History of Transport Phenomena

To do justice to this topic would require a book. W e mention just a

few highlights here to give some perspective. The subject of transport
phenomena is both old and new. Some of the equations we use have
been known for a century or more. Others are of relatively recent
vintage. A n d , of course, there are some parts of the subject which are

In History of Chemical Engineering; Furter, W.;

Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
 156 HISTORY O F C H E M I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G

being developed just now and others which can qualify as terrae i n -
cognitae.
T h e F l u x Expressions. We begin with the relations between the
fluxes and gradients, which serve to define the transport properties. For
viscosity the earliest definition was that of Newton (1 ) in 1687; however
about a century and a half elapsed before the most general linear ex­
pression for the stress tensor of a Newtonian fluid was developed as a
result of the researches by Navier (2), Cauchy (3), Poisson (4), de St.
Venant (5), and Stokes (6). For the thermal conductivity of a pure,
isotropic material, the linear relationship between heat flux and temper­
ature gradient was proposed by Fourier (7) in 1822. For the diffusivity
i n a binary mixture at constant temperature and pressure, the linear
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relationship between mass flux and concentration gradient was suggested

by F i c k (8) i n 1855, by analogy with thermal conduction. Thus by the
Publication Date: June 1, 1980 | doi: 10.1021/ba-1980-0190.ch009

m i d 1800's the transport properties i n simple systems had been defined.

F o r multicomponent reacting mixtures with simultaneous heat,
mass, and momentum transport, it was not until the 1940's that clear
definitions of the transport properties emerged as a result of research by
Eckart (9), Meixner (10), Prigogine (11), de Groot (12), Kirkwood and
Crawford (13), Hirschfelder, Curtiss, and Bird (14), and others. This
development had to await the emergence of the thermodynamics of
irreversible processes as a new discipline. It must be pointed out,
however, that the kinetic theory of gases had provided a great deal of
insight for those who developed the thermodynamic codification of the
various irreversible phenomena. F o r an extensive and carefully com­
piled bibliography on the development of the flux expressions, see the
review by Truesdell and Toupin (15).
F o r structurally complex fluids—notably polymer solutions, molten
polymers, suspensions, and emulsions—the linear relation between the
stress tensor and the velocity gradients is wholly inapplicable, and in
addition these fluids are viscoelastic. The development of an under­
standing of the nonlinear viscoelastic responses of these complex fluids is
the subject of current research programs. F r o m a phenomenological
point of view several important suggestions have been made: (1) Oldroyd
(16) and others have modified the linear viscoelastic constitutive relation
by empirical introduction of nonlinear terms; (2) Rivlin and Ericksen (17)
developed a systematic expansion of the stress tensor in terms of the
rate-of-strain and higher-order kinematic tensors, leading to the defini­
tion of second-, third-, and higher-order fluids; (3) Green and Rivlin (18),
Goddard (19), and others have shown how to expand the stress tensor as a
memory-integral expansion. M u c h needs to be learned about the con­
vergence and usefulness of these memory-integral expansions. For an
extensive discussion of this aspect of transport phenomena, see the recent
book by B i r d , Armstrong, and Hassager (20).

In History of Chemical Engineering; Furter, W.;

Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
 9. BIRD E T A L . The Role of Transport Phenomena 157

Kinetic Theories of the Transport Properties. F o r dilute gases the

kinetic theory has a long history beginning with Bernoulli in the 1700's.
Through the centuries increasing refinements in the theories and the
modeling of intermolecular forces have occurred. The towering works of
Maxwell (21) and Boltzmann (22) i n the 19th century gave tremendous
impetus to the study of the interrelation of macroscopic properties and
molecular structure. However, it was not until the second decade of the
20th century that the kinetic theory of dilute monatomic gases was de­
veloped i n a rigorous way by Chapman (23) and Enskog (24), inde­
pendently and almost simultaneously. Their work was generalized to
multicomponent mixtures i n 1940 by Hellund (25) and in 1949 by Curtiss
and Hirschfelder (26). Outstanding summaries of modern kinetic theory
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have been given by Chapman and Cowling (27) and by Waldmann (28);
applications of the theory have been summarized by Hirschfelder,
Publication Date: June 1, 1980 | doi: 10.1021/ba-1980-0190.ch009

Curtiss, and B i r d (14). A short historical summary of the kinetic theory

of gases is given on pp 407-409 of the monograph of Chapman and
C o w l i n g (27); this book, which also gives discussions of dense gases,
quantum effects, electromagnetic phenomena, and nonspherical mole­
cules, is an extraordinary treatise and a "must" for anyone involved in
kinetic theory.
The kinetic theory of liquids has been worked on intensively i n this
century. The activated-state theories of Eyring (29) and co-workers
were the first entry into the field. Later Born and Green (30, 31),
Kirkwood and his collaborators (32), and others developed rigorous kinetic
theories. Because of the complexity of the rigorous theories and the
difficulty of getting numerical results from them, attention i n recent years
has turned to molecular dynamics simulation (33).
F o r two-phase systems Einstein (34) in 1906 was the first to obtain
the viscosity for a very dilute suspension of solid spheres; the resulting
stress expression is Newtonian. However, it has been only within the
past decade that nonlinear viscoelastic expressions for the stress tensor in
dilute suspensions have been obtained: deformable spheres (35), ellip­
soids (36), emulsions (37, 38). F o r a survey of activities i n this field, see
the summary by Barthès-Biesel and Acrivos (39).
F o r polymeric fluids, early kinetic-theory workers (40) attempted to
calculate the zero-shear-rate viscosity of dilute solutions by modeling the
polymer molecules as elastic dumbbells. Later the constants i n the
R i v l i n - E r i c k s e n (17) expansion were obtained for dumbbells (41, 42) and
other more complex models; and only recently have the kernel functions
in the memory integral expansions been obtained (43). This rapidly
expanding field has been summarized recently i n a monograph (44); here,
too, molecular dynamics simulation may prove fruitful (45).
The Equations of Change and the Macroscopic Balance. Textbooks
and treatises on fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and diffusion seldom give

In History of Chemical Engineering; Furter, W.;

Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
 158 HISTORY O F C H E M I C A L ENGINEERING

any literature citations to indicate the origins of the equations of change.

Truesdell and Toupin (15) have ferreted out this information, and we cite
a few key references here. The continuity equation for a pure fluid dates
back to E u l e r (46) in 1755; and for mixtures the continuity equations were
given by Jaumann (47) i n 1911. The equation of motion for a Newtonian
fluid had its origins with Cauchy (48) about 150 years ago. The energy
equation is virtually as old as the First Law of Thermodynamics.
However, very few heat-transfer or fluid dynamics texts give the equation
complete with the viscous dissipation term, even though the expression
for viscous dissipation was known by Rayleigh (49). It was not until the
middle of the 20th century that Prigogine (11), Kirkwood and Crawford
(13), and others presented the equation of energy for chemically reacting
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mixtures.
The macroscopic mass, momentum, and energy balances for pieces of
Publication Date: June 1, 1980 | doi: 10.1021/ba-1980-0190.ch009

equipment have been used i n their steady-state form for many decades,
by applying the conservation laws to entire pieces of equipment or parts
thereof. The derivation of the unsteady-state macroscopic balances from
the equations of change was set forth by Bird (50) about 20 years ago; the
principal advantage of this derivation is that the mechanical energy
balance (or the engineering Bernoulli equation) can be derived more
satisfactorily than had been done previously by thermodynamic argu­
ments. A corresponding development for the angular momentum
balance was given by Slattery and Gaggioli (51) somewhat later (52).
Once the equations of change and the expressions for the fluxes have
been established, one has the complete set of starting equations for
solving problems. Solving can include analytic solutions, numerical
solutions, studies based on time-smoothing of the equations appropriate
for turbulent flow, boundary-layer studies, and even dimensional analyses.
A l l of these kinds of problem solving have direct relevance to engineering
modeling activities. Because the equations of change form a coupled,
nonlinear set of equations, numerical techniques have to be used in most
situations. As computing equipment and numerical analysis improve,
our capacity for practical problem solving increases. The equations of
change thus can be expected to play an ever-increasing role in engineering
analysis and design.

Development of Transport Phenomena Teaching at the University of

Wisconsin at Madison

D u r i n g the development of chemical engineering in the first half of

the 20th century, chemical engineers quite naturally took over important
results from the fields of fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and diffusion as
they needed them. This was particularly true in the identification of
"unit operations" as a key subject; attention was focused on this subject

In History of Chemical Engineering; Furter, W.;

Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
 9. BIRD E T A L . The Role of Transport Phenomena 159

by the publication of the outstanding textbook by Walker, Lewis, and

McAdams (53). This influential book shaped the training of chemical
engineers for many decades to come, since subsequent textbooks in the
area followed i n very much the same spirit.
In the post W o r l d War II years chemical engineers began to be
called upon to move into a number of new areas in which problem
definition and problem solving required a more substantial knowledge of
the fundamentals of transport phenomena than that provided in the
textbooks on unit operations. As an example, in the polymer-processing
industry engineers became involved with fluids of very high viscosity, in
which elastic and viscous dissipation heat effects are very important. As
another example we can cite the development of new kinds of spray-
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processing equipment, i n which detailed analyses of flow patterns and

heat-and-mass transfer rates had to be developed.
Publication Date: June 1, 1980 | doi: 10.1021/ba-1980-0190.ch009

B y the 1950's many chemical engineering departments were experi­

menting with teaching courses in transport phenomena—often under
titles such as Chemical Engineering F l u i d Dynamics, Diffusional Opera­
tions, Rate Processes, and F l u i d and Particle Mechanics. These experi­
mental courses were offered usually at the graduate level, with the idea of
providing research students with an introduction to material needed for
their dissertations.
L e t us turn now to the events which occurred at the University of
Wisconsin. Professors O. A . Hougen and Κ. M . Watson had been very
active i n applied chemical kinetics and separations processes. In 1948
W . R. Marshall joined the staff, specializing in drying and spray pro­
cessing. Because much of the on-going research required an under­
standing of fluid dynamics and transport phenomena, ca. 1949 Professor
W . R. Marshall began to teach classical fluid dynamics, boundary-layer
theory, and diffusion in his course on diffusional operations. About the
same time Professors J . O. Hirschfelder and C . F . Curtiss of the C h e m ­
istry Department were invited to give a special course for the Chemical
Engineering department on transport processes; this included the equa­
tions of change, shock-wave phenomena, dimensional analysis, dynamics
of phase change, and several other topics. By the fall of 1952 Professor
Hirschfelder and his two former students, C . F . Curtiss and R. B. B i r d ,
had finished the manuscript of their treatise (14), about one third of
which deals with molecular and continuum aspects of transport phe­
nomena. After that R. B . B i r d disappeared from the scene to teach one
year i n the Chemistry Department at Cornell and to spend a very fruitful
summer at the D u Pont Experimental Station i n Wilmington, Delaware.
There he became aware of the large number of problems i n the polymer
industry which were difficult to solve, partly because of gaps i n the
traditional chemical engineering training.

In History of Chemical Engineering; Furter, W.;

Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
 160 HISTORY O F C H E M I C A L ENGINEERING

In 1953 R. B . B i r d and Ε. N . Lightfoot joined the staff of the

Chemical Engineering Department at Wisconsin; Ε. N . Lightfoot had
spent several years with the Pfizer Company where he had had extensive
experiences i n biochemical processing and fermentation operations. Two
years later W . E . Stewart joined the staff; he had left Wisconsin with an
M S degree i n Chemical Engineering in 1947 and completed an ScD
degree at M . I . T . under Professor H . S. Mickley (on simultaneous heat
and mass transfer i n boundary layers) and then had six years of experience
at Sinclair Research dealing primarily with catalysis and reactor design.
R. B . Bird's teaching assignments included the development of a new
course i n fluid dynamics and taking over Professor W . R. Marshall's
course on diffusional operations. This gave him an excellent opportunity
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to develop his ideas on the teaching of transport phenomena to chemical

engineering students. A t the same time he served on a committee
Publication Date: June 1, 1980 | doi: 10.1021/ba-1980-0190.ch009

charged with exploring the idea of establishing a Department of Nuclear

Engineering at Wisconsin.
The Nuclear Engineering Committee made plans for an undergrad­
uate curriculum i n nuclear engineering. The committee decided to i n ­
corporate a course in transport phenomena so that the nuclear engi­
neering students would have the required background for coping with
heat-transfer and flow problems, and spent-fuel separations techniques.
W h e n the course outline was sent to the Executive Committee of the
Physical Sciences Division for approval, this committee wanted to know
why the Chemical Engineering Department did not have a course like
this. O n an earlier occasion, the Chemical Engineering Department
had, i n fact, rejected a suggestion for instituting a course of this type.
However, because of the request of the Physical Sciences Committee
they were obliged to reconsider the matter. After lengthy debate it was
decided by a vote of 5-4 to put in the junior year a required three-credit
course on transport phenomena, provided that R. B. Bird would prepare
a set of mimeographed notes for use in the fall semester of
1957. W . E . Stewart and E . N . Lightfoot quickly offered to assist i n this
project. In this way three co-authors with three very different back­
grounds came to work together on the preparation of a new textbook.
Most textbooks are prepared after years of teaching experience in a given
field; however, i n this instance, the first version of the text was prepared
before any teaching experience with undergraduates had been accumu­
lated. The detailed plans for the course were presented at a meeting of
Deans of Engineering at Purdue University in September, 1957 (54).
W o r k on the mimeographed notes began on or about August 1, 1957,
and by the start of the fall term about 13 chapters were ready. During the
fall term the note-writing kept ahead of the teaching activities. Since
Professor R. A . Ragatz, Chairman of the department, insisted that all of

In History of Chemical Engineering; Furter, W.;

Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
 9. BIRD E T A L . The Role of Transport Phenomena 161

the professors take part in teaching the course during the first year, R. B.
B i r d ran a coaching session each week in order to go over the notes,
illustrative examples, and suggested homework problems. It was a lot of
work for all of us—writing, teaching, coaching, and testing our ideas.
D u r i n g the spring term R. B . B i r d taught the course again at the Tech-
nische Hogeschool i n Delft; there he had the chance to discuss transport
phenomena teaching with Professor H . Kramers who had in 1956 pub­
lished a set of notes entitled Physische Transportverschijnselen. Mean­
while, in Madison, Ε. N . Lightfoot and W . E . Stewart prepared additional
illustrative examples and problems to go with the text. The John Wiley
and Sons publishers had agreed to put out the notes as a "preliminary
e d i t i o n , " a procedure which was being experimented with by a number of
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publishers at that time. The result was the appearance i n the fall of 1958
of Notes on Transport Phenomena, by B i r d , Stewart, and Lightfoot.
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W i l e y made it possible for a number of chemical engineering depart­

ments to use this provisional textbook, and the comments of the teachers
and students at these schools were forwarded to the authors. These
comments were invaluable in revising the Notes on Transport Phenomena
for the publication of the final book (55). W e w i l l never be able to thank
adequately the teachers and students who assisted us i n this way.
Throughout the organization and writing of the book, we received a
great deal of advice and encouragement from our senior colleague, Pro­
fessor Olaf A . Hougen. Consequently the book was dedicated to him i n
an acronym, which may be found by reading the first letter of each
sentence i n the preface (an additional message may be found by reading
the first letter of each paragraph in the postface). The book has ap­
peared i n Spanish (1965), Czech (1968), and Italian editions (1970), and
an unauthorized Russian edition (1974). (In the Russian edition Chapter
14 was omitted entirely and other unfortunate alterations in the text were
made.)
The authors of the book have participated i n a number of additional
teaching activities i n connection with transport phenomena: an N S F
three-week short course for engineering teachers in the summer of 1961;
numerous industrial- and AIChE-sponsored short courses; R. B. Bird's
guest lectures at Kyoto and Nagoya Universities i n Japan; W . E . Stewart's
guest lectures at LaPlata and Buenos Aires Universities i n Argentina; and
Ε. N . Lightfoot's lectures at the Technical University of Denmark, Tung-
hai University i n Taiwan, and the University of Canterbury in New
Zealand. In addition, each of us has prepared an advanced text on some
special aspect of transport phenomena: E . N . Lightfoot has written a book
on biomedical applications (56); R. B . Bird has co-authored a two-volume
work on polymeric fluids (20, 44); and W . E . Stewart currently is co-
authoring a book emphasizing numerical techniques for solving transport
problems (57).

In History of Chemical Engineering; Furter, W.;

Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
 162 HISTORY O F C H E M I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G

Transport Phenomena Teaching since 1960

In the past two decades some form of transport phenomena teaching

has become established in most chemical engineering departments. In
some schools it is given as a sort of applied physics course to bridge the
gap between elementary physics and unit operations (as is done at the
University of Wisconsin). In other schools it is given as a terminal
course after unit operations, sometimes as an elective. In still other
departments, the materials is taught only at the graduate level. In a few
departments the transport phenomena teaching has displaced the subject
of unit operations. It was no doubt the specter of such a trend that led
Professor T. K . Sherwood of M . I . T . to label our text a " a dangerous book"
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(58). H e rightly cautioned that " i f perspective is lost through enthu*

siasm for scientific and mathematical analyses, the engineer will be less
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effective i n industry" (58). W e feel that his words of caution were

appropriate and should be heeded.
Since our book was published in 1960 many new books have
appeared. The subject of transport phenomena is now available i n many
languages and flavors. W e list here the ones that we know about:

1. Levich, V . G . , Physicochemical Hydrodynamics, Prentice-

H a l l , Englewood Cliffs, N J , 1962. (Actually this is a
monograph rather than a textbook; it appeared in Russian
in 1952 with a second Russian edition in 1959.)
2. Rohsenow, W . M . and C h o i , H . Y . , Heat, Mass, and
Momentum Transfer, P r e n t i c e - H a l l , Englewood Cliffs,
N J , 1961.
3. Bennett, C. O. and Myers, J. E., Momentum, Heat, and
Mass Transfer, M c G r a w - H i l l , N Y , 1962.
4. Shirotsuka, T . , Hirata, Α., and Murakami, Α., Kagaku-
gijitshusha no tame no Idō-sokudo-ron, Omu-sha, Tokyo,
1966.
5. K u n i i , D . , Editor, Idō-sokudo-ron, Iwanami, Tokyo,
1968.
6. K o i z u m i , M., Idō-sokudo-ron, Shokodo, Tokyo, 1969.
7. Hanley, H . J., Transport Phenomena in Fluids, M .
Dekker, N Y , 1969.
8. Welty, J. R., Wicks, C . E., and Wilson, R. E., Funda­
mentals of Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer, Wiley,
N Y (1st Ed) 1969, (2nd Ed) 1976.
9. Hiraoka, M. and Tanaka, K . , Idō-genshō-ron, Asakura-
shoten, Tokyo, 1971.
10. Theodore, L., Transport Phenomena for Engineers, I n ­
ternational, Scranton, 1971.

In History of Chemical Engineering; Furter, W.;

Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
 9. BIRD E T A L . The Role of Transport Phenomena 163

11. Slattery, J. C., Momentum, Energy, and Mass Transfer in

Continua, M c G r a w - H i l l , N Y , 1972.
12. Eckert, E . R. G . and Drake, R. M., J r . , Analysis of Heat
and Mass Transfer, M c G r a w - H i l l , N Y , 1972.
13. Sissom, L . E . and Pitts, D . R., Elements of Transport
Phenomena, M c G r a w - H i l l , N Y , 1972.
14. Geiger, G . H. and Poirier, D . R., Transport Phenomena
in Metallurgy, Addison-Wesley, Reading, M A , 1973.
15. Hershey, D . , Transport Analysis, Plenum Press, N Y ,
1973.
16. Kobayashi, K., Idō-ron, Asakura-shoten, Tokyo, 1973.
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17. Foraboschi, F . P . , Principi di Ingegneria Chimica,

U.T.E.T., Torino, 1974.
18. L i h , M. M.-S., Transport Phenomena in Medicine and
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Biology, W i l e y , N Y , 1975.
19. Beek, W . J. and Muttzall, M. K., Transport Phenomena,
Wiley-Interscience, N Y , 1975.
20. M i k a m i , H., Idō-ron, Asakura-shoten, Tokyo, 1976.
21. Rietema, K., Fysische transport- en overdrachtsverschijn-
selen, Uitgeverij H e t Spectrum, Utrecht, 1976.
22. Edwards, D . K . , Denny, V . E., and Mills, A . F., Transfer
Processes, Hemisphere Publ. C o . , Wash. D . C . , 1978.
23. Ginoux, J. J., Phénomènes de Transport, Universite Libre
de Bruxelles (3rd Ed), 1978.

Future Activities

W i t h regard to the teaching of transport phenomena, there undoubt­

edly w i l l continue to be considerable experimentation i n the coming
years. The availability of pocket calculators and larger computers will
make it possible to apply the principles of transport phenomena in many
new ways in engineering design. These newer applications of the theory
inevitably w i l l be mirrored i n a changing approach to the teaching of the
subject even at the elementary level.
In research there are many fascinating areas for speculation. A t the
molecular level there w i l l have to be a small band of devoted scholars
who w i l l continue to do the painstaking, detailed derivations which only
other kinetic theorists can appreciate fully. The past few years have
seen a renaissance in the kinetic theory of macromolecular fluids, and
many new avenues have been opened or suggested. Because of the
development of high-speed computers, there is also considerable interest
in developing the molecular dynamics approach to transport properties.
It may turn out that transport properties w i l l be predicted more readily
by direct calculation of the molecular motions than by doing involved

In History of Chemical Engineering; Furter, W.;

Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
 164 HISTORY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

kinetic theory derivations, application of which still requires considerable

computational labor.
In connection with the solutions of the equation of change, there will
from time to time be found some new and useful analytical solutions. The
emphasis surely will be put, however, on the development of more and
more efficient numerical techniques, such as collocation and weighted
residual methods, implemented with high-speed computers.
Turbulence seems to remain the Mt. Everest of transport phenom­
ena. Many people have attempted to scale its treacherous heights and
have been discouraged by the futility of their efforts. On the other
hand, the immense amount of information obtained in the past several
decades by experimental measurements of turbulence structure and more
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sophisticated modeling may fall gradually into place and result in useful
tools which can be used even by elementary practitioners. Let us hope
Publication Date: June 1, 1980 | doi: 10.1021/ba-1980-0190.ch009

so.
The chemical engineer will be interested particularly in applying the
basic principles of transport phenomena to problems involving separations
processes, combustion, polymer processing, interfacial hydrodynamics,
multiphaseflow,and biomedical engineering. In all of these areas it will
be the task of the chemical engineer to utilize the basic theory of trans­
port phenomena innovatively in solving practical problems for the benefit
of society.

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RECEIVED May 7, 1979.

In History of Chemical Engineering; Furter, W.;

Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.