6.

4 Thermal Energy Transfer

Internal Energy of a Includes both the kinetic and potential energy of the particles it
substance contains.

Molecules of all substances have kinetic and potential energies.

●​ Kinetic energy due to the speed.
●​ Potential energy due intermolecular forces between the
molecules varies with separation of the particles.

Internal Energy Total of all the kinetic energies plus the total of all of the
Definition potential energies

Factors of Internal ●​ Temperature

Energy ●​ Random motion of molecules
●​ The phase of matter
●​ Intermolecular interactions between the particles.

Increasing Internal ●​ Doing work on it

Energy of a system ●​ Adding thermal energy

Decreasing Internal ●​ Losing thermal energy to its surroundings

Energy ●​ The system doing work on its surroundings

Gas ●​ When a gas expands, work is done by the gas on the

surroundings.
●​ When it compresses, work is done on the gas by the
surroundings.
○​ This increases the internal energy of the gas.

Specific Heat Capacity

Specific Heat Capacity When a substance is heated, the temperature rises causing the
particles within it to gain kinetic energy.

The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of a

substance is given by its SHC.

SHC Definition The amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature
of 1kg of a substance by 1 degree without a change of state.
SHC Equation

Wires Copper and lead are excellent conductors of heat due to their
low SHC.

Latent Heat Capacity

Changes of state Examples of changes of state are:

●​ Melting = solid to liquid
●​ Evaporation / vaporisation / boiling = liquid to gas
●​ Sublimation = solid to gas
●​ Freezing = liquid to solid
●​ Condensation = gas to liquid

Changes of state
diagram

Latent Heat When a substance changes state, there is no temperature

change.

This is the thermal energy supplied to change the state of 1kg

of mass of a substance without any change of temperature.

Types of Latent Heat ●​ Specific latent heat of fusion (melting)

●​ Specific latent heat of vaporisation (boiling)

Why is specific latent The larger the mass, the more energy required to change its
heat defined by 1kg? state.
Latent Heat Graph

Specific Latent Heat of The thermal energy required to convert 1 kg of solid to liquid
Fusion with no change in temperature.

This applies to:

●​ Melting a solid
●​ Freezing a liquid

Specific Latent Heat of The thermal energy required to convert 1 kg of liquid to gas
Vaporisation with no change in temperature.

Specific Latent Heat

Equation

Explain why the Evaporating 1kg of water requires 7x more energy than melting
specific latent of the same amount of ice.
vaporisation of water
is much greater than This is due to intermolecular forces:
specific latent heat of ●​ When ice melts: Energy is required to increase the
fusion of water. molecule separation just until they can flow freely over
each other.

●​ When water boils: Energy is required to separate the

molecules until there are no forces of attraction between
the molecules.
○​ Much more energy is required.
○​ Vaporisation is also doing work against
atmospheric pressure.
 In summary more energy needs to be supplied to separate
molecules than to just break a solid bond.

Thermal Equilibrium When two materials in a system reach the same final
temperature.

Thermal Equilibrium
Calculations

Energy Transfers When a substance is heated, the molecules are given more
During Phase Changes energy in the form of kinetic and potential energy.

Key points during a change of state:

●​ No change in temperature

●​ The potential energies of the molecules change, but not

the kinetic energies.

●​ The potential energy of the molecules is due to their

separation and intermolecular bonds.

●​ Heat absorbed in melting and boiling causes the

molecules to move further apart by overcoming
intermolecular forces of attraction.

●​ Heat released in freezing and condensation allows the

molecules to move closer together and the intermolecular
 forces of attraction become stronger.
○​ KE is proportional to temperature.
■​ No change in temp = No change in KE

6.5 The Kelvin Scale & Absolute Zero

Absolute Zero The lowest temperature possible. Equal to 0K or -273 celsius

Absolute Zero The temperature at which the molecules in substance have zero
Definition kinetic energy.

Celsius to Kelvin Add 273

Kelvin to Celcius Subtract 273

Why can we use A change in temperature of 1K is equal to a change in

celsius and kelvin in temperature of 1 celsius.
the specific heat
capacity equation?

6.6 Gas Laws

Boyle's Law

●​ Pressure is inversely proportional to the volume of the

gas.

The relationship between the pressure and volume for a fixed

mass of gas at constant temperature:
Boyle’s Law Graph

What happens to the The graph shifts up. As the starting volume is greater.
graph if the
temperature was
higher but still
constant?

Charles's Law Volume is directly proportional to the temperature of a gas.

Charles’s Law Graph

Pressure Law Pressure is proportional to the temperature

Pressure Law Graph

Tip When using any ideal gas law the temperature must always be in
Kelvin.

Relationships Between Pressure, Volume and Temperature

Ideal Gas

Theory Behind The ●​ Molecules in a gas move around randomly at high speeds,
Ideal Gas Law colliding with surfaces, exerting pressure.

●​ Imagine molecules of gas free to move in a box.

●​ Temperature of a gas is related to the AVG speed of

molecules:
○​ Hotter the gas, faster movement.
○​ Thus molecules collide more frequently.
 Now, since force is the rate of change of momentum:
●​ Each collision applies a force across the surface area of
the walls
●​ The faster the molecules hit, the greater the force.

Now, since pressure is the force per unit area,

●​ Higher temperature = Higher Pressure

If the volume of the box decreases, and the temperature stays

constant:
●​ Smaller surface area = more collisions = more pressure

Pressure in an ideal The frequency of collisions of the gas molecules per unit area of
Gas the container.

Ideal Gas Equation An ideal gas is a specific type of gas which:

●​ Molecules have negligible volume compared to volume of
container
●​ Elastic collisions only
●​ Cannot be liquified
●​ Has no interactions between molecules
●​ Obeys ideal gas laws

Change of State of an
Ideal Gas

Change of State of an
Ideal Gas 2

Ideal Gas Definition A gas which obeys the equation of state pV = nRT at all pressures,
volumes and temperatures.

Work Done by a Gas

Work Done by a Gas When a gas expands it does work on its surroundings by exerting
pressure on the walls of its container.
 Assumption:
●​ Pressure of the gas in the piston does not change as the
gas expands.

Work Done by Gas in a ●​ When the gas expands (V increases), work is done by the
Piston gas.
●​ When the gas is compressed (V decreases), work is done
on the gas.

For a gas inside a cylinder enclosed by a moveable piston, the

force exerted by the gas pushes the piston outwards.

The gas does work on the piston.

Avogadro, Molar Gas & Boltzmann Constant

Avogadro’s Constant ●​ The atomic mass unit (mass of a proton or neutron) = 1.66
x 10^-27

Meaning an atom or molecule has a mass almost equal to the

number of protons and neutrons it contains.

Thus a carbon-12 atom has a mass: 1.99 x 10^-26kg

A mole is the number of molecules in exactly 12g of carbon.

Avogadro’s Constant The number of atoms in 12g of carbon-12: 6.02 x 10^23 molecules
Definition

Moles & Atomic Mass ●​ One mole of any element is equal to the relative atomic
mass of that element in grams.
○​ Helium has an atomic mass of 4, meaning 1 mole
of helium has a mass of 4g.

Mass of mole of water:

●​ 2 hydrogen atoms (each with atomic mass of 1) and 1
oxygen atom (atomic mass of 16)
●​ 2 + 16 = 18g

Molar Mass ●​ The molar mass of a substance is the mass, in grams, in

one mole
○​ g mol^-1

6.6.1 Gas Laws v Kinetic Theory

Gas Laws ●​ The gas laws are empirical; based on observation and
evidence.

Kinetic Theory ●​ Based on theory

●​ This means it is based on assumptions and derivations
from existing theories.

Ideal Gas Internal Internal energy is related to its temperature.

Energy
●​ When a container containing gas molecules is heated up,
the molecules move around faster, increasing KE.
●​ If an object is a solid, the molecules vibrate more.

Ideal gas molecules are assumed to have no intermolecular

forces. Meaning they have no potential energy, only KE.

Thus the ideal gas internal energy is the sum of all the kinetic
energies of the atoms:

U = N x Ek
 Where:
●​ U is the internal energy of the ideal gas in joules.
●​ N is the number of particles in the ideal gas.
●​ Ek is the average kinetic energy of a single particle.

Temperature is proportional to average kinetic energy, therefore

internal energy is proportional to temperature.

6.6.2 Kinetic Theory of Gases Equation

Assumptions in Kinetic ●​ Molecules of a gas behave as identical

Theory ●​ Molecules of gas are hard, perfectly elastic spheres
●​ Volume of the molecules is negligible compared to
volume of container
●​ Time of collision is negligible

Deriving the Kinetic 1.​ Consider the change in momentum for a particle collision
Theory of Gases with the container in the x-direction.
Equation
Initial momentum = mcx
Final momentum = -mcx

Change in momentum = - mv - mv = -2mcx

2.​ Consider the force experienced by a particle

3.​ Consider the force experienced by the container due to a

particle collision

4.​ Identify time between collisions

The particle travels from one wall to the opposite wall and back
before colliding again. Total distance = 2L

5.​ Substitution for time

 6.​ Consider the pressure experienced due to the particle
collisions

The volume of the container is given by V = l^3 = lA , thus the

formula for pressure becomes:

7.​ Identify the pressure from N particles

8.​ Consider motion in 3 dimensions

In reality, particles will move randomly in 3 dimensions. Splitting

velocity into components, c^2 can be defined as:

Speed in each direction is the same. Thus,

9.​ Rewrite the formula for pressure

 10.​ Rearranged formula

6.6.2 Average Molecular Kinetic Energy

Average Kinetic Energy Recall: pV = NkT

Recall the equation linking the pressure and mean square speed
of the molecules:

Equate the two equations:

N cancels out, multiply both sides by 3:

Recall: ½mv^2

Instead of v^2 replace it with crms^2.

Multiply both sides by ½ to obtain the average molecular kinetic

energy.
 The boltzmann constant can be replaced with R/Na

Internal Energy and Recall that for an ideal gas, internal energy is equal to the sum of
Temperature all kinetic energies.

U = (3/2) * NkT

This is just the kinetic energy of a single average particle,

multiplied by N.

Shows that internal energy and temperature are directly

proportional.

U = kT
Brownian Motion

Brownian Motion Small particles suspended in a liquid or gas are observed to

Phenomenon move randomly.

●​ Can be observed under a microscope

●​ Provides evidence for the existence of atoms in a gas or
liquid

What is meant by The particles have:

random motion? ●​ A range of speeds
●​ No preferred direction of movement

Observable Particles The observable particles in brownian motion are significantly

larger than the molecules that cause the motion.

●​ The air particles cause the motion of smoke particles.

●​ Air particles were small and light and the smoke particles
were large and heavy
●​ Collisions cause larger particles to change speed and
directions randomly

Why smaller particles ●​ Smaller particles are travelling at higher speeds

affect larger particles ●​ They have a lot of momentum, which they transfer to the
larger particles upon collision.