CAPE Physics Unit 2

Module 1 – Electricity and Magnetism

Static Electricity
Basics
Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb’s Constant (for vacuum only)
1
𝑘= = 8.99 × 109 𝑚𝐹 −1
4𝜋𝜖0
Force
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation states that the force is directly proportional to the
product
Electric Field Intensity
The electric field of a point charge can be obtained from Coulomb's law:
𝐹 𝑘𝑄𝑞 𝑘𝑄
𝐸= = 2 = 2
𝑞 𝑞𝑟 𝑟
The electric field is radially outward from the point charge in all directions. The circles
represent spherical equipotential surfaces.

Question
(Ex 9.3 Q 3 pg. 215)
Electric Potential
Potential energy can be defined as the capacity for doing work which arises from position
or configuration. In the electrical case, a charge will exert a force on any other charge and
potential energy arises from any collection of charges. For example, if a positive charge 𝑄
is fixed at some point in space, any other positive charge which is brought close to it will
experience a repulsive force and will therefore have potential energy. The potential
energy of a test charge 𝑞 in the vicinity of this source charge will be:
𝑘𝑄𝑞
𝑈=
𝑟
In electricity, it is usually more convenient to use the electric potential energy per unit
charge, just called electric potential or voltage.
𝑈 𝑘𝑄
𝑉= =
𝑞 𝑟
The electric potential 𝑉 at a point in an electric field is the work done to move a unit
positive charge from infinity to the point.
The electric potential (voltage) at any point in space produced by any number of point
charges can be calculated from the point charge expression by simple addition since
voltage is a scalar quantity.

Question
(E.g. 9.6 pg. 217)
Charged Conducting Sphere
The electric field of a charged sphere shows that the electric field environment outside
the sphere is identical to that of a point charge. Therefore the potential is the same as that
of a point charge:

Quantifying Electric Charge

Electric charge is measured in a unit called the Coulomb (C).
In matter charge is held by electrons and protons. Both are subatomic particles having a
magnitude of charge of 1.6 × 10 -19 C. This is known as the fundamental charge 𝑒.
Therefore in 1 Coulomb of charge there are approximately 6.25 × 10 18 electrons.
Charged Particle in a Uniform Electric Field
A uniform electric field can be formed between two oppositely charged parallel
conducting plates.
A charged particle in an electric feels a force that is independent of its velocity. For a
uniform field:
𝑄𝑉 𝑒𝑉
𝐹 = 𝐸𝑄 = = (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛)
𝑑 𝑑
This force is always parallel to the field. It is in the direction of the field for positive
charges and opposite to the field for negative charges.
If a particle is moving parallel to the field it is accelerated or decelerated depending on
the type of charge and the direction of travel.
In the case of a particle moving perpendicular to the field, it will undergo parabolic
motion similar to a mass in a gravitational field.

Question
(E.g. 15.1 pg. 445)
Current Electricity
Electric current is the rate of charge flow past a given point in an electric circuit,
measured in Coulombs per second which is named Amperes. If an amount of charge 𝑄
passes through a point in 𝑡 seconds the the electric current 𝐼 present is
𝐼 = 𝑄/𝑡
⇒ 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡
The unit of charge is the Coulomb (C). It is defined as the charge transported by a constant
current of 1 Ampere in 1 second.
Electric Charge Carriers
For electric current in a copper wire, the charge carriers are the mobile electrons and the
positively charged copper ions are essentially stationary in the metal lattice.
Nevertheless, treatments of electric circuits usually use conventional current, as if
positive charges were moving. Debate continues about this practice, but the physical
nature of the charge carriers in copper is fairly straightforward.
In other applications of electric current however, the identification of the charge carriers
is not so simple. In semiconductors, for example, you sometimes have electrons which
are mobile, and sometimes have deficiencies of electrons, called "holes" which are mobile.
There are significant differences in the way they conduct.
Mechanism of Electrical Conduction in Metals
Since electric charge exists in discrete multiples of the electron charge, it is useful to look
at electric current as the movement of multiple microscopic charge carriers in a
conductor. The motion of the mobile electrons in a wire is similar to that of the particles
in a gas, i.e. random and haphazard. When a voltage is applied across a wire the electrons
begin to move due to the electric field now introduced. The speed at which they move is
known as the drift velocity, 𝑣.
Consider a section of metallic wire of length 𝑙, and crossectional area 𝐴. The number of
free electrons per unit volume of the metal is 𝑛.

Table 1 - Free Electron Density

Metal 𝑛 × 1028 m-3
Cu 8.47
Ag 5.86
Au 5.90

Question
(Example 10.1 pg. 237) + (Example 10.3 pg. 238)
Mechanism of Electrical Conduction in Semiconductors
A silicon crystal is different from an insulator because at any temperature above absolute
zero temperature, there is a small probability that an electron in the lattice will be
knocked loose from its position, leaving behind an electron deficiency called a "hole". In
a metal such as copper, about 80% of the copper ions donate one free electron for
conduction. However, in silicon, only 1 in every 10 10 atom creates an electron-hole pair.
If a voltage is applied, then both the electron and the hole can contribute to a small current
flow.
The current which will flow in an intrinsic semiconductor consists of both electron and
hole current. That is, the electrons which have been freed from their lattice positions into
the conduction band can move through the material.

In addition, other electrons can hop between lattice positions to fill the vacancies left by
the freed electrons. This additional mechanism is called hole conduction because it is as
if the holes are migrating across the material in the direction opposite to the free electron
movement.
Potential Difference
Electric current flows from a point of higher potential in an electrical circuit to a point of
lower potential.
The potential difference between two points in a circuit is the energy dissipated when one
coulomb of charge flows from one point to the other.
From this definition we can define the unit of p.d called the Volt (V).
The p.d between two points in a circuit is 1 Volt if 1 Joule of energy is dissipated between
the two points when 1 Coulomb of charge flows.
energy
p. d. =
charge
energy = charge × pd
⇒ 𝑊 = 𝑄𝑉
 energy = 𝐼𝑡𝑉
energy
= 𝐼𝑉
𝑡
⇒ 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
Electromotive Force (emf)
When a voltage is generated by a battery this generated voltage has been traditionally
called an "electromotive force" or emf. The emf represents energy per unit charge
(voltage) which has been made available by the generating mechanism and is not a
"force". The term emf is retained for historical reasons. It is useful to distinguish voltages
which are generated from the voltage changes which occur in a circuit as a result of
energy dissipation.
The electromotive force of a source is defined as the energy supplied to each coulomb of
charge by the source to drive the charge round a complete circuit.
Circuit Symbols

Ohm’s Law
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the potential difference across the two points. Introducing the constant
of proportionality, the resistance one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that
describes this relationship:
𝐼∝𝑉
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
where 𝐼 is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, 𝑉 is the potential
difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and 𝑅 is the resistance of the
conductor in units of ohms.
The ohm is defined as a resistance between two points of a conductor when a constant
potential difference of 1 volt, applied to these points, produces in the conductor a current
of 1 ampere, the conductor not being the seat of any electromotive force.
More specifically, Ohm's law states that the 𝑅 in this relation is constant, independent of
the current.
In circuit analysis, three equivalent expressions of Ohm's law are used interchangeably:
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼

Electrical Resistance
The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defined as the ratio of the
voltage applied to the electric current which flows through it:
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
The unit of resistance is the Ohm (Ω)
The Ohm is defined as a resistance between two points of a conductor when a constant
potential difference of 1 Volt, applied to these points, produces in the conductor a current
of 1 Ampere, the conductor not being the seat of any electromotive force.
I-V Characteristics
A current–voltage characteristic or I–V curve (current–voltage curve) is a relationship,
typically represented as a chart or graph, between the electric current through a circuit,
device, or material, and the corresponding voltage, or potential difference across it.
 𝑉
If the resistance is constant over a considerable range of voltage, then Ohm's law, 𝐼 = 𝑅,
can be used to predict the behaviour of the material.
Whether or not a material obeys Ohm's law, its resistance can be described in terms of its
bulk resistivity.
Resistivity
The electrical resistance of a wire would be expected to be greater for a longer wire, less
for a wire of larger cross sectional area, and would be expected to depend upon the
material out of which the wire is made. Experimentally, the dependence upon these
properties is a straightforward one for a wide range of conditions, and the resistance of a
wire can be expressed as:
𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
𝐴
The factor in the resistance which takes into account the nature of the material is the
resistivity, ρ. Although it is temperature dependent, it can be used at a given temperature
to calculate the resistance of a wire of given geometry.
Table 2 - Resistivities
Material Resistivity, ×10-8/ Ωm )
Silver 1.59
Copper 1.68
Aluminium 2.65
Tungsten 5.6
Iron 9.71
Platinum 10.6
Manganin 48.2
Lead 22
Mercury 98
Nichrome
100
(Ni, Fe, Cr alloy)
Constantan 49
Question
(Ex 10.5 pg. 267 q 5)
Combinations of Resistors
The combination rules for any number of resistors in series or parallel can be derived
with the use of Ohm's Law, the voltage law, and the current law.
Questions
(E.g. 10.4 pg. 250) + (E.g. 10.5 pg. 251)
Internal Resistance
Real batteries are constructed from materials which possess non-zero resistivities. It
follows that real batteries are not just pure voltage sources. They also possess internal
resistances. A battery can be modelled as an emf 𝐸 connected in series with a resistor 𝑟,
which represents its internal resistance. Suppose that such a battery is used to drive a
current 𝐼 through an external load resistor 𝑅, as shown below.

The voltage 𝑉 of the battery is defined as the difference in electric potential between its
positive and negative terminals: i.e., the points 𝐴 and 𝐵, respectively. As we move
from 𝐵 to 𝐴, the electric potential increases by +𝐸 volts as we cross the emf, but then
decreases by 𝐼𝑟 volts as we cross the internal resistor. The voltage drop across the
resistor follows from Ohm's law, which implies that the drop in voltage across a
resistor 𝑅, carrying a current 𝐼, is 𝐼𝑅 in the direction in which the current flows. Thus, the
voltage 𝑉 of the battery is related to its emf 𝐸 and internal resistance 𝑟 via
𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟
Now, we usually think of the emf of a battery as being essentially constant (since it only
depends on the chemical reaction going on inside the battery, which converts chemical
energy into electrical energy), so we must conclude that the voltage of a battery
actually decreases as the current drawn from it increases. In fact, the voltage only equals
the emf when the current is negligibly small. The current draw from the battery cannot
𝐸
normally exceed the critical value 𝐼0 = 𝑟
(Page 268)
It follows that if we short-circuit a battery, by connecting its positive and negative
terminals together using a conducting wire of negligible resistance, the current drawn
from the battery is limited by its internal resistance. In fact, in this case, the current is
equal to the maximum possible current 𝐼0 .
Kirchhoff’s Laws
The German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff 1845 when he proposed two simple rules for
dealing with DC circuits.
Kirchhoff's first rule applies to junction points in DC circuits (i.e., points at which three or
more wires come together). The junction rule is:
The sum of all the currents entering any junction point is equal to the sum of all the
currents leaving that junction point.
This rule is easy to understand. As we have already remarked, if this rule were not
satisfied then charge would build up at the junction points, violating our fundamental
steady-state assumption.
Kirchhoff's second rule applies to loops in DC circuits. The loop rule is:
The algebraic sum of the changes in electric potential encountered in a complete traversal
of any closed circuit is equal to zero.
When using this rule, we first pick a closed loop in the DC circuit that we are analysing.
Next, we decide whether we are going to traverse this loop in a clockwise or an anti-
clockwise direction (the choice is arbitrary). If a source of emf E is traversed in the
direction of increasing potential then the change in potential is +𝐸. However, if the emf
is traversed in the opposite direction then the change in potential is −𝐸. If a resistor 𝑅,
carrying a current 𝐼, is traversed in the direction of current flow then the change in
potential is −𝐼𝑅. Finally, if the resistor is traversed in the opposite direction then the
change in potential is +𝐼𝑅.
Questions
p. 274 Example 10.19, p.278 Question 3
Potential Divider
The two resistor voltage divider is used often to supply a voltage different from that of an
available battery or power supply. In application the output voltage depends upon the
resistance of the load it drives.

The voltage divider is a very important basic circuit, and exploring the calculation above
with various values can give you insight into a large number of practical circuit
applications. One practical consideration is that a larger value of R 2compared to R1 will
give you a larger output voltage. But if your load resistance R Lis smaller than R2, you will
diminish the output voltage and require a larger current and total power from the power
supply. You would find upon exploration that for a given set of values for the voltage
divider (R1 and R2), you will get more power to the load if you decrease the load resistor
RL but is comes at the expense of higher current and power from the power supply.
Potentiometers come in a variety of packages, and have many applications of their own.
They may be used to create a reference voltage, adjust radio stations, measure position
on a joystick, or in tons of other applications which require a variable input voltage.
Wheatstone Bridge

A Wheatstone bridge circuit has two input terminals and two output terminals consisting
of four resistors configured in a diamond-like arrangement as shown. The circuit is two
simple series-parallel arrangements of resistors connected between a voltage supply
terminal and ground producing zero voltage difference when the two parallel resistor
legs are balanced.
𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 𝑉𝐴𝐷
𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝐼2 𝑅3 (1)
𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝐵𝐷
𝐼1 𝑅2 = 𝐼2 𝑅4 (2)
(1) 𝑅1 𝑅3
: =
(2) 𝑅2 𝑅4
𝑅3
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 ( )
𝑅4
 𝑅3 𝑅3
Usually the resistors 𝑅3 and 𝑅4 are chosen so that = 1 or = 10. 𝑅2 is a variable
𝑅4 𝑅4
resistor. Using the relationship above, 𝑅1 can be found to a high degree of accuracy.
Metre Bridge

(page 283-4)
Capacitors
A capacitor is a device used to store charge. It basically consists of two parallel metal
plates separated by an insulator called a dielectric.

To charge a capacitor we simply connect it across the poles of a battery.

Electrons from the negative pole accumulate on one side of the capacitor, which induces
an equivalent positive charge on the other plate. A p.d is created across the capacitor. This
charging occurs very quickly and ceases when the p.d equates the emf of the cell.
Capacitance
Capacitance is the ability to store charge. For a given p.d, a capacitor which stores more
charge is said to have the greater capacitance.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝐶=
𝑝𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
One farad is the capacitance of a capacitance of a capacitor which stores 1C of charge
when the p.d across it is 1V.
The microfarad (μF) is more commonly used since the Farad is a very large unit.
Parallel – Plate Capacitor
Consider two parallel plates each of area 𝐴 placed a distance 𝑑 apart.

We can show that

𝜖𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
Therefore to maximise capacitance, we can
1. Increase surface area
2. Decrease the separation of the plates
3. Use an insulator with a large dielectric constant.
Combinations of Capacitors
Capacitors in parallel add:

𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
𝑄 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉
𝑄 = 𝑉(𝐶1 + 𝐶2 )
𝑄
= 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
𝑉
𝐶 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
Capacitors in series combine as reciprocals:

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝑄 𝑄
𝑉= +
𝐶1 𝐶2
 1 1
𝑉 = 𝑄( + )
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑉 1 1
= +
𝑄 𝐶1 𝐶2
1 1 1
= +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2
Energy Stored in a Capacitor
𝑄2 1 1
𝐸= = 𝑄𝑉 = 𝐶𝑉 2
2𝐶 2 2
In charging a capacitor of capacitance C, to a pd V and charge Q, the work done by the
battery is twice the energy stored in the capacitor.
𝑄2
𝑊= = 𝑄𝑉 = 𝐶𝑉 2
𝐶
(Page 321 Self-Evaluation Exercise 12.3)
Charging and Discharging
A capacitor of capacitance 𝐶 can be charged and discharged through a high resistance, 𝑅.

When a battery is connected to a series resistor and capacitor, the initial current (𝐼0 ) is
high as the battery transports charge from one plate of the capacitor to the other.
𝑄
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅 +
𝐶
𝐸
When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑄 = 0, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 so 𝐼0 = 𝑅 .
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝑄 1
= 𝑅+
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑄
= 0, =𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼 1
⇒0= 𝑅+𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑𝐼 1
⇒ =− ∙𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
This is a differential equation which solves to give the charging current as a function of
time.
𝑡
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶
A similar relationship governs the build-up of charge across the capacitor.
 𝑡
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐸 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 )
𝑡
𝑉 = 𝐸 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 )

Thus the current decreases exponentially with time. The charging current asymptotically
approaches zero as the capacitor becomes charged up to the battery voltage. Charging the
capacitor stores energy in the electric field between the capacitor plates. The rate of
charging is typically described in terms of a time constant τ = 𝑅𝐶.
Magnetism
Magnetic fields are produced by electric currents, which can be macroscopic currents in
wires, or microscopic currents associated with electrons in atomic orbits.
Long Straight Wire
The magnetic field lines around a long wire which carries an electric current form
concentric circles around the wire. The direction of the magnetic field is perpendicular to
the wire and is in the direction the fingers of your right hand would curl if you wrapped
them around the wire with your thumb in the direction of the current.

The magnitude of the magnetic field is such that

𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟
Loop of Wire
Examining the direction of the magnetic field produced by a current-carrying segment of
wire shows that all parts of the loop contribute magnetic field in the same direction inside
the loop.
Electric current in a circular loop creates a magnetic field which is more concentrated in
the centre of the loop than outside the loop.
The magnitude of the magnetic field at the centre of the loop is
𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝑅
Solenoid
A long straight coil of wire can be used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic field similar
to that of a bar magnet. Such coils, called solenoids, have an enormous number of practical
applications. The field can be greatly strengthened by the addition of an iron core. Such
cores are typical in electromagnets.
The magnitude of the magnetic field is
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵0 =
𝐿
Electromagnets are usually in the form of iron core solenoids. The ferromagnetic
property of the iron core causes the internal magnetic domains of the iron to line up with
the smaller driving magnetic field produced by the current in the solenoid. The effect is
the multiplication of the magnetic field by factors of tens to even thousands. The solenoid
field relationship is
𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵= = 𝜇𝑟 𝐵0
𝐿
and μr is the relative permeability of the iron, shows the magnifying effect of the iron core.
Permeability
Permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to support the formation of a
magnetic field within itself. In other words, it is the degree of magnetization that a
material obtains in response to an applied magnetic field.
In SI units, permeability is measured in henries per meter (H·m −1), or newtons per
ampere squared (N·A−2).
The permeability constant (μ0), also known as the magnetic constant or the permeability
of free space, is a measure of the amount of resistance encountered when forming a
magnetic field in a classical vacuum. The magnetic constant has the exact (defined) value
µ0 = 4π×10−7 H·m−1.
Medium Permeability μ [H/m] Relative Permeability
μ/μ0
Metglas 1.25 1,000,000
Nanoperm 10×10 −2 80,000
Mu-metal 2.5×10 −2 20,000
Mu-metal 50,000
Cobalt-Iron (high permeability strip 18,000
material)
Permalloy 1.0×10−2 8,000
Electrical steel 5.0×10 −3 4,000
Ferritic Stainless Steel (annealed) 1000 – 1800
Martensitic Stainless Steel (annealed) 750 – 950
Ferrite (manganese zinc) >8.0×10−4 640 (or more)
Ferrite (nickel zinc) 2.0×10−5 – 8.0×10−4 16–640
Carbon Steel 8.75×10−4 100
Nickel 1.25×10 −4 100 – 600
Martensitic Stainless Steel (hardened) 40 – 95
Austenitic Stainless Steel 1.003 – 7
Neodymium magnet 1.05
Platinum 1.2569701×10−6 1.000265
Aluminium 1.2566650×10 −6 1.000022
Wood 1.00000043
Air 1.2566375×10 −6 1.00000037
Concrete (dry) 1
Vacuum 4π×10−7 (μ0) 1
Hydrogen 1.2566371×10−6 1.0000000
Teflon 1.2567×10 −6 1.0000
Sapphire 1.2566368×10 −6 0.99999976
Copper 1.2566290×10 −6 0.999994
Water 1.2566270×10 −6 0.999992
Bismuth 0.999834
Types of Magnetism
Diamagnetism is the property of an object or material that causes it to create a magnetic
field in opposition to an externally applied magnetic field. Examples of diamagnetic
substances include bismuth, antimony, sodium chloride, gold, and mercury. All materials
are diamagnetic; the examples quoted are strictly diamagnetic.
Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism whereby certain materials are attracted by an
externally applied magnetic field. Paramagnets do not retain any magnetization in the
absence of an externally applied magnetic field. Examples include: aluminium (Al),
manganese (Mn), platinum (Pt), oxygen (gas and liquid).
Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as iron) form
permanent magnets, or are attracted to magnets. In physics, several different types of
magnetism are distinguished. Ferromagnetism is the strongest type; it is the only type
that creates forces strong enough to be felt, and is responsible for the common
phenomena of magnetism encountered in everyday life. Only a few substances are
ferromagnetic. The common ones are iron, nickel, cobalt and most of their alloys, some
compounds of rare earth metals, and a few naturally-occurring minerals such as
lodestone.
Magnetic Force
The magnetic field B is defined from the Lorentz Force Law, and specifically from the
magnetic force on a moving charge:
⃗⃗)
𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵

The implications of this expression include:

1. The force is perpendicular to both the velocity 𝑣 of the charge 𝑞 and the magnetic field
𝐵.
2. The magnitude of the force is 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃 where θ is the angle < 180 degrees
between the velocity and the magnetic field. This implies that the magnetic force on a
stationary charge or a charge moving parallel to the magnetic field is zero.
3. The direction of the force is given by the right hand rule. The force relationship above
is in the form of a vector product.
Right Hand Rule

For applications to current-carrying wires, the conventional electric current direction can
be substituted for the charge velocity v in the above diagram.
The magnitude of the force in this case is
𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙 sin 𝜃

The DC Electric Motor

A simple motor has six parts:
1. Armature or rotor
2. Commutator
3. Brushes
4. Axle
5. Field magnet
6. DC power supply
When a current passes through the coil wound around a soft iron core, the side of the
positive pole is acted upon by an upwards force, while the other side is acted upon by a
downward force. According to Fleming's left hand rule, the forces cause a turning effect
on the coil, making it rotate. To make the motor rotate in a constant direction, "direct
current" commutators make the current reverse in direction every half a cycle (in a two-
pole motor) thus causing the motor to continue to rotate in the same direction.
The Hall Effect
Consider a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field such that the current in
the conductor is at right angles to the field. By the right hand rule this field will exert a
force on the charges, which is at right angles to the direction of motion.

Since the charges are free to move, they would drift toward one side of the conductor in
the direction of the magnetic force. This will create a depletion of negative charge on one
side of the conductor, setting up a measurable p.d. across the conductor. After some time
enough charge will build up so that the electric force will be able to balance the magnetic
force.
This effect is known as the Hall Effect, and the p.d. is called the Hall p.d. (V H).
Magnetic force, 𝐹𝑀 = 𝐵𝑞𝑣 sin 𝜃 = 𝐵𝑒𝑣𝑑
 𝑒𝑉𝐻 𝑒𝑉𝐻𝑑
Electric force, 𝐹𝐸 = 𝑞𝐸 = =
𝑤 𝐴
𝐼
Now, 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐴 ⇒ 𝐴 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣
𝑑
𝑒𝑉𝐻 𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑒 2 𝑛𝑣𝑑 𝑉𝐻
Thus 𝐹𝐸 = =
𝐼 𝐼
𝐹𝐸 = 𝐹𝑀
𝑑𝑒 2 𝑛𝑣𝑑 𝑉𝐻
⇒ = 𝐵𝑒𝑣𝑑
𝐼
𝐼𝐵
𝑉𝐻 =
𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝑛 − charge carrier density
𝑒 − fundamental charge
𝑑 − probe thickness
𝐼 − current
𝐵 − magnetic flux density
The Hall Probe
The measurement of large magnetic fields on the order of a Tesla is often done by making
use of the Hall Effect. A thin film Hall probe is placed in the magnetic field and the
transverse voltage (on the order of microvolts) is measured.

Sometimes a thin copper film of thickness 𝑑 on the order of 100 micrometres is used for
a Hall probe.
It is clear that the Hall voltage is proportional to the current flowing through the ribbon,
and the magnetic field-strength, and is inversely proportional to the number density of
mobile charges in the ribbon, and the thickness of the ribbon. Thus, in order to construct
a sensitive Hall probe (i.e., one which produces a large Hall voltage in the presence of a
small magnetic field), we need to take a thin ribbon of some material which possesses
relatively few mobile charges per unit volume (e.g., a semiconductor), and then run a
large current through it.
To use the hall probe: the probe is supplied with a constant current 𝐼. This is done so that
𝑉𝐻 ∝ 𝐵. Place it in a field of known flux density 𝐵0, and note the Hall p.d. 𝑉0. With the same
constant current 𝐼, place it in the unknown field 𝐵, and note the corresponding Hall p.d.
𝑉. Hence the unknown field is
𝑉
𝐵 = 𝐵0
𝑉0
Question
Example 15.13 p 485
The Current (or Ampere) Balance
This uses the principle of a force acting on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic
field. It is used in the calibration of ammeters.

It basically consists of a stiff wire frame balanced on two knife edges. The frame is
positioned so that the end AC is inside a solenoid. The other end has a pointer against a
fixed scale such that the pointer points to the zero mark when no current flows through
the current balance.
The solenoid is connected in series to the frame via the knife edges, the ammeter to be
calibrated, a rheostat and a battery. The magnetic field inside the solenoid produces a
force 𝐹 acting downwards on AC. A rider of mass 𝑚 is placed at the other end to counter
balance the force 𝐹. The current I is adjusted, by means of the rheostat until the pointer
points exactly to zero. When the frame is balanced,
Moment due to 𝐹 = moment due to weight of rider
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔𝑥
𝐵𝐼𝑙𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔𝑥
(𝜇0 𝑁𝐼)𝐼𝐿𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔𝑥

𝑚𝑔𝑥
⇒ 𝐼=√
𝜇0 𝑁𝑙𝑦
This apparatus can also be used to determine the magnetic flux density, by measuring 𝐼:
𝑚𝑔𝑥
𝐵=
𝐼𝑙𝑦
Motion of Charged Particles a Magnetic Field

We have seen that the force exerted on a charged particle by a magnetic field is always
perpendicular to its instantaneous direction of motion. It follows that the resultant
motion must be circular in nature. Suppose that a particle of positive charge 𝑞 and mass
𝑚 moves in a plane perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field 𝐵. In the figure, the field
points into the plane of the paper.

Suppose that the particle moves, in an anti-clockwise manner, with constant speed 𝑣
(remember that the magnetic field cannot do work on the particle, so it cannot affect its
speed), in a circular orbit of radius 𝑟. The magnetic force acting on the particle is of
magnitude 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 and, according to the vector cross product, this force is always
directed towards the centre of the orbit. Thus, if
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑞𝑣𝐵 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣
⇒ radius of path, 𝑟 =
𝑞𝐵
If the charged particle is projected into a uniform magnetic field, 𝑣 in the equation above
is the component on the projected velocity which is perpendicular to the field. The other
component is unaffected. Thus the particle will begin to spiral i.e. go into circular motion
and drift along in the direction of the field:

This same thing happens if a charged particle is projected into a region where there exists
mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic fields. I.e. the resultant motion is helical.
N.B. We can conclude that a magnetic field can trap charged particles. This effect occurs
in the magnetic field of the earth.
A fundamental property of magnetic fields is that they exert forces on moving electrical
charges. Thus, a magnetic field can trap charged particles such as electrons and protons
as they are forced to execute a spiralling motion back and forth along the field lines.
As illustrated in the following figure, the charged particles are reflected at "mirror points"
where the field lines come close together and the spirals tighten. One of the first fruits of
early space exploration was the discovery in the late 1950s that the Earth is surrounded
by two regions of particularly high concentration of charged particles called the Van Allen
radiation belts.

The primary source of these charged particles is the stream of particles emanating from
the Sun that we call the solar wind.
Electromagnetic Induction
Magnetic Flux
Magnetic flux is the product of the average magnetic field times the perpendicular area
that it penetrates.
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐴⃗ = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃
Φ=𝐵
⃗⃗ perpendicular to 𝐴⃗ and the
That is the magnetic flux is the product of the component of 𝐵
area.
Magnetic Induction
The phenomenon of magnetic induction plays a crucial role in three very useful electrical
devices: the electric generator, the electric motor, and the transformer. Without these
devices, modern life would be impossible in its present form. Magnetic induction was
discovered in 1830 by the English physicist Michael Faraday. The American physicist
Joseph Henry independently made the same discovery at about the same time. Both
physicists were intrigued by the fact that an electric current flowing around a circuit can
generate a magnetic field. Surely, they reasoned, if an electric current can generate a
magnetic field then a magnetic field must somehow be able to generate an electric
current.
Faraday discovered that if the magnetic field through a loop of wire varies in time then
an emf is induced around the loop. Faraday was able to observe this effect because the
emf gives rise to a current circulating in the loop. Faraday found that the magnitude of
the emf is directly proportional to the time rate of change of the magnetic field. He also
discovered that an emf is generated when a loop of wire moves from a region of low
magnetic field-strength to one of high magnetic field-strength, and vice versa. The emf is
directly proportional to the velocity with which the loop moves between the two regions.
Finally, Faraday discovered that an emf is generated around a loop which rotates in a
uniform magnetic field of constant strength. In this case, the emf is directly proportional
to the rate at which the loop rotates. Faraday was eventually able to propose a single law
which could account for all of his many and varied observations. This law, which is known
as Faraday's law of magnetic induction, is as follows:
The emf induced in a circuit is directly proportional to the time rate of change of the
magnetic flux linking that circuit.
𝑑Φ
ℰ=
𝑑𝑡
There are many different ways in which the magnetic flux linking an electric circuit can
change. Either the magnetic field-strength can change, or the direction of the magnetic
field can change, or the position of the circuit can change, or the shape of the circuit can
change, or the orientation of the circuit can change. Faraday's law states that all of these
ways are completely equivalent as far as the generation of an emf around the circuit is
concerned.
When an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux according to Faraday's Law, the
polarity of the induced emf is such that it produces a current whose magnetic field
opposes the change which produces it. This effect is summarized by Lenz’s Law
The emf induced in an electric circuit always acts in such a direction that the current it
drives around the circuit opposes the change in magnetic flux which produces the emf.
Faraday's law, combined with Lenz's law, is usually written
𝑑Φ
ℰ=−
𝑑𝑡
The induced magnetic field inside any loop of wire always acts to keep the magnetic flux
in the loop constant. In the examples below, if the B field is increasing, the induced field
acts in opposition to it. If it is decreasing, the induced field acts in the direction of the
applied field to try to keep it constant.

Consider the case of a straight conductor being moved in the presence of a magnetic field.

We can show that the emf, ℰ,is such that

ℰ = 𝐵𝑙𝑣
𝐵 − magnetic flux density
𝑙 − length of the conductor
 𝑣 − speed with which the conductor moves
Transformers
A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties of an iron
core to efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It of course cannot increase power so that if
the voltage is raised, the current is proportionally lowered and vice versa.

The ideal transformer neglects losses to resistive heating in the primary coil and assumes
ideal coupling to the secondary (i.e., no magnetic losses).
Contrary to an ideal transformer, a practical transformer has
 Winding resistance
 Flux leakage
 Finite permeability
 Core losses or iron loss
o Hysteresis loss – Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount
of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core.
o Eddy-current loss - Eddy currents circulate within the core and are
responsible for resistive heating of the core material. Eddy current losses
can be reduced by making the core of a stack of plates electrically insulated
 from each other, rather than a solid block; all transformers operating at low
frequencies use laminated or similar cores.
 Transformer hum – Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core,
causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic
field, an effect known as magnetostriction, the frictional energy of which produces
an audible noise known as mains hum or transformer hum.
Electricity is supplied to consumers through the National Grid at a very high voltage to
reduce energy losses during transmission. Transformers are used to increase or decrease
the voltage of the supply. Electricity is charged in units. One unit is equivalent to one
kilowatt of electricity used for one hour.

Module 2 - A.C. Theory and Electronics

Alternating Currents
Direct current (DC) is the flow of electric charge in only one direction. It is the steady
state of a constant-voltage circuit. Most well-known applications, however, use a time-
varying voltage source. Alternating current (AC) is the flow of electric charge that
periodically reverses direction. If the source varies periodically, particularly sinusoidally,
the circuit is known as an alternating current circuit. Examples include the commercial
and residential power that serves so many of our needs.

Figures shows graphs of voltage and current versus time for typical DC and AC power.
The AC voltages and frequencies commonly used in homes and businesses vary around
the world.
Ohm's law applies to AC circuits as well as to DC circuits. Therefore, with an AC voltage
given by:

𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡)

where 𝑉0 is the peak voltage and 𝑓 is the frequency in hertz, the current 𝐼 in the circuit is
given as:

𝑉0
𝐼 = sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡)
𝑅

Consider a perfect resistor that brightens and dims 120 times per second as the current
repeatedly goes through zero. (A 120-Hz flicker is too rapid for your eyes to detect.) The
fact that the light output fluctuates means that the power is fluctuating. Since the power
supplied is P = IV, if we use the above expressions for I and V, we see that the time
dependence of power is:

𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 = 𝐼0 𝑉0 sin2(2𝜋𝑓𝑡)

1
𝑃= 𝐼 𝑉 (1 − cos(4𝜋𝑓𝑡))
2 0 0

1
𝑃0 = 𝐼𝑉
2 0 0
 𝑉02
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2𝑅

RMS Voltage, Current

In AC circuit analysis it is useful to observe the overall effect of a time-varying sinusoidal
current has as it dissipate energy. That is, we use a DC equivalent in our analysis that will
produce the same power.
Circuit currents and voltages in AC circuits are generally stated as root-mean-square or
rms values rather than by quoting the maximum values. The root-mean-square for a AC
current is defined to be that value of a DC current that would dissipate heat at the same
overall rate in a fixed resistance.

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √(𝐼 2 )𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = √(𝐼02 sin2(2𝜋𝑓𝑡))𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝐼0
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2

Since the AC voltage is also sinusoidal, the form of the rms voltage is the same.

𝑉0
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2

These rms values are just the effective value needed in the expression for average power
to put the AC power in the same form as the expression for DC power in a resistor.

𝐼0 𝑉0
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
The p-n Junction Diode
Doped Semiconductors
The conductivity of semiconductors may easily be modified by introducing impurities
into their crystal lattice. The process of adding controlled impurities to a semiconductor
is known as doping. The amount of impurity, or dopant, added to an intrinsic (pure)
semiconductor varies its level of conductivity. Doped semiconductors are referred to as
extrinsic. By adding impurity to pure semiconductors, the electrical conductivity may be
varied by factors of thousands or millions.
A 1 cm3 specimen of a metal or semiconductor has of the order of 10 22 atoms. In a metal,
every atom donates at least one free electron for conduction, thus 1 cm 3 of metal contains
on the order of 1022 free electrons, whereas a 1 cm3 sample of pure germanium at 20 °C
contains about 4.2×1022 atoms, but only 2.5×1013 free electrons and 2.5×1013 holes. The
addition of 0.001% of arsenic (an impurity) donates an extra 10 17 free electrons in the
same volume and the electrical conductivity is increased by a factor of 10,000.
The materials chosen as suitable dopants depend on the atomic properties of both the
dopant and the material to be doped. In general, dopants that produce the desired
controlled changes are classified as either electron acceptors or donors. Semiconductors
doped with donor impurities are called n-type, while those doped with acceptor
impurities are known as p-type. The n and p type designations indicate which charge
carrier acts as the material's majority carrier. The opposite carrier is called the minority
carrier, which exists due to thermal excitation at a much lower concentration compared
to the majority carrier.
Pentavalent Impurities
Impurity atoms with 5 valence electrons produce n-type semiconductors by contributing
extra electrons.

Trivalent impurities
Impurity atoms with 3 valence electrons produce p-type semiconductors by producing a
"hole" or electron deficiency.
The addition of pentavalent impurities such as antimony, arsenic or phosphorous
contributes free electrons, greatly increasing the conductivity of the intrinsic
semiconductor.
The addition of trivalent impurities such as boron, aluminium or gallium to an intrinsic
semiconductor creates deficiencies of valence electrons, called "holes".
The p-n Junction
One of the crucial keys to solid state electronics is the nature of the P-N junction. When
p-type and n-type materials are placed in contact with each other, the junction behaves
very differently than either type of material alone. Specifically, current will flow readily
in one direction (forward biased) but not in the other (reverse biased), creating the basic
diode. This non-reversing behaviour arises from the nature of the charge transport
process in the two types of materials.
When a p-n junction is formed, some of the free electrons in the n-region diffuse across
the junction and combine with holes to form negative ions. In so doing they leave behind
positive ions at the donor impurity sites.

Equilibrium of Junction
Coulomb force from ions prevents further migration across the p-n junction. The
electrons which had migrated across from the N to the P region in the forming of the
depletion layer have now reached equilibrium. Other electrons from the N region cannot
migrate because they are repelled by the negative ions in the P region and attracted by
the positive ions in the N region.
Reverse bias

An applied voltage with the indicated polarity further impedes the flow of electrons
across the junction. For conduction in the device, electrons from the N region must move
to the junction and combine with holes in the P region. A reverse voltage drives the
electrons away from the junction, preventing conduction.
Forward bias

An applied voltage in the forward direction as indicated assists electrons in overcoming

the coulomb barrier of the space charge in depletion region. Electrons will flow with very
small resistance in the forward direction.
Transducers
A transducer is a device that converts a signal in one form of energy to another form of
energy. These include electrical, mechanical, electromagnetic (including light), chemical,
acoustic and thermal energy.
Type Examples
Electromagnetic Antenna, Magnetic cartridge, Tape head, Disk read-and-write
head, Hall Effect sensor
Electrochemical pH probes, Electro-galvanic fuel cell, Hydrogen sensor
Electromechanical Galvanometer, Rotary motor, linear motor, Potentiometer, Load
cell, Accelerometer
Electroacoustic Loudspeaker, earphone, Microphone, Sonar transponder,
Ultrasonic transceiver.
Electro-optical Fluorescent light lamp, Incandescent lamp, Light-emitting diode,
Laser Diode, Photodiode, photoresistor, phototransistor,
photomultiplier, Photodetector or photoresistor or light
dependent resistor (LDR), Cathode ray tube (CRT)
Thermoelectric Resistance temperature detector, Thermocouple, Thermistor
Radioacoustic Geiger–Müller tube
LED
Energy is released whenever electrons and holes recombine when a diode is in FB. This
energy is usually released in the form of heat and also some is converted to EM energy, in
a process called electroluminescence. The wavelength depends on the semiconductor
material.
LEDs are p-n junction devices constructed of gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium arsenide
phosphide (GaAsP), or gallium phosphide (GaP). Silicon and germanium are not suitable
because those junctions produce heat and no appreciable IR or visible light. The junction
in an LED is forward biased and when electrons cross the junction from the n- to the p-
type material, the electron-hole recombination process produces some photons in the IR
or visible. An exposed semiconductor surface can then emit light.
LDR
A photoresistor or light-dependent resistor (LDR) or photocell is a resistor whose
resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits
photoconductivity.

Operational Amplifiers
Basics
The term operational amplifier or "op-amp" refers to a class of high-gain DC coupled
amplifiers with two inputs and a single output.

𝑉+ is called the non-inverting input terminal, 𝑉− is called the inverting input terminal. 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
is the output terminal. The (differential) input voltage 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is the difference between the
non-inverting and inverting inputs.
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉+ − 𝑉−
𝑉𝑆 is the supply voltage (sometimes denoted 𝑉𝐶𝐶 ).
The gain, A, of an amplifier is the factor by which it increases the input.
The diagram below shows some of the internal characteristics of the typical op-amp.
Some of the general characteristics of the real IC version are:
 High gain, on the order of a million
 High input impedance, low output impedance
 Used with split supply, usually +/- 15V
 Used with feedback, with gain determined by the feedback network.
The IC Op-amp comes so close to ideal performance that it is useful to state the
characteristics of an ideal amplifier without regard to what is inside the package.
 Infinite voltage gain
 Infinite input impedance
 Zero output impedance
 Infinite bandwidth
 Zero input offset voltage (i.e., exactly zero out if zero in).
Though common and inexpensive op-amps like the 741 come remarkably close to the
ideal op-amp, there are practical limitations which come into play in circuit design. Some
of the things which cause problems are
 The input current isn't exactly zero.
 The input impedance isn't infinite.
 The output impedance isn't zero.
 There are voltage gain limitations.
 There is some temperature dependence.
Gain of an Op-amp
The gain of an op-amp is basically the ratio of the output to the input. The output of an
op-amp is such that
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑂𝐿 (𝑉+ − 𝑉− )
where 𝑉+ is the voltage at the non-inverting terminal, 𝑉− is the voltage at the inverting
terminal and 𝐴𝑂𝐿 is the open-loop gain of the amplifier.
However this value of 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 cannot exceed (in magnitude) 𝑉𝑆 . When the op-amp’s output
exceeds the supply voltage the op-amp is said to be in saturation.
The magnitude of 𝐴𝑂𝐿 is not well controlled by the manufacturing process, and so it is
impractical to use an operational amplifier as a stand-alone differential amplifier. If
predictable operation is desired, negative feedback is used, by applying a portion of the
output voltage to the inverting input. The closed loop feedback greatly reduces the gain
of the amplifier. When negative feedback is used, the circuit's overall gain and response
becomes determined mostly by the feedback network rather than by the op-amp itself. If
the feedback network is made of components with relatively constant, stable values, the
variability of the op-amp's open loop response does not seriously affect the circuit's
performance. The response of the op-amp circuit with its input, output and feedback
circuits to an input is characterized mathematically by some formula.

The particular formula depends on the configuration of the feedback and/or input
network.
Types of Op-Amps
Comparator
The extremely large open-loop gain of an op-amp makes it an extremely sensitive device
for comparing its input with zero. For practical purposes, if 𝑉+ > 𝑉−the output is driven
to the positive supply voltage and if 𝑉− > 𝑉+ it is driven to the negative supply voltage.
One use of a comparator is to compare the input to a standard voltage and switch the
output if the input is above that threshold. If 𝑉𝑖𝑛 goes more positive than the voltage set
by the voltage divider for 𝑉+, then the output switches to −𝑉𝑆 . When 𝑉𝑖𝑛 drops below that
value it switches back to +𝑉𝑆 . This is useful for slow, stable variations like a temperature
probe.
Inverting Amplifier

𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − 𝑉
𝑅𝑖 𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝐶𝐿 = −
𝑅𝑖
Summing Amplifier

This is an example of an inverting amplifier of gain = - 1 with multiple inputs.

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −(𝑉1 + 𝑉2 )
More than two inputs can be used, for example in an audio mixer circuit. The input
resistors can be unequal, giving a weighted sum. In this case
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑅𝑓 ( + + )
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Digital to Analogue Converter
This is a summing amplifier with the input resistors scaled. For example to convert four
bits of binary the resistors have to be in the ratio 8:4:2:1.
Non-inverting Amplifier

𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (1 + )𝑉
𝑅1 𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝐶𝐿 = 1 +
𝑅1
Voltage Follower

𝑅
This is an application of the non-inverting amplifier. Here 𝑅𝑓 = 0 and 𝑅1 = ∞. Thus 𝑅𝑓 =
1
0. That is to say that the gain = 1. This means 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 . This turns out to be a very useful
service, because the input impedance of the op amp is very high, giving effective isolation
of the output from the signal source. You draw very little power from the signal source,
avoiding "loading" effects. This circuit is a useful first stage. The voltage follower is often
used for the construction of buffers for logic circuits. The buffer is a single-input device
which has a gain of 1, mirroring the input at the output. It has value for impedance
matching and for isolation of the input and output.
Bandwidth
An ideal operational amplifier has an infinite frequency response and can amplify any
frequency signal from DC to the highest AC frequencies so it is therefore assumed to have
an infinite bandwidth. With real op-amps, the bandwidth is limited by the Gain-
Bandwidth product (GB). An example of a real op-amp is the 741 op amp. The graph
𝑉
below shows the variation of gain with frequency. The axes are logarithmic i.e. lg ( 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡)
𝑖𝑛
against lg 𝑓.

741 Op-amp Open Loop Frequency Response Curve

4
Gain (Logarithmic)

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency (Logarithmic)

Gain is sometimes quoted in deciBels.

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴(𝑑𝐵) = 20 lg ( )
𝑉𝑖𝑛
The bandwidth is usually defined as the frequency range over which the response is
constant. For the 741 the bandwidth is roughly 10 1 Hz.
Let us examine how the 741’s response affects the response of an inverting amplifier built
from the 741.
 1MΩ
Here lg 𝐴 = lg (10 kΩ) = 2. In theory the gain is 2 at all frequencies. However if we take
the op-amp response and draw a line corresponding to a nominal gain of 2 on the op-amp
response we get the following:

For frequencies below 104 Hz, the nominal amp response is below the op-amp open loop
response so there is gain to spare for negative feedback. For frequencies above 10 4 Hz,
the nominal gain is greater than the op-amp gain so the amplifier response is limited by
the op-amp response and follows the op-amp response downwards. This is indicated as
the actual amplifier response on the curve.
It can easily be seen that if resistors are chosen to give a high gain amplifier the penalty
is that the bandwidth is low. If the gain is low then a high bandwidth is available.
Logic Gates
A logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a Boolean function, that is, it
performs a logical operation on one or more logical inputs, and produces a single logical
output.
A truth table shows how a logic circuit's output responds to various combinations of the
inputs, using logic 1 for true and logic 0 for false. All permutations of the inputs are listed
on the left, and the output of the circuit is listed on the right. The desired output can be
achieved by a combination of logic gates. A truth table for two inputs is shown, but it can
be extended to any number of inputs. The input columns are usually constructed in the
order of binary counting with a number of bits equal to the number of inputs.
Basic Gates
The seven basic logic gates are shown, with their relevant truth tables.
AND Gate
The output is high only when both inputs A and B are high.

OR Gate
The output is high when either or both of inputs A or B is high. This is logically different
from the exclusive OR.

XOR Gate
The output is high when either of inputs A or B is high, but not if both A and B are high.

NOT Gate
The inverting buffer is a single-input device which produces the state opposite the input.
If the input is high, the output is low and vice versa.
This device is commonly referred to as just an inverter.
NAND Gate
The output is high when either of inputs A or B is high, or if neither is high. In other words,
it is normally high, going low only if both A and B are high.

NOR Gate
The output is high only when neither A nor B is high. That is, it is normally high but any
kind of non-zero input will take it low.

XNOR Gate
The output is high when both inputs A and B are high and when neither A nor B is high.
Buffer

Combination of Logic Gates

1.
2. A traffic light system uses logic gates as part of the control system. The system is
operated when the output D has the value 1. This happens when:
either (a) signal A is red
or (b) signal A is green and signals B and C are both red
(NOTE: You may assume for this problem that red = 0 and green = 1).
Design a logic circuit (network) and draw the truth table for the above system.
3. A chemical process gives out a warning signal (W = 1) when the process operates
incorrectly. A logic circuit (network) is used to monitor the process and to determine
whether W = 1.
Inputs Binary values Description of plant status
C 1 Chemical rate = 20 litres/second
 0 Chemical rate < 20 litres/second
1 Temperature = 91°C
T
0 Temperature > 91°C
1 Concentration > 5M
X
0 Concentration = 5M
A warning signal (W = 1) will be generated if:
Either (a) Chemical rate < 20 litres/second
or (b) Temperature > 91°C and Concentration > 5M
or (c) Chemical rate = 20 litres/second and Temperature > 91°C
Draw a logic circuit (network) and truth table to show all the possible situations
when the warning signal could be received.
4. A nuclear power station has a safety system based on three inputs to a logic circuit
(network). A warning signal (S = 1) is produced when certain conditions in the
nuclear power station occur based on these three inputs.
Inputs Binary values Description of plant status
1 Temperature > 115ºC
T
0 Temperature ≤ 115ºC
1 Reactor pressure > 15 bar
P
0 Reactor pressure ≤ 15 bar
1 Cooling water > 120 litres/hour
W
0 Cooling water ≤ 120 litres/hour
A warning signal (S = 1) will be produced when any of the following occurs:
either (a) Temperature > 115ºC and Cooling water ≤ 120 litres/hour
or (b) Temperature ≤ 115ºC and Reactor pressure > 15 bar or Cooling water ≤ 120
litres/hour.
Draw a logic circuit (network) and truth table to show all the possible situations when
the warning signal (S) could be received.
Universal Gates
The NAND gate and the NOR gate can be said to be universal gates since combinations of
them can be used to accomplish any of the basic operations and can thus produce an
inverter, an OR gate or an AND gate. The non-inverting gates do not have this versatility
since they can't produce an invert.
NAND Gate Operations

Question
The diagram below shows a logic circuit. Redesign the circuit using NAND gates only and
show the connections using quad NAND chips.
NOR Gate Operations

Adders
Binary Addition
We show below the details of 1012 + 1102.
𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑦 0 1
1 0 1
1 0 1
𝑆𝑢𝑚 (1) 1 1 0
Half Adder
It makes some sense to design a circuit that adds in "columns". To begin, let's consider
adding the rightmost column. We're adding two bits. So, the adder we want to create
should have two inputs bits. It generates a sum bit for that column, plus a carry. So there
should be two bits of output.
This device is called a half-adder. The truth table below shows the possibilities for the S
and C of the addition of two bits.
A B S C
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
The S column is the output of an XOR gate and the C column that of an AND. We can design
the circuit below to perform the function.

A S

HA
B C

Full Adder
The problem with a half-adder is that there it doesn't handle carries. When you look at
the left column of the addition you see that you add three bits. Half adders only add two
bits. We need a circuit that can add three bits. That circuit is called a full adder. Here are
the characteristics of a full adder.
Data inputs: 3 (call them A, B, and Cin, for carry in)
Outputs: 2 (call them S, for sum, and Cout, for carry out)
A B Cin S Cout
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
The diagram below shows the logic circuit equivalent of a full adder.
We can identify that there are two half adders in the circuit above; thus a full adder can
be constructed from two full adders and an OR gate.

A S

B FA
Cin Cout

Binary Calculator
It is possible to create a logical circuit using multiple full adders to add N-bit numbers.
Each full adder inputs a Cin, which is the Cout of the previous adder. This kind of adder is
called a ripple-carry adder, since each carry bit "ripples" to the next full adder. Note that
the first (and only the first) full adder may be replaced by a half adder.

The circuit
above
computes
A3 A2 A1 A0 +
B3B2B1B0 =
C4S3S2S1S0.
Latches and
Flip Flops
Latches and
flip-flops are the basic elements for storing information. One latch or flip-flop can store
one bit of information. The main difference between latches and flip-flops is that for
latches, their outputs are constantly affected by their inputs as long as the enable signal
is asserted. In other words, when they are enabled, their content changes immediately
when their inputs change. Flip-flops, on the other hand, have their content change only
either at the rising or falling edge of the enable signal.
Latches
The bistable element is able to remember or store one bit of information. However,
because it does not have any inputs, we cannot change the information bit that is stored
in it. In order to change the information bit, we need to add inputs to the circuit. The
simplest way to add inputs is to replace the two inverters with two NAND gates as shown
in Figure 4(a). This circuit is called a SR (NAND) latch. In addition to the two outputs Q
and Q', there are two inputs S' and R' for set and reset respectively. Following the
convention, the prime in S and R denotes that these inputs are active low. The SR latch
can be in one of two states: a set state when Q = 1, or a reset state when Q = 0.

The timing diagram shows the behaviour of the output with changing input. We observe
that the latch can have the same output for different inputs.
The SR latch can also be implemented using NOR gates as shown in Figure 5(a). The truth
table for this implementation is shown in Figure 5(b). From the truth table, we see that
the main difference between this implementation and the NAND implementation is that
for the NOR implementation, the S and R inputs are active high, so that setting S to 1 will
set the latch and setting R to 1 will reset the latch. However, just like the NAND
implementation, the latch is set when Q = 1 and reset when Q = 0. The latch remembers
its previous state when S = R = 0. When S = R = 1, both Q and Q' are 0. The logic symbol
for the SR latch using NOR implementation is shown below.
A problem exists if both S' and R' are de-asserted at exactly the same time as shown at
time t6. If both gates have exactly the same delay then they will both output a 0 at exactly
the same time. Feeding the zeroes back to the gate input will produce a 1, again at exactly
the same time, which again will produce a 0, and so on and on. This oscillating behaviour,
called the critical race, will continue forever. If the two gates do not have exactly the same
delay then the situation is similar to de-asserting one input before the other, and so the
latch will go into one state or the other. However, since we do not know which the faster
gate is, therefore, we do not know which state the latch will go into. Thus, the latch’s next
state is undefined. In order to avoid this indeterministic behaviour, we must make sure
that the two inputs are never de-asserted at the same time. Note that both of them can be
de-asserted, but just not at the same time. In practice, this is guaranteed by not having
both of them asserted. Another reason why we do not want both inputs to be asserted is
that when they are both asserted, Q is equal to Q', but we usually want Q to be the inverse
of Q'.
The circuit is modified to add several features such as preventing both inputs being de-
asserted at the same time (D-latch) and turning the inputs on and off (SR latch with
enable)
The SR latch is sensitive to its inputs all the time. It is sometimes useful to be able to
disable the inputs. The SR latch with enable (also known as a gated SR latch)
accomplishes this by adding an enable input, E, to the original implementation of the latch
that allows the latch to be enabled or disabled. The circuit for the SR latch with enable
using NAND gates is shown in Figure 6(a), its truth table in Figure 6(b), and logic symbol
in Figure 6(c). When E = 1, the circuit behaves like the normal NAND implementation of
the SR latch except that the S and R inputs are active high rather than low. When E = 0,
the latch remains in its previous state regardless of the S and R inputs. In actual circuits,
the enable input can either be active high or low, and may be named ENABLE, CLK, or
CONTROL. A typical operation of the latch is shown in the timing diagram in Figure 6(d).
Between t0 and t1, E = 0 so changing the S and R inputs do not affect the output. Between
t1 and t2, E = 1 and the trace is similar to the trace of Figure 4(d) except that the input
signals are inverted. The SR latch with enable can also be implemented using NOR gates.
Flip Flops
Latches are often called level-sensitive because their output follows their inputs as long
as they are enabled. They are transparent during this entire time when the enable signal
is asserted. There are situations when it is more useful to have the output change only at
the rising or falling edge of the enable signal. This enable signal is usually the controlling
clock signal. Thus, we can have all changes synchronized to the rising or falling edge of
the clock. An edge-triggered flip-flop achieves this by combining in series a pair of latches.
Like SR latches, SR flip-flops are useful in control applications where we want to be able
to set or reset the data bit. However, unlike SR latches, SR flip-flops change their content
only at the active edge of the clock signal. Similar to SR latches, SR flip-flops can enter an
undefined state when both inputs are asserted simultaneously.
Note that Q only changes when the clock asserts with S and R opposite, and S opposite to
Q. Similarly the triggering, i.e. enabling of the R and S signals may be accomplished during
the falling edge with the circuit implementation shown below.

T Flip Flop
The T flip-flop has one input in addition to the clock. T stands for toggle for the obvious
reason. When T is asserted (T = 1), the flip-flop state toggles back and forth (with the
clock), and when T is de-asserted, the flip-flop keeps its current state.
The output of the flip-flop results in a signal with half the clock frequency.
Binary Counter
A counter is a very simple device. It usually counts from 0 to N (treating them as UB).
Some counters allow you to hold the value or to increment one at a time. We're going to
build a very simple counter using T flip flops. This counter is called asynchronous because
not all flip flops are hooked to the same clock.
+5V

X0 X1 X2
Module 3 - Atomic and Nuclear Physics
Particulate Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
The Photoelectric Effect

The remarkable aspects of the photoelectric effect when it was first observed were:
1. The electrons were emitted immediately - no time lag!
2. Increasing the intensity of the light increased the number of photoelectrons, but not
their maximum kinetic energy!
3. Red light will not cause the ejection of electrons, no matter what the intensity!
4. A weak violet light will eject only a few electrons, but their maximum kinetic energies
are greater than those for intense light of longer wavelengths!
The details of the photoelectric effect were in direct contradiction to the expectations of
very well developed classical physics. The explanation marked one of the major steps
toward quantum theory.
Analysis of data from the photoelectric experiment showed that the energy of the ejected
electrons was proportional to the frequency of the illuminating light. This showed that
whatever was knocking the electrons out had an energy proportional to light frequency.
The remarkable fact that the ejection energy was independent of the total energy of
illumination showed that the interaction must be like that of a particle which gave all of
its energy to the electron! This fit in well with Planck's hypothesis that light in the
blackbody radiation experiment could exist only in discrete bundles with energy
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
Albert Einstein explained that one photon gave its energy to one electron. The electron
needed a minimum amount of energy to be ejected, known as the work function, and this
varied from metal to metal. Therefore the electron was ejected only if the energy of the
photon at least equals the work function. The frequency of this photon is known as the
threshold frequency, 𝑓0 .
ℎ𝑓0 = 𝜙
Einstein's formula relates the maximum kinetic energy (𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) of the photoelectrons to
the frequency of the absorbed photons (𝑓) and the threshold frequency (𝑓0 ) of the photo
emissive surface.
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ(𝑓 − 𝑓0 )
or if you prefer, to the energy of the absorbed photons (E) and the work function (ϕ) of
the surface
 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙
where the first term is the energy of the absorbed photons (ℎ𝑓) with frequency (𝑓) or
wavelength (λ)
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 =
𝜆

Photoelectric Experiments
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 is measured using a circuit which sets up an electric field opposite to the motion of
the ejected electrons.
When the plate is illuminated, with a fixed intensity, and there is no p.d across the plate
and collector, the photoelectrons are attracted towards the collector which causes a
current to flow in the circuit (photocurrent). When a p.d is applied as shown in the
diagram the electric field begins to repel electrons back on to the plate. As the p.d is
increased more and more photoelectrons are repelled. When the p.d is sufficient, the
electric field is able to repel the most energetic electrons (those with energy 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 ). The
pd across the plate at this point is called the stopping potential, 𝑉𝑠 . The work done on the
electrons is equal to the kinetic energy.
𝑒𝑉𝑠 = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑒𝑉𝑠 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙
The experiment is conducted such that different frequencies of light are used, and a
stopping potential for each is found. A graph of 𝑒𝑉𝑠 against 𝑓 has a gradient of ℎ, a
horizontal intercept of 𝑓0 and a vertical intercept of – 𝜙.
The graph below shows the variation of the photocurrent with applied pd for different
intensities.

X-Rays
X-rays for medical diagnostic procedures or for research purposes are produced in a
standard way: by accelerating electrons with a high voltage and allowing them to collide
with a metal target. When a solid target, such as solid copper or tungsten, is bombarded
with electrons whose kinetic energies are in the kilo electron-volt range, electromagnetic
radiation called X rays is emitted.
The figure below shows the wavelength spectrum of the X rays produced when a beam of
35 keV electrons falls on a molybdenum target. We see a broad, continuous spectrum of
radiation on which are superimposed two peaks of sharply defined wavelengths.

The Continuous X-Ray Spectrum

Consider an electron of initial kinetic energy 𝐾0 that collides (interacts) with one of the
target atoms. The electron may lose an amount of energy 𝐾, which will appear as the
energy of an x-ray photon that is radiated away from the site of the collision. The
scattered electron, whose energy is now less than 𝐾0, may have a second collision with a
target atom, generating a second photon, with a different photon energy. This electron-
scattering process can continue until the electron is approximately stationary. All the
photons generated by these collisions form part of the continuous x-ray spectrum. These
rays are called bremsstrahlung radiation, or "braking radiation".
A prominent feature of that spectrum in the figure above is the sharply defined cut-off
wavelength 𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 , below which the continuous spectrum does not exist. This minimum
wavelength corresponds to a collision in which an incident electron loses all its initial
kinetic energy 𝐾0 in a single head-on collision with a target atom. Essentially all this
energy appears as the energy of a single photon, whose associated wavelength—the
minimum possible x-ray wavelength—is found from
ℎ𝑐
𝐾0 = ℎ𝑓 =
𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛
ℎ𝑐
= 𝐾0
𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛
The cut-off wavelength is totally independent of the target material. If we were to switch
from a molybdenum target to a copper target, for example, all features of the x-ray
spectrum of the figure above would change except the cut-off wavelength.
The cut-off wavelength can only be changed by changing the energy of the incident
electrons. The figure below shows the spectrum for different accelerating potentials and
a tungsten target.

The Characteristic X-Ray Spectrum

We now turn our attention to the two peaks, labelled 𝐾𝛼 and 𝐾𝛽 . These (and other peaks
that appear at wavelengths beyond the range displayed) form the characteristic x-ray
spectrum of the target material. The peaks arise in a two-part process.
(1) An energetic electron strikes an atom in the target and, while it is being scattered, the
incident electron knocks out one of the atom’s deep-lying (low n value) electrons. If
the deep-lying electron is in the shell defined by n = 1 (called, for historical reasons,
the K shell), there remains a vacancy, or hole, in this shell.
(2) An electron in one of the shells with a higher energy jumps to the K shell, filling the
hole in this shell. During this jump, the atom emits a characteristic x-ray photon. If the
electron that fills the K-shell vacancy jumps from the shell with n = 2 (called the L
shell), the emitted radiation is the 𝐾𝛼 line of Fig. 40-13; if it jumps from the shell with
n = 3 (called the M shell), it produces the 𝐾𝛽 line, and so on. The hole left in either the
L or M shell will be filled by an electron from still farther out in the atom.
Wave-Particle Duality
Experiments Confirming the Particulate Nature of Waves
1. Photoelectric Effect
2. Compton Effect
Arthur H. Compton observed the scattering of x-rays from electrons in a carbon target
and found scattered x-rays with a longer wavelength than those incident upon the
target. The shift of the wavelength increased with scattering angle according to the
Compton formula:
ℎ
𝜆𝑓 − 𝜆𝑖 = Δ𝜆 = (1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑚𝑒 𝑐
Compton explained and modelled the data by assuming a particle nature for light and
applying conservation of energy and conservation of momentum to the collision
between the photon and the electron. The scattered photon has lower energy and
therefore a longer wavelength according to the Planck relationship.
Experiments Confirming the Wave Nature of Particles
1. Davisson-Germer Experiment
2. As a young student at the University of Paris, Louis DeBroglie had been impacted by
relativity and the photoelectric effect, both of which had been introduced in his
lifetime. The photoelectric effect pointed to the particle properties of light, which had
been considered to be a wave phenomenon. He wondered if electrons and other
"particles" might exhibit wave properties.
From Planck’s equation 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
 ℎ𝑐
𝐸=
𝜆
From Einstein’s equation
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
ℎ𝑐
⟹ = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝜆
ℎ
⟹ = 𝑚𝑐 = 𝑝
𝜆
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝
DeBroglie speculated that the wavelength of the photon depended on its momentum.
This DeBroglie wavelength relationship can be applied to particles as well.

The Davisson-Germer experiment demonstrated the wave nature of the electron,

confirming the earlier hypothesis of deBroglie. Putting wave-particle duality on a firm
experimental footing, it represented a major step forward in the development of
quantum mechanics. The Bragg law for diffraction had been applied to x-ray
diffraction, but this was the first application to particle waves.
An electron microscope is a microscope that uses accelerated electrons as a source of
illumination. Because the wavelength of an electron can be up to 100,000 times
shorter than that of visible light photons, the electron microscope has a higher
resolving power than a light microscope and can reveal the structure of smaller
objects. A transmission electron microscope can achieve better than 50 pm resolution
and magnifications of up to about 10,000,000x whereas most light microscopes are
limited by diffraction to about 200 nm resolution and useful magnifications below
2000x.
Consider a cricket ball of mass 5 oz travelling at 140 km/h the deBroglie wavelength
is 1.17 × 10−34 m. Comparison of the power of ten for the wavelength will show that
this wavelength is much smaller than a nucleus. The implication is that for ordinary
objects, you will never see any evidence of their wave nature, and they can be
considered to be particles for all practical purposes.
Atomic Structure
Rutherford Model
In the first years of the 20th century, not much was known about the structure of atoms
beyond the fact that they contain electrons. The electron had been discovered (by J. J.
Thomson) in 1897, and its mass was unknown in those early days. Thus, it was not
possible even to say how many negatively charged electrons a given atom contained.
Scientists reasoned that because atoms were electrically neutral, they must also contain
some positive charge, but nobody knew what form this compensating positive charge
took. One popular model was that the positive and negative charges were spread
uniformly in a sphere.
In 1911 Ernest Rutherford proposed that the positive charge of the atom is densely
concentrated at the centre of the atom, forming its nucleus, and that, furthermore, the
nucleus is responsible for most of the mass of the atom. Rutherford’s proposal was was
based firmly on the results of an experiment suggested by him and carried out by his
collaborators, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden.
Rutherford’s idea was to direct energetic alpha particles at a thin target foil and measure
the extent to which they were deflected as they passed through the foil. Alpha particles,
which are about 7300 times more massive than electrons, have a charge of +2e.

The figure above shows the experimental arrangement of Geiger and Marsden. The
experiment involves counting the number of alpha particles that are deflected through
various scattering angles ϕ.
Note that the vertical scale is logarithmic. We see that most of the particles are scattered
through rather small angles, but—and this was the big surprise—a very small fraction of
them are scattered through very large angles, approaching 180°.
Rutherford saw that, to deflect the alpha particle backward, there must be a large force;
this force could be provided if the positive charge, instead of being spread throughout the
atom, were concentrated tightly at its centre. Then the incoming alpha particle could get
very close to the positive charge without penetrating it; such a close encounter would
result in a large deflecting force.

The figure shows possible paths taken by typical alpha particles as they pass through the
atoms of the target foil. As we see, most are either undeflected or only slightly deflected,
but a few (those whose incoming paths pass, by chance, very close to a nucleus) are
deflected through large angles. From an analysis of the data, Rutherford concluded that
the radius of the nucleus must be smaller than the radius of an atom by a factor of about
104. In other words, the atom is mostly empty space.
Rutherford’s model was quite successful in accounting for the surprising results of his
experiment. However, there were still a few aspects that he was unable to explain. First,
he could not explain the composition of what he called the nucleus. Although he said that
most of the atom’s mass and positive charges were to be concentrated into this very small
and dense area called the nucleus, he could not explain what was in the nucleus. (The
existence of protons and neutrons were not known at the time). Although he proposed
that the electrons should be placed around the nucleus, he did not know how exactly to
arrange the electrons around the nucleus, except ‘like planets around the Sun’. The
biggest problem that Rutherford failed to explain was how the negative electrons could
stay away from the positive nucleus without collapsing into it. The only way to overcome
the attractive force between the positive nucleus and the negative electrons was to have
the electrons orbiting around the nucleus, much like the Moon going around the Earth.
However, electrons, when circulating around the nucleus, would have centripetal
acceleration (centripetal acceleration applies to all circular motion). Accelerating charges
produce EMR. This meant that electrons would release EMR as they were orbiting and
these EMR would radiate away, which posed a loss of energy. This loss of energy must be
derived from the kinetic energy of the electrons (law of conservation of energy), resulting
in the electrons slowing down. Eventually, the electrons would lose enough kinetic
energy so that they would no longer have sufficient velocity to maintain the orbit around
the nucleus and would spiral back into the nucleus. Obviously, this did not happen—but
Rutherford’s model failed to provide a reason for this.
Bohr Model
Postulate 1: All electrons around the nucleus are only allowed to occupy certain fixed
positions and energy levels outward from the nucleus, thus the electron orbits are
quantised and are known as the principal energy shells. While in a particular orbit,
electrons are in a stationary state and do not radiate energy.
Postulate 2: When an electron moves from a lower orbit to a higher orbit, or falls down
from a higher orbit to a lower orbit, it will absorb or release a quantum of energy (EMR).
The energy of the quantum is related to the frequency of the EMR by the formula: 𝐸 =
ℎ𝑓, where E is the energy of the quantum (J), h is the Planck’s constant and f is the
frequency of the EMR (Hz).
2𝜋 2 𝑘 2 𝑚𝑒 4 13.6
𝐸𝑛 =– 2 2
= − 2 eV
ℎ 𝑛 𝑛
According to Bohr, when electrons absorb energy, they will move up to a higher orbit.
Their energy may be given by the means of heat, or electricity through the electrodes
embedded in the glass tube as shown in the figure below. When this energy is withdrawn,
the excited electrons will not to stay in these higher orbits all the time. They later fall back
to lower orbits. As the second postulate states, when the electrons fall back to lower
orbits, they radiate energy in the form of EMR, the frequency of which is directly
proportional to the difference in energy between the two levels (𝐸 = ℎ𝑓).
From the previous examples, an emission spectrum can also include ultra-violet and
infrared in addition to visible light. The visible parts of the spectral lines were observed
first. Years before Bohr had proposed his theory to account for the hydrogen emission
spectrum, a Swiss school teacher, Johan Balmer (1825–1898), in 1885 realised that the
visible part of the hydrogen emission spectrum obeyed a simple mathematical
relationship. The visible part of the hydrogen spectrum was named Balmer series in his
honour.
Bohr’s model and his postulates enabled scientists to account for the hydrogen emission
spectrum as well as allowing them to calculate the wavelengths on a theoretical basis. He
provided a theoretical explanation for Balmer’s formula, which was otherwise derived
from the empirical observations. Therefore, his model of the atom was quite successful
overall, not only structurally but also functionally. Other spectral line series have been
observed. For instance, when electrons fall back to the first orbit, the EMR released is all
in the ultra-violet range, and the series is called Lyman series. When electrons are excited
and fall back to the third orbit, the EMR released is always in the infrared range, and is
called Paschen series. There are many more, corresponding to the final energy level the
electrons fall to.
Nuclear Structure
Nuclear Terminology
Nuclei are made up of protons and neutrons. A nuclide is a type of atom whose nuclei
have specific numbers of protons and neutrons. The number of protons in a nucleus
(called the atomic number or proton number of the nucleus) is represented by the symbol
Z; the number of neutrons (the neutron number) is represented by the symbol N. The
total number of neutrons and protons in a nucleus is called its mass number A; thus
𝐴 =𝑍+𝑁
Neutrons and protons, when considered collectively as members of a nucleus, are called
nucleons.
A nuclide is represented as 𝐴𝑍𝑋. Nuclides with the same atomic number Z but different
neutron numbers N are called isotopes of one another. The element gold has 36 isotopes,
ranging from 173Au to 204Au. Only one of them (197Au) is stable; the remaining 35 are
radioactive. Such radionuclides undergo decay (or disintegration) by emitting a particle
and thereby transforming to a different nuclide.
Nuclides with the same mass number A are called isobars, e.g. 198Au and 198Hg.
Atomic Masses
Atomic masses are now measured to great precision, but usually nuclear masses are not
directly measurable because stripping off all the electrons from an atom is difficult.
Atomic masses are often reported in atomic mass units, a system in which the atomic
mass of neutral 12C is defined to be exactly 12 u.
One unified atomic mass unit is defined as one-twelfth of the mass of the carbon-12 atom.
1𝑢 = 1.660 538 86 × 10−27 kg
However, sometimes we need only an approximation of the mass of either a nucleus alone
or a neutral atom. The mass number A of a nuclide gives such an approximate mass in
atomic mass units. For example, the approximate mass of both the nucleus and the
neutral atom for 197Au is 197 u, which is close to the actual atomic mass of 196.966 552
u.
The table below shows the atomic mass of some atoms.
Nuclide Symbol Z N A Mass/u
Proton p 1 0 1 1.007 28
Neutron n 0 1 1 1.008 67
Electron e -1 1 0 0.000 55
Hydrogen H 1 0 1 1.007 83
Deuterium D 1 1 2 2.014 10
Helium He 2 2 4 4.002 60
Lithium Li 3 4 7 7.016 01
Carbon C 6 6 12 12
Radium Ra 88 138 226 226.025 40
Uranium U 92 146 238 238.050 80
Nuclear Binding Energy
Nuclei are made up of protons and neutron, but the mass of a nucleus is always less than
the sum of the individual masses of the protons and neutrons which constitute it. This
difference is called the mass defect, Δ𝑚. The difference is a measure of the nuclear binding
energy which holds the nucleus together. This binding energy can be calculated from the
Einstein relationship:
𝐸 = Δ𝑚 ∙ 𝑐 2
The mass defect is such that
Δ𝑚 = Σ𝑚𝑝 + Σ𝑚𝑛 + Σ𝑚𝑒 − 𝑚𝑋
Consider a helium atom with 2 protons, 2 neutrons, 2 electrons.
Δ𝑚 = (2 × (1.007 28 + 1.008 67 + 0.000 55) − 4.002 60) × 1.660 538 86 × 10−27kg
= 5.062781344 × 10−29 kg
Thus binding energy is
𝐸 = 5.062781344 × 10−29 × (3 × 108)2 = 4.5565032096 × 10−12 J = 28.5 MeV
The energy equivalent of 1 unified atomic mass unit in MeV is
1.660 538 86 × 10−27 × (3 × 108 )2
1u≡ = 937 MeV
1.6 × 10−19
If we know the binding energy in a nucleus, and the number of nucleons, we can work out
the binding energy per nucleon, which is the average energy needed to remove each
nucleon.
The higher the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable is the nucleus.
We can plot a graph of binding energy per nucleon against nucleon number and it gives a
smooth curve - with one remarkable anomaly - helium (4He) the binding energy per
nucleon is:
Binding energy per nucleon of helium = 28.4 MeV / 4 = 7.1 MeV
This is not where we would expect on the general curve.
The fact that there is a peak in the binding energy curve in the region of stability near iron
means that either the breakup of heavier nuclei (fission) or the combining of lighter
nuclei (fusion) will yield nuclei which are more tightly bound (less mass per nucleon).
Nuclear Transformation
Fission
Fusion

Fission and Fusion Yields

Deuterium-tritium fusion and uranium-235 fission are compared in terms of energy
yield. Both the single event energy and the energy per kilogram of fuel are compared.
Radioactivity
Radioactivity refers to the particles which are emitted from nuclei as a result of nuclear
instability. The most common types of radiation are called alpha, beta, and gamma
radiation, but there are several other varieties of radioactive decay.
Main Types
Alpha
Composed of two protons and two neutrons, the alpha particle is a nucleus of the element
helium. Because of its very large mass (more than 7000 times the mass of the beta
particle) and its charge, it has a very short range. It is not suitable for radiation therapy
since its range is less than a tenth of a millimetre inside the body. Its main radiation
hazard comes when it is ingested into the body; it has great destructive power within its
short range. In contact with fast-growing membranes and living cells, it is positioned for
maximum damage.
Beta
Beta particles are just electrons from the nucleus, the term "beta particle" being an
historical term used in the early description of radioactivity. The high energy electrons
have greater range of penetration than alpha particles, but still much less than gamma
rays. The radiation hazard from betas is greatest if they are ingested.
Gamma Radioactivity
Gamma radioactivity is composed of electromagnetic rays. It is distinguished from x-rays
only by the fact that it comes from the nucleus. Most gamma rays are somewhat higher in
energy than x-rays and therefore are very penetrating. It is the most useful type of
radiation for medical purposes, but at the same time it is the most dangerous because of
its ability to penetrate large thicknesses of material.

Penetration of Matter
Though the most massive and most energetic of radioactive emissions, the alpha particle
is the shortest in range because of its strong interaction with matter. The electromagnetic
gamma ray is extremely penetrating, even penetrating considerable thicknesses of
concrete. The electron of beta radioactivity strongly interacts with matter and has a short
range.
Emitters
Alpha decay typically occurs in the heaviest nuclides. In theory it can occur only in nuclei
somewhat heavier than nickel (element 28), where overall binding energy per nucleon is
no longer a minimum, and the nuclides are therefore unstable toward spontaneous
fission-type processes. In practice, this mode of decay has only been observed in nuclides
considerably heavier than nickel, with the lightest known alpha emitter being the lightest
isotopes (mass numbers 106–110) of tellurium (element 52).
Beta decay can occur in nuclei that are rich in neutrons - that is - the nuclide contains
more neutrons than stable isotopes of the same element. These "proton deficient"
nuclides can sometimes be identified simply by noticing that their mass number A (the
sum of neutrons and protons in the nucleus) is significantly more than twice that of the
atomic number Z (number of protons in nucleus). In order to regain some stability, such
a nucleus can decay by converting one of its extra neutrons into a proton, emitting a beta
particle an antineutrino (ν). Lighter atoms (Z < 60) are the most likely to undergo beta
decay.
Sources of Radiation
Detectable amounts of radioactive material occurs naturally in soil, rocks, water, air, and
vegetation. From these sources it can be inhaled and ingested into the body. In addition
to this internal exposure, humans also receive external exposure from radioactive
materials that remain outside the body and from cosmic radiation from space. The
worldwide average natural dose to humans is about four times more than the worldwide
average artificial radiation exposure.
The effect of radiation on the human body is quantified in a unit called the sievert (Sv). It
is a measure of the effect of 1 J of ionising radiation deposited in 1 kg of body tissue.
Examples:
0.25 μSv: U.S. limit on effective dose from a single airport security screening.
10 to 30 mSv: single full-body CT scan
4 Sv: Fatal dose.
Natural Background Radiation
The biggest source of natural background radiation is airborne radon, a radioactive gas
that emanates from the ground. Radon and its isotopes, parent radionuclides, and decay
products all contribute to an average inhaled dose of 1.26 mSv
Radiation from Outer Space
In addition, the earth, and all living things on it, are constantly bombarded by radiation
from outer space. This radiation primarily consists of positively charged ions ranging
from protons to iron and larger nuclei derived from sources outside of our solar system.
This radiation interacts with atoms in the atmosphere to create an air shower of
secondary radiation, including x-rays, muons, protons, alpha particles, pions, electrons,
and neutrons. The immediate dose from cosmic radiation is largely from muons,
neutrons, and electrons, and this dose varies in different parts of the world based on the
geomagnetic field and altitude.
Radiation Detection
A radiation detector is a device used to detect, track, or identify high-energy particles,
such as those produced by nuclear decay, cosmic radiation, and reactions in a particle
accelerator. Modern detectors are also used as calorimeters to measure the energy of
detected radiation. They may be also used to measure other attributes, such as
momentum, spin, and charge of the particles. Different types of radiation detectors exist;
gaseous ionization detectors, semiconductor detectors, and scintillation detectors are the
most common.
Gaseous Ionization Detectors
Gaseous ionization detectors use the ionizing effect of radiation upon gas-filled sensors.
If a particle has enough energy to ionize a gas atom or molecule, the resulting electrons
and ions cause a current flow, which can be measured. The Geiger-Muller tube is an
example of such a detector.
Semiconductor Detectors
A semiconductor detector uses a semiconductor (usually silicon or germanium) to detect
traversing charged particles or the absorption of photons. When these detectors'
sensitive structures are based on single diodes, they are called semiconductor diode
detectors. When they contain many diodes with different functions, the more general
term "semiconductor detector" is used. Semiconductor detectors have had various
applications in recent decades, in particular in gamma and x-ray spectrometry and as
particle detectors.
Scintillation Detectors
A scintillation detector is created by coupling a scintillator – a material that exhibits
luminescence when excited by ionizing radiation -- to an electronic light sensor, such as
a photomultiplier tube (PMT) or a photodiode. PMTs absorb the light emitted by the
scintillator and re-emit it in the form of electrons via the photoelectric effect. The
subsequent multiplication of those electrons (sometimes called photo-electrons) results
in an electrical pulse, which can then be analysed. The pulse yields meaningful
information about the particle that originally struck the scintillator.
Particle Track Devices
Diffusion Cloud Chamber
The study of high energy particles was greatly aided in 1912 when C. T. R. Wilson, a
Scottish physicist, devised the cloud chamber. The general procedure was to allow water
to evaporate in an enclosed container to the point of saturation and then lower the
pressure, producing a super-saturated volume of air. Then the passage of a charged
particle would condense the vapour into tiny droplets, producing a visible trail marking
the particle's path. Wilson was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1927 for the
development of the cloud chamber.
An alpha particle left a broad, straight path of definite length while an electron produced
a light path with bends due to collisions. Gamma rays did not produce a visible track since
they produce very few ions in air.

The cloud chamber found use in particle physics until the invention of the bubble
chamber in 1952 by D. A. Glaser.
Bubble Chamber
A bubble chamber is a vessel filled with a superheated transparent liquid (most
often liquid hydrogen) used to detect electrically charged particles moving through it.
Changes to the Nucleus
Alpha
In alpha decay an atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle and transforms into an atom
with smaller mass (by four) and atomic number (by two).
Because of their relatively large mass, +2 electric charge, and relatively low velocity,
alpha particles are very likely to interact with other atoms and lose their energy, so their
forward motion is effectively stopped within a few centimetres of air. Most of the helium
produced on Earth (approximately 99 percent of it) is the result of the alpha decay of
underground deposits of minerals containing uranium or thorium.
Examples
1. Uranium to Thorium
238
92𝑈 → 234 4
90𝑇ℎ + 2𝐻𝑒 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
2. Seaborgium (synthetic) to Rutherfordium
263 259 4
106𝑆𝑔 → 104𝑅𝑓 + 2𝐻𝑒 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
3. Polonium to Lead
210 206 4
84𝑃𝑜 → 82𝑃𝑏 + 2𝐻𝑒 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Beta
There are two types of beta decay: beta minus, which leads to an electron emission, and
beta plus, which leads to a positron emission. Beta decay allows the atom to obtain the
optimal ratio of protons and neutrons. Beta decay processes transmute one chemical
element into another.

In this form of decay, the original element decays into a new element with an unchanged
mass number A but an atomic number Z that has increased by one.
Examples
1. Carbon-14 to nitrogen-14
14 14 0
6𝐶 → 7𝑁 + −1𝑒 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
2. Caesium-137 to barium-137
137 137 0
55𝐶𝑠 → 56𝐵𝑎 + −1𝑒 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
3. Phosphorous-32 to sulphur-32
32 32 0
15𝑃 → 15𝑆 + −1𝑒 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Gamma
Gamma decay accompanies other forms of decay, such as alpha and beta decay; gamma
rays are produced after the other types of decay occur. Although emission of gamma ray
is a nearly instantaneous process, it can involve intermediate metastable excited states
of the nuclei. Gamma rays are generally the most energetic form of electromagnetic
radiation. Gamma rays from radioactive decay are defined as gamma rays no matter what
their energy, so there is no lower limit to gamma energy derived from radioactive decay.
Gamma decay commonly produces energies of a few hundred keV and usually less than
10 MeV.
Rate of Radioactive Decay
The radioactive half-life for a given radioisotope is a measure of the tendency of the
nucleus to "decay" or "disintegrate" and as such is based purely upon that probability.
The tiny nuclear size compared to the atom and the enormity of the forces which act
within it make it almost totally impervious to the outside world. The half-life is
independent of the physical state (solid, liquid, and gas), temperature, pressure, the
chemical compound in which the nucleus finds itself, and essentially any other outside
influence. It is independent of the chemistry of the atomic surface, and independent of
the ordinary physical factors of the outside world.
Although we cannot predict which nuclei in a sample will decay, we can say that if a
𝑑𝑁
sample contains 𝑁 radioactive nuclei, then the rate (− 𝑑𝑡 ) at which nuclei will decay is
proportional to 𝑁.
𝑑𝑁
− = 𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡
in which 𝜆, the disintegration constant (or decay constant) has a characteristic value for
every radionuclide. Its SI unit is the inverse second (𝑠 −1). Solving to give 𝑁 as a function
of time, 𝑡.
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
Here 𝑁0 is the number of radioactive nuclei in the sample at some arbitrary initial time
𝑡0 = 0.
𝑑𝑁
We are often more interested in the decay rate or activity 𝐴 (− 𝑑𝑡 ) than in 𝑁 itself.
𝐴 = 𝜆𝑁
𝐴 = 𝜆𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
The SI unit for activity is the becquerel, named for Henri Becquerel, the discoverer of
radioactivity:
1 becquerel _ 1 Bq _ 1 decay per second.
An older unit, the curie, is still in common use:
1 curie = 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 Bq
Often a radioactive sample will be placed near a detector that does not record all the
disintegrations that occur in the sample. The reading of the detector under these
circumstances is proportional to (and smaller than) the true activity of the sample. Such
proportional activity measurements are reported not in becquerel units but simply in
counts per unit time.
There are two common time measures of how long any given type of radionuclides lasts.
One measure is the half-life 𝑇1 of a radionuclide, which is the time at which both 𝑁 and 𝑅
2
have been reduced to one-half their initial values. The other measure is the mean (or
1
average) life 𝜏, which is the time at which both 𝑁 and 𝑅 have been reduced to 𝑒 of their
initial values.
1
𝜏=
𝜆
 ln 2 0.693
𝑇1 = ≈
2 𝜆 𝜆
Radioactive Dating