Notes (Cambridge Year 7)

📘 Chapter 0: Scientific Investigations

🔹 What is Science?

 Science is the study of the world around us through

observation, experimentation, and evidence.

 Scientists ask questions and use enquiries (investigations) to

test ideas and find answers.

🔹 Safety in the Laboratory

Basic Safety Rules

 Always wear safety glasses when using chemicals or heating.

 Stand up when working with chemicals so spills don’t go on

your lap.

 Tie back long hair and avoid loose clothing.

 Never eat or drink in the lab.

 Know where safety equipment is (e.g. eyewash, fire blanket).

Working with Chemicals

 Place bottle caps upside down to avoid contamination.

 Replace caps immediately after use.

 Label chemicals clearly with their hazard symbols.

🔹 Hazard Symbols

These help you understand the dangers of chemicals.

Symb
Hazard Type Description
ol

💥 Explosive May explode if heated or shocked

🔥 Flammable Catches fire easily

Symb
Hazard Type Description
ol

☣️ Toxic Can poison you

May irritate skin, eyes, or cause

⚠️ Health Hazard
allergies

Serious Health May cause long-term health effects

☢️
Hazard (e.g., cancer)

Destroys living tissue (e.g., skin,

🧪 Corrosive
eyes)

Hazardous to
♻️ Harms plants, animals, ecosystems
Environment

🔥⭕ Oxidizing Causes or intensifies fire

🔹 Observations vs Inference

Term Definition

Observati
What you see/hear/measure (e.g. “the beaker is warm”)
on

A conclusion or idea based on observations (e.g. “a

Inference
reaction is occurring”)

🔹 Types of Scientific Enquiry

1. Fair Testing – change one factor, keep others the same.

2. Pattern Seeking – looking for trends in data.

3. Identifying/Grouping – classifying based on features.

4. Modelling – using models to explain how things work.

5. Observation Over Time – watching changes (e.g., rust forming).

🧪 Science Equipment and Units

🔹 Common Laboratory Equipment

Equipment Purpose

Beaker Holding, mixing, and heating liquids

Measuring
Measuring volume of liquids (in mL)
cylinder

Thermometer Measuring temperature (°C)

Tripod Holds equipment over a flame

Gauze mat Supports beaker on tripod

Bunsen burner Provides a heat source

Holds equipment like thermometers

Clamp stand
in place

Evaporating Used to evaporate liquid, leaving

dish solids behind

Stopwatch Measures time (seconds or minutes)

Filter funnel +
Used to separate solids from liquids
paper

🔹 Measurement Units in Science

Symb
Quantity Measured Using Unit
ol

Ruler or meter
Length Meter m
stick

Balance or
Mass Kilogram kg
scales

Stopwatch or
Time Second s
clock

Temperatur Degrees
Thermometer °C
e Celsius

Measuring
Volume Milliliters mL
cylinder
 Symb
Quantity Measured Using Unit
ol

Current Ammeter Ampere A

Chapter 1:

1. What is a Cell?

- The basic unit of life.

- All living organisms are made of one or more cells.

- Most cells are too small to see without a microscope.

2. Types of Cells

- Animal Cells and Plant Cells are both eukaryotic (have a nucleus).

🔬 Animal Cell Features:

- Nucleus – controls the cell, contains DNA.

- Cytoplasm – jelly-like substance where chemical reactions happen.

- Cell membrane – controls what enters and leaves.

🌿 Plant Cell Features (in addition to above):

- Cell wall – provides structure and support.

- Chloroplasts – contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis.

- Vacuole – stores water, helps keep the cell firm.

3. Specialised Cells

- Cells adapted to perform specific functions.

 Red blood cells

 - small, no nucleus, has heamoglobin

- carries oxygen throughout the body

 Neurones
- long cytoplasm, has dendrites (short cytoplasm strand, collect
electrical signals from nearby nerve cells), axon (long cytoplasm
strands, allows electrical signal to travel faster)
- carry electrical signal to one part of body to another

 Ciliated cells
- has cilia (microscopic hairs)
- sweeps mucus to the back of your mouth

 Root hair cells

- large vacuole
- absorb water from the soil

 Palisade cells
- lot of chloroplasts
- make food by photosynthesis

4. Tissues, Organs, Systems

- Tissue – group of similar cells working together.

- Organ – made of different tissues working together (e.g. heart,

leaf).

- Organ system – organs working together (e.g. digestive system).

- Organism – organ system working together

6. Microscopes
- Tools that let us see cells and tiny structures.
- Use light microscopes in school to view cell slides.

🔹 2.1 Solids, Liquids and Gases

States of Matter
  Solids: Fixed shape, fixed volume, cannot flow, particles tightly
packed and only vibrate.

 Liquids: No fixed shape (takes shape of container), fixed

volume, particles touch but slide past each other.

 Gases: No fixed shape or volume, can be compressed, particles

move freely and are far apart.

Properties by State

Compressib Flow
State Shape Volume
le? ?

Solid Fixed Fixed No No

Change
Liquid Fixed No Yes
s

Change Change
Gas Yes Yes
s s

Particle Theory

 Matter is made of tiny particles.

 Arrangement of particles explains the properties of solids,

liquids, and gases.

🔹 2.2 Changes of State

Processes

 Melting: Solid → Liquid

 Freezing: Liquid → Solid

 Evaporation/Boiling: Liquid → Gas

 Condensation: Gas → Liquid

Key Points

 Changes of state are physical changes (no new substance is

formed).

 Melting point and boiling point are specific temperatures

where substances change state.
🔹 2.3 Explaining Changes of State

Using Particle Theory

 When a solid is heated, particles have more energy and vibrate

more until they break free and form a liquid.

 In liquids, heating gives particles energy to escape into a gas.

 Cooling removes energy; particles move less and come closer

(condensation/freezing).

🔹 2.4 The Water Cycle

 Includes evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and

collection.

 Driven by heat from the Sun.

 Evaporation happens when water from oceans/lakes turns into

water vapour.

 Condensation forms clouds.

 Precipitation brings water back to Earth.

🔹 2.5 Atoms, Elements, and the Periodic Table

Atoms

 The smallest particle of a substance.

 Make up all matter.

Elements

 Made of only one type of atom.

 Found on the Periodic Table.

 Example: Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Iron (Fe).

🔹 2.6 Compounds and Formulae

Compounds

 Two or more different elements chemically joined.

 Properties are different from the elements that form them.

 Represented by a chemical formula (e.g., H₂O, CO₂).

Naming Compounds

 Metal + Non – metal = Metal Non-metal+ide

🔹 2.7 Compounds and Mixtures

Mixtures

 Two or more substances (elements or compounds) mixed

physically.

 Can be separated by physical methods.

 Keep the properties of the individual substances.

Comparison Table

Feature Compound Mixture

Composition Fixed ratio Variable ratio

Not chemically
Joined Chemically bonded
bonded

Chemical reactions Physical methods

Separation
needed work

New properties Original properties

Properties
formed remain

🔹 Elements

 Definition: A substance made of only one type of atom.

 Examples: Oxygen (O), Gold (Au), Iron (Fe).

 Properties:

o Cannot be broken down into simpler substances.

 o Found on the Periodic Table.

o Each has a chemical symbol.

🔹 Compounds

 Definition: A substance made when two or more different elements

are chemically joined together.

 Examples: Water (H₂O), Carbon dioxide (CO₂), Salt (NaCl).

 Properties:

o Have different properties from the elements they are made from.

o Can only be separated by chemical reactions.

o Fixed ratio of atoms (e.g., H₂O always has 2 hydrogen and 1

oxygen).

🔹 Mixtures

 Definition: Two or more substances (elements or compounds)

physically combined.

 Examples: Air (mixture of gases), Seawater (water and salt), Sand and
iron filings.

 Properties:

o Substances retain their own properties.

o Can be separated by physical methods (e.g., filtration,

evaporation).

o No fixed ratio.

🔹 Alloys

 Definition: A mixture of metals, or a metal mixed with non-metals.

 Examples:

o Steel = Iron + Carbon.

 o Bronze = Copper + Tin.

o Brass = Copper + Zinc.

 Why alloys are useful:

o Stronger, harder, or more resistant to corrosion than pure

metals.

o E.g., stainless steel doesn’t rust easily.

🧠 Quick Comparison Table

Property Element Compound Mixture Alloy

Different Elements or
One type of Metals mixed
Made of elements compounds
atom (physically)
chemically joined physically combined

Separati Cannot be Chemical Physical

Physical methods
on separated reactions needed methods

Properti Unique to Different from Keeps properties of Improved

es the element original elements components properties

Example Steel, bronze,

O₂, Fe, H₂ H₂O, CO₂, NaCl Air, seawater
s brass

⚡ Unit 3: Forces and Energy

🔹 3.1 Gravity, Weight and Mass

🌍 Gravity

 A force of attraction between objects with mass.

 The Earth has a large mass, so it pulls objects toward its center.

 Gravity keeps you on the ground and pulls things down when you drop
them.

⚖️Mass vs. Weight

Mass Weight

The force of
Amount of matter in an object
gravity on an object

Measured in
Measured in kilograms (kg)
newtons (N)

Doesn’t change with location Changes with gravity

 Formula: Weight = Mass × Gravity

o On Earth, gravity ≈ 10 N/kg

o Example: 2 kg object → Weight = 2 × 10 = 20 N

🔹 3.2 Formation of the Solar System

 Solar system formed from clouds of dust and gas pulled together by
gravity. (NEBULA)

 As mass increased, gravity increased → larger bodies formed (stars,

planets).

 The Sun, with the greatest mass, has the strongest gravity and keeps
planets in orbit.

🔹 3.3 Movement in Space

 Planets orbit due to the gravitational force pulling them toward the
Sun.

 Orbits are nearly circular.

 Closer planets (like Mercury) move faster because gravity is stronger

near the Sun.

 In space (a vacuum), there’s no air resistance, so objects keep

moving unless acted on by a force.

 All planets orbit around the Sun in the same direction.

 There’s no resistance in space, because space is a vacuum.

🔹 3.4 Tides

 Caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and, to a lesser

extent, the Sun.

 Water is pulled, creating high tides and low tides roughly every 6
hours.

 Some places experience Earth tides where the land slightly rises and
falls.

 Newton used gravity to explain tidal forces in 1687.

🔹 3.5 Energy

⚡ What is Energy?

 The ability to do work or cause change.

 Must be changed or transferred to do something

 Measured in joules (J).

🧠 Energy Stores

Store Description

Kinetic Energy of movement

Chemical In food, fuel, batteries

Gravitational
When an object is lifted
potential

In stretched or compressed
Elastic potential
objects

Thermal Heat energy

🔌 Energy Transfers

Transfer Description

Electrical Movement of current

From luminous objects

Light
(e.g. the Sun)
Transfer Description

Sound From vibrations

Heat transferred from

Thermal
hotter to cooler

 Energy can be stored easily, e.g., Coal, food

🔹 3.6 Changes in Energy

🔄 Energy Can Change Form

 Example: Wood burns → Chemical → Thermal

 A falling object: Gravitational potential → Kinetic

 A power station: Chemical → Thermal → Kinetic → Electrical

🧪 Example Diagram:

Chemical (fuel) → Thermal (engine heat) → Kinetic (movement) →

Sound/Light

🔹 3.7 Where Does Energy Go?

🔥 Useful vs. Wasted Energy

 Only part of the energy is used for the intended purpose.

 Wasted energy often becomes thermal or sound energy that

dissipates into surroundings, cannot be recovered.

 Example: In a motorcycle, most fuel energy is lost as heat and sound.

🧬 Chapter 4: Grouping and Identifying Organisms

🔹 4.1 Characteristics of Living Organisms

All living things share seven key characteristics (MRS GREN):

1. Movement

2. Respiration
 3. Sensitivity (respond to environment)

4. Growth

5. Reproduction

6. Excretion (remove waste)

7. Nutrition (feeding)

These help distinguish living organisms from non-living things (e.g. cars
mimic some, but not all characteristics).

🔹 4.2 Viruses

What is a Virus?

 Viruses are not made of cells.

 They are extremely small, visible only with an electron

microscope.

 Structure: Protein coat with pegs on the outside, and RNA inside.

Are Viruses Living?

 Do not respire, feed, grow, or excrete.

 Can replicate only inside a host cell (not on their own).

 Scientists debate whether they are truly "alive".

🔹 4.3 What is a Species?

 A species is a group of organisms that can reproduce to produce

fertile offspring.

 Example: Lions and tigers can mate, but their offspring (ligers) are
infertile, so lions and tigers are different species.

🔹 4.4 Using Keys

 Keys are tools used to identify organisms.

  A dichotomous key asks yes/no questions and narrows choices step-
by-step.

 Useful for identifying animals, plants, or even types of fish.

🔹 4.5 Constructing Keys

 You can create your own keys using visual features like:

o Number of legs, wings, body segments (animals).

o Leaf shape, petal number (plants).

 Practice helps improve your observational and classification skills.

🧪 Chapter 5: Properties of Materials

🔹 5.1 Metals and Non-Metals

Metals:

 Shiny, strong, malleable (can be shaped), ductile (drawn into wires),

conduct heat and electricity, sonorous (ring when hit).

 Used in wiring (copper), jewellery (gold), bridges (iron).

Non-Metals:

 Dull, brittle (break easily), poor conductors (insulators), many are

gases.

 Examples: Sulfur, oxygen, carbon, chlorine.

🔹 5.2 Comparing Metals and Non-Metals

 Metals are mostly solid, conduct electricity, malleable.

 Non-metals may be gases or solids, insulators, brittle.

🔹 5.3 Metal Mixtures (Alloys)

 Alloys = a mixture of a metals or another element

 Stronger than pure metals.

  Examples: Steel (iron + carbon), bronze (copper + tin).

🔹 5.4 Separating Mixtures

 Use physical properties like:

o Magnetism (e.g., remove iron filings).

o Filtration (e.g., sand from water).

o Evaporation (e.g., salt from saltwater).

o Distillation (e.g., colour from coloured water)

🔹 5.5 Acids and Alkalis

pH Scale

 0-6 = Acid (Warm Colours)

 7= Neutral (Green)
 8-14 = Alkaline (Cool Colours)

Acids:

 Taste sour, corrosive, pH < 7.

 Example: Hydrochloric acid.

Alkalis:

 Feel soapy, pH > 7.

 Example: Sodium hydroxide.

Hazard symbols help identify dangerous chemicals (e.g. corrosive,

flammable).

🔹 5.6 Indicators and the pH Scale

Litmus:

 Turns red in acids, blue in alkalis, purple in neutral solutions.

Universal Indicator:

 Shows full pH range (0–14).

o pH 1–3: Strong acid (red)

 o pH 4–6: Weak acid (yellow)

o pH 7: Neutral (green)

o pH 8–10: Weak alkali (blue)

o pH 11–14: Strong alkali (purple)

You can make your own indicator using red cabbage or beetroot juice.

📘 Chapter 6: Earth Physics – Sound, Earth, and Eclipses

🔹 6.1 Sound and Vibration

 Sound is a vibration that travels as a longitudinal wave through

solids, liquids, and gases.

 It cannot travel through a vacuum because there are no particles

to vibrate.

 Sound waves:

o Amplitude → Hight of sound wave

o Frequency → Pitch

o Decibels → Loudness

 Vibrating objects (e.g. guitar strings, drum skins) produce sound.

🔹 6.2 Reflection of Sound

 Sound reflects off hard, flat surfaces, producing echoes.

 Reflection can be:

o Helpful (ultrasound scans, sonar).

o Annoying (in recording studios or classrooms).

 Echoes travel slower than light, which is why you see lightning before
hearing thunder.

🔹 6.3 Structure of the Earth

Earth has four layers:

Layer State Composition

Crust Solid Rock

Mantle Semi-liquid Molten rock (magma)

Outer
Liquid Molten iron and nickel
core

Inner core Solid Solid iron and nickel

 Seismic waves provide evidence for Earth’s layered structure.

 Continental drift: Proposed by Wegener; continents were once one

landmass (Pangaea).

🔹 6.4 Earthquakes and Volcanoes

 Earth’s crust is divided into tectonic plates that move.

 Plates may collide, pull apart, or slide past each other.

 Movement causes earthquakes and volcanoes.

 Most geological change (volcano and earthquake), happens at the

Pacific Ring of Fire

 Magnitude- the size of an earthquake

🔹 6.5 Solar and Lunar Eclipses

 Solar eclipse: Moon blocks Sun’s light (Moon between Earth and
Sun).

- Umbra/ Total Solar Eclipse: No sunlight

-Antumbra: The outline of the sun

-Penumbra/ Partial Solar Eclipse: a portion of the Sun is visible

  Lunar eclipse: Earth blocks sunlight from reaching the Moon (Earth
between Sun and Moon).

-Umbra/Total Lunar Eclipse: The Sun light is completely blocked,

making the moon red

-Penumbra/ Partial Lunar Eclipse: The Sun light is partially

blocked

 Total solar eclipses are rare and must be observed safely.

🦠 Chapter 7: Microorganisms in the Environment

🔹 7.1 Types of Microorganisms

 Include bacteria, fungi, algae, and protozoa.

 A collection of cells is called colony

 Can be found in air, water, soil, and inside organisms.

 Grown using agar jelly in Petri dishes under sterile conditions.

🔹 7.2 Food Chains and Webs

  Food chain: A linear sequence showing who eats whom in an
ecosystem(e.g. Grass → Cow → Human).

 Food web: A network of two or more food chains showing many

feeding relationships.

 Roles:

o Producers (plants), Consumers (animals), Decomposers

(microorganisms).

 Consumers:

o Primary consumer- Omnivore or Herbivore

o Secondary consumer- Carnivore or Omnivore
o Tertiary consumer – Carnivore or Omnivore

 Prey and Predators

 Prey- Animals that get eaten

 Predator- Animals that catch, kill and eat another animal

🔹 7.3 Microorganisms and Decay

 Decomposers break down organic matter (from living things).

 Rotting fruit or bread shows activity of mould and bacteria.

 Decay recycles nutrients to the soil, aiding plant growth.

 Experiment: Observe decay in bread under different temperatures or

moisture.

🔹 7.4 Microorganisms in Food Webs

 Energy flows to decomposers from all organisms.

 Often left out of diagrams for simplicity.

 Not all decomposers are microscopic (e.g. mushrooms).

 Mind maps help link decay, food chains, and microorganisms.

⚗️Chapter 8: Changes to Materials (Chemical Reactions)

🔹 8.1 Simple Chemical Reactions

 Physical properties of a substance

 Colour
 Solid, Liquid, Gas
 Boiling or Melting temperature
 Mass

 Chemical properties of a substance

 Acidic or alkaline
 How it reacts with water, acid, or metals
 How quickly it reacts

 Chemical reactions produce new substances.

 Clues:

o Gas bubbles

o Temperature change

o Colour change

o Precipitate (Solid formed)

o Change in pH

 E.g. Zinc + acid → hydrogen gas (test with a lit splint for a “pop”).

 Metals and Oxygen (Burning)

 When metals react with oxygen it creates metal oxide

Example: Magnesium and oxygen

 MAGNESIUM + OXYGEN →MAGNESIUM OXIDE

 Metals and Water

 When metals react with water it creates metal hydroxide + hydrogen
 Water is H2O means that it has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom
Example: Magnesium and Water
 MAGNESIUM + WATER → MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE + HYDROGEN
  Metals and Acids
 There are three main Acids, Hydrochloric acid, Sulfuric
acid, and Nitric acid
 When metals react with acids it creates metal ___ide +
hydrogen

Example: Magnesium and hydrochloric acid

 MAGNESIUM + HYDROCHLORIC ACID → MAGNESIUM

HYDROXIDE + HYDROGEN

Example: Magnesium and sulfuric acid

 MAGNESIUM + SULFURIC ACID → MAGNESIUM SULFIDE +

HYDROGEN

🔹 8.2 Neutralisation

 Acid + Alkali → Salt + Water

 Example: Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide → Sodium

chloride + Water

 Use a burette for accurate neutralisation.

 Indicators show when pH = 7 (neutral).

🔹 8.3 Indicators and the pH Scale

pH Colour (Universal
Meaning
Range Indicator)

0–3 Strong acid Red

4–6 Weak acid Yellow–Orange

7 Neutral Green

8–10 Weak alkali Blue

11–14 Strong alkali Purple

 Natural indicators: Red cabbage juice, beetroot.

🔹 8.4 Detecting Chemical Reactions

 Tests for gases:

o Hydrogen: Lit splint pops

o Oxygen: Glowing splint relights

o Carbon dioxide: Turns limewater cloudy

 Evidence of chemical reactions: colour change, heat, precipitate,

gas.

⚡ Chapter 9: Electricity

🔹 9.1 Current and Series Circuits

 Current: Flow of electrons through a circuit, measured in amperes

(A).

 Cell- stores chemical energy that can be changed to electrical energy

 Battery- contains two or more cells

 Components (batteries, light bulbs) have two terminals

 Electrons are negative charged

 In a series circuit, the current is the same throughout.

🔹 9.2 Drawing Circuits

 Use standard symbols:

o Cell:

o Battery:

o Lamp:

o Switch:

o Ammeter:

o Buzzer: Symbol with curved line and sound waves

 Diagrams are easier to read than pictures.

🔹 9.3 Measuring Current

 Use an ammeter, placed in series. (It doesn’t create resistance)

 Voltage is the amount of energy that pushes electric charges through a

circuit. It's measured in volts (V).

 Voltage is measured using a voltmeter. ( Cause resistance)

 Current stays constant in series unless components are added or

removed.

🔹 9.4 Conductors and Insulators

Particle
Type Examples
Explanation

Electrons are free to

Conductor Metals (copper, steel)
move

Electrons cannot
Insulator Plastic, wood, rubber
move easily

 Conductors allow current to flow; insulators prevent it.

 Used for safety and control in electrical devices.

🔹 9.5 Adding or Removing Components

 Adding lamps in series → decreases current.

 Adding cells → increases current.

 Good circuits need correct balance of components to function

efficiently