Mathematics-II (MATH F112)

Jitender Kumar
Department of Mathematics
Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani
Pilani-333031

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 1 / 39

 Module 04

Let V and W be real vector spaces. A map

T : V ! W is called a Linear map or Linear
transformation (LT) from V to W if the following two
properties hold for all vectors u and v in V and for
every k 2 R:
T (u + v) = T (u) + T (v) (Additivity property)
T (ku) = kT (u). (Homogeneity property)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 2 / 39

In particular, when V = W , then T is called an
operator on V .

If v1 , v2 , . . . , vn are vectors in V and k1 , k2 , . . . , kn are

any scalars, then

T (k1 v1 + · · · + kn vn ) = k1 T (v1 ) + · · · + kn T (vn )

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 3 / 39

Let V and W be any two vector spaces.
The mapping T : V ! W such that T (v) = 0 for
every v 2 V is a linear transformation. It is
called zero transformation.
The operator T : V ! V such that T (v) = v for
every v 2 V is a linear transformation. It is
called identity operator on V .

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Example: For A 2 Mmn , consider the mapping
L : Mmn ! Mnm given by L(A) = AT . Check whether
L is a LT.
Solution: Let A, B 2 Mmn and k 2 R. Note that
L(A + B) = (A + B)T = AT + B T = L(A) + L(B)
L(kA) = (kA)T = kAT = kL(A).
Hence, L is a LT.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 5 / 39

Theorem 8.1.1: If T : V ! W is a linear
transformation, then
T (0V ) = 0W .
T (u v) = T (u) T (v).

Exercise 7(b): Determine whether the

transformation T : P2 ! P2 defined by

T (a + bx + cx2 ) = (a + 1) + (b + 1)x + (c + 1)x2

is a linear transformation.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 6 / 39

Exercise: Check which of the following maps are LT.
1
T : P2 ! R3 given by T (a + bx + cx2 ) = (a, b, c).
2
T : Pn ! Pn+1 given by T (p(x)) = xp(x).
3
T : R ! F ( 1, 1) given by T (x) = sin x.
4
T : R ! R given by T (x) = x2 .
5
T : Mnn ! R given by T (A) = a11 a22 · · · ann .
6
T : M22 ! R given by T (A) = rank(A).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 7 / 39

Theorem 8.1.2: Let T : V ! W be a linear
transformation, where V is finite dimensional. If
S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } is a basis for V , then the image
of any vector v in V can be expressed as

T (v) = c1 T (v1 ) + c2 T (v2 ) + · · · + cn T (vn )

where c1 , c2 , . . . , cn are the coefficients required to

express v as a linear combination of the vectors in S.

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Example: Let T : R3 ! R3 be a linear operator such
that T (1, 0, 0) = ( 2, 1, 0), T (0, 1, 0) = (3, 2, 1), and
T (0, 0, 1) = (0, 1, 3).
Find T ( 3, 2, 4).
Find T (x, y, z) for all (x, y, z) in R3 .
Solution: Note that
( 3, 2, 4) = 3(1, 0, 0) + 2(0, 1, 0) + 4(0, 0, 1)
T ( 3, 2, 4) = T ( 3(1, 0, 0) + 2(0, 1, 0) + 4(0, 0, 1))
= 3T (1, 0, 0) + 2T (0, 1, 0) + 4T (0, 0, 1)
= 3( 2, 1, 0) + 2(3, 2, 1) + 4(0, 1, 3)
= (12, 11, 14)
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 9 / 39
Similarly,

T (x, y, z) = T (x(1, 0, 0) + y(0, 1, 0) + z(0, 0, 1))

T (x, y, z) = x( 2, 1, 0) + y(3, 2, 1) + z(0, 1, 3)
T (x, y, z) = ( 2x + 3y, x 2y z, y + 3z)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 10 / 39

Exercise 13: Consider the basis S = {v1 , v2 , v3 } for
R3 , where

v1 = (1, 1, 1), v2 = (1, 1, 0), v3 = (1, 0, 0)

and let T : R3 ! R3 be the linear operator such that

T (v1 ) = ( 1, 2, 4), T (v2 ) = (0, 3, 2), T (v3 ) = (1, 5, 1)

find a formula for T (x1 , x2 , x3 ), and use the formula to

find T (2, 4, 1).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 11 / 39

Hint: For (x1 , x2 , x3 ) 2 R3 , note that if
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = c1 v1 + c2 v2 + c3 v3
then, on solving above system of equations, we get
c1 = x3 , c2 = x2 x3 and c3 = x1 x2 . Thus,
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x3 v1 + (x2 x3 )v2 + (x1 x2 )v3
T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = T (x3 v1 + (x2 x3 )v2 + (x1 x2 )v3 )
Since T is a linear transformation and on substituting
the values of T (v1 ), T (v2 ), T (v3 ), we get
T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 x2 x3 , 5x1 2x2 x3 , x1 +3x2 +2x3 ).
T (2, 4, 1) = ( 1, 3, 8).
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 12 / 39
Kernel of a linear transformation: Let T : V ! W
be a LT. The kernel of T , denoted by ker(T ), is the
subset of all vectors in V that maps to 0W , i.e.
ker(T ) = {v 2 V | T (v) = 0W }.

Range of a linear transformation: Let T : V ! W

be a LT. The range of T , denoted by R(T ), is the
subset of all vectors in W that are image of some
vector in V , i.e.
R(T ) = {T (v) | v 2 V }
Thus a vector w 2 R(T ) implies there exists some
vector v 2 V such that T (v) = w.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 13 / 39
Exercise: Determine ker(T ) and R(T ) of the
following linear transformations:
1
For a matrix A of order m ⇥ n, T : Rn ! Rm
given by T (x) = Ax.
2
T : P2 ! R3 given by T (a + bx + cx2 ) = (a, b, c).
3
T : P3 ! P2 given by T (p(x)) = p0 (x).
4
L : M22 ! M22 given by L(A) = AT .
R1
5
T : P1 ! R given by T (a + bx) = 0 (a + bx)dx.
6
T : R3 ! R2 given by T (x, y, z) = (0, y).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 14 / 39

Theorem 8.1.3: If T : V ! W is a linear
transformation, then:
the kernel of T is a subspace of V .
the range of T is a subspace of W .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 15 / 39

Definition: Let T : V ! W be a linear
transformation. If the range of T is finite
dimensional, then its dimension is called rank of T ,
it is denoted by rank(T ); If the kernel of T is finite
dimensional, then its dimension is called nullity of
T , it is denoted by nullity(T ).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 16 / 39

Example: Let T : R3 ! R2 be a LT given by
T (x, y, z) = (x 2y, y + z).
Find ker(T ) and R(T ). Also, find basis for ker(T ) and
R(T ). Hence find rank(T ) and nullity(T ).
Solution:

ker(T ) = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | T (x, y, z) = 0R2

= (x, y, z) 2 R3 | (x 2y, y + z) = (0, 0)
= (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x = 2y, z = y
= {(2y, y, y) | y 2 R}
= span{(2, 1, 1)}
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 17 / 39
Since the set B = {(2, 1, 1)} is LI. Therefore,
B = {(2, 1, 1)} is a basis of ker(T ). Therefore,
nullity(T ) = 1. Now
R(T ) = T (x, y, z) | (x, y, z) 2 R3
= {(x 2y, y + z) | x, y, z 2 R}
= {x(1, 0) + y( 2, 1) + z(0, 1) | x, y, z 2 R}
= span{(1, 0), ( 2, 1), (0, 1)}
= span{(1, 0), (0, 1)}(Why?)
Since the set {(1, 0), (0, 1)} is LI. Thus,
{(1, 0), (0, 1)}
is a basis for R(T ) and so rank(T ) = 2.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 18 / 39
Exercise 26: Let
2 3
1 4 5 0 9
63 2 1 0 17
A=6
4 1
7.
0 1 0 15
2 3 5 1 8

Consider its matrix transformation T (x) = Ax. Then

find
a basis for the range of T .
a basis for the kernel of T .
rank(T ) and nullity(T ).
rank(A) and nullity(A).
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 19 / 39
Theorem 8.1.4 (Dimension Theorem for Linear
Transformation): If T : V ! W is linear
transformation from an n-dimensional vector space
V to a vector space W , then

rank(T ) + nullity(T ) = n.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 20 / 39

Definition: Let T : V ! W be a linear
transformation. Then T is said to be
one-to-one if T maps distinct vectors in V into
distinct vectors in W .
onto (or onto W ) if every vector in W is the
image of at least one vector in V .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 21 / 39

Example: Consider a LT

T : P3 ! P2 given by

T (p) = p0 .
Check if T is one-to-one and onto.
Solution: Consider p1 = x + 2 and p2 = x + 4. Since,
T (p1 ) = T (p2 ) = 1 implies T is not one-to-one.
Let q be an arbitrary element in P2 i.e.
q = a + bx + cx2 . Note that a + bx + cx2 = p0 , where
p = ax + 2b x2 + 3c x3 so that T (p) = q. Hence, T
is onto.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 22 / 39

Exercise: Which of the following transformations are
one-to-one? onto?
1
T : R2 ! R3 given by T (x, y) = (2x, x y, 0).
2
T : R3 ! R4 given by T (x, y, z) = (y, z, y, 0).
3
L : M22 ! M22 given by L(A) = AT .
4
T : Pn ! Pn+1 given by T (p(x)) = xp(x).
5
T : P3 ! R4 given by

T (a + bx + cx2 + dx3 ) = (a, b, c, d).

6
T : R1 ! R1 given by

T (u1 , u2 , . . . , un , . . .) = (0, u1 , u2 , . . . , un , . . .)
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 23 / 39
Theorem 8.2.1: Let T : V ! W be linear
transformation. Then T is one-to-one if and only if
ker(T ) = {0V }.

Theorem 8.2.2: Let V and W be finite-dimensional

vector spaces such that dim(V ) = dim(W ) = n.
Then the linear transformation T : V ! W is
one-to-one if and only if it is onto.

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Example: Let A be a fixed n ⇥ n matrix, and
consider a LT T : Mnn ! Mnn given by
T (B) = AB BA.
Is T one-to-one and onto?

Solution: T (In ) = AIn In A = 0n⇥n . Hence,

In 2 ker(T ) and so, T is not one-to-one. By Theorem
8.2.2, T is not onto.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 25 / 39

Example: Consider a LT T : M22 ! M23 given by
✓ ◆ 
a b a b 0 c d
T =
c d c+d a+b 0
Is T one-to-one and onto?

a b
Solution: Let 2 ker(T ). Then
c d
✓ ◆  
a b a b 0 c d 0 0 0
T = = .
c d c+d a+b 0 0 0 0

We have a b = c d = c + d = a + b = 0 implies
a = b = c = d = 0.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 26 / 39
Hence, ker(T ) contains only the zero matrix (the
zero vector of M22 ). Thus, T is one-to-one.
Note that
dim(R(T )) = dim(M22 ) dim(ker(T ))
=4
6= dim(M23 ).

Thus, R(T ) ( M23 . Hence, T is not onto.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 27 / 39

Definition: If a linear transformation T : V ! W is
both one-to-one and onto, then T is said to be an
isomorphism, and the vector spaces V and W are
said to be isomorphic.

Theorem 8.2.3: Every n-dimensional vector space

is isomorphic to Rn .

Example: Vector spaces Pn 1 and Rn are

isomorphic.

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Theorem: Let V and W be two finite dimensional
real vector spaces. Then V is isomorphic to W if and
only if dimV = dimW .

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Exercise: Determine whether V and W are
isomorphic. If they are, give an explicit isomorphism
T : V ! W.
1
V = Mmn , W = Rmn .
2
V = {A 2 M22 : Trace(A) = 0}, W = R2 .
3
V = Pn , W = R n .
4
V = P2 , W = {p(x) 2 P3 : p(0) = 0}.
5
V = {A 2 M33 : A is diagonal matrix}, W = R3 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 30 / 39

Definition: If T1 : U ! V and T2 : V ! W are linear
transformations, then the composition of T2 with
T1 , denoted by T2 T1 , is defined by

(T2 T1 )(u) = T2 (T1 (u)) for all u 2 U.

Note that T2 T1 : U ! W is also a linear

transformation.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 31 / 39

Exercise 68: Let T1 : Pn ! Pn and T2 : Pn ! Pn be
linear operators defined as T1 (p(x)) = p(x + 2) and
T2 (p(x)) = p(x 2), respectively. Compute T2 T1
and T1 T2 .

Answer:
(T2 T1 )(p(x)) = p(x).
(T1 T2 )(p(x)) = p(x).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 32 / 39

Example: Let T1 : P2 ! P2 and T2 : P2 ! P2 be
linear operators defined as T1 (ax2 + bx + c) = 2ax + b
and T2 (ax2 + bx + c) = 2ax2 + bx, respectively.
Compute T2 T1 and T1 T2 .

Answer:
(T2 T1 )(ax2 + bx + c) = 2ax.
(T1 T2 )(ax2 + bx + c) = 4ax + b.
Clearly, T2 T1 6= T1 T2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 33 / 39

Recall that if T : V ! W is a linear transformation,
then R(T ), the range of T consisting all images
under T of vectors in V . If T is one-to-one, then
each vector w 2 R(T ) is the image of a unique
vector v in V . This uniqueness allow us to define a
function, called the inverse of T and denoted by
T 1 that maps w back into v i.e.
T 1
: R(T ) ! V given by
T 1
(w) = v, where T (v) = w
Note that
T 1
(T (v)) = v
T (T 1
(w)) = w
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 34 / 39
Example: Let T : R3 ! P2 be a LT given by

T (x, y, z) = x + (x + y z)t + (x + y + z)t2 .

Find T 1
.

Solution: First show that T is one-to-one. Thus, we

can define T 1 : R(T ) ! R3 . Note that R(T ) = P2
(verify!)
Let T 1 : P2 ! R3 be defined by
1
T (a + bt + ct2 ) = (x, y, z)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 35 / 39

 ) T (x, y, z) = a + bt + ct2
) x + (x + y z)t + (x + y + z)t2 = a + bt + ct2
) x = a, x + y z = b, x + y + z = c
b + c 2a c b
) x = a, y = ,z = .
2 2
Hence,
✓ ◆
1 2 b + c 2a c b
T (a + bx + cx ) = a, , .
2 2

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 36 / 39

Exercise 79: Let T : P2 ! R3 be the function
defined by 2 3
p( 1)
T (p(x)) = 4 p(0) 5
p(1)

Find T (x2 + 5x + 6).

Show that T is a linear transformation.
Show that T is one-to-one.
T 1 (0, 3, 0).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 37 / 39

Theorem 8.3.2: If T1 : U ! V and T2 : V ! W are
one-to-one linear transformations, then
T2 T1 is one-to-one.
(T2 T1 ) 1 = T1 1 T2 1 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 38 / 39

 Thank You

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 39 / 39