JAVA

1.What is Java?
Java is a platform-independent high-level programming language. It is platform-independent
because its byte codes can run on any system regardless of its operating system.
2.What are the features of Java?
Object-oriented programming (OOP) concepts
Platform independent
High performance
Multi-threaded
3.What are the OOP concepts?
Inheritance
Encapsulation
Polymorphism
Abstraction
Interface
4. What types of inheritance does Java support?
Single inheritance
Multilevel inheritance
Hierarchical inheritance
Hybrid inheritance
5. What is polymorphism?
Polymorphism is one interface with many implementations. It is used to enable more than one
form for entities, such as variables, functions, or objects.
6.What are the types of polymorphism, and how do they differ?
Compile-time polymorphism is method overloading.
Run-time polymorphism uses inheritance and interface.
7.What does an interface in Java refer to?
An interface as it relates to Java is a blueprint of a class or a collection of abstract methods
and static constants.
Each method is public and abstract, but it does not contain any constructor.
8.What are constructors in Java?
In Java, a constructor refers to a block of code used to initialize an object.
Constructors must have the same name as that of the class.
Constructors have no return type.
Creating an object will call a constructor automatically.
9.Name and explain the types of constructors in Java.
Default Constructor :
Main purpose is to initialize the instance variables with the default values
Widely used for object creation
Parameterized Constructor:
Capable of initializing the instance variables with the provided values.
These constructors take the arguments.
10.What is JDK?
JDK stands for Java development kit.
It can compile, document, and package Java programs.
It contains both JRE and development tools.
11. What is JVM?
JVM stands for Java virtual machine.
It is an abstract machine that provides a run-time environment that allows programmers to
execute Java bytecode.
12. What is JRE?
JRE stands for Java runtime environment.
JRE refers to a runtime environment that allows programmers to execute Java bytecode.
13. In Java, what is a static variable?
A static variable is associated with a class and not objects of that class.
14.What is a JIT compiler?
A JIT compiler runs after the program is executed and compiles the code into a faster form,
hosting the CPU’s native instructing set.
15. How does a JIT compiler differ from a standard compiler?
JIT can access dynamic runtime information, and a standard compiler does not. Therefore, JIT
can better optimize frequently used inlining functions.
16. What is an inner class?
An inner class is a class that is nested within another class. An Inner class has access rights for
the class that is nesting it, and it can access all variables and methods defined in the outer class.
17. What is a subclass?
A subclass is a class that inherits from another class called the superclass. Subclass can access
all public and protected methods and fields of its superclass.
18. What is a package in Java?
In Java, packages are the collection of related classes and interfaces which bundle together.
19.What does the term constructor overloading mean?
Constructor overloading indicates passing different numbers and types of variables as
arguments, all of which are private variables of the class.
20. How are non-primitive variables used in Java?
Non-primitive variables always refer to objects in Java.
21. What is a class in Java?
All Java codes are defined in a class. It has variables and methods.
22. What is a variable within Java?
Variables are attributes that define the state of a class.
23. How do you use a method in Java?
Methods are the place where the exact business logic has to be done. Methods contain a set of
statements or instructions that satisfy specified requirements.
24. What is a Java object?
An object is an instance of a class. The object has a state and behavior.
25. How do you declare an infinite loop?
An infinite loop runs without any condition and runs infinitely. You can break an infinite loop
by defining any breaking logic in the body of the statement blocks.
PYTHON
1. What is the difference between is and == in Python?
== checks for value equality, while is checks for object identity (same memory
location).
2. How do you create a virtual environment in Python?
Use python -m venv env_name to create a virtual environment.
3. What are Python’s key data types?
int, float, str, bool, list, tuple, set, dict.
4. What is a lambda function?
It’s an anonymous function defined using the lambda keyword.
5. How do you handle exceptions in Python?
Using try, except, optionally finally blocks.
6. What does the pass statement do in Python?
It acts as a placeholder and does nothing when executed.
7. Explain the use of *args and **kwargs.
*args allows passing variable number of positional arguments; **kwargs allows
passing variable number of keyword arguments.
8. What is list comprehension? Give an example.
A concise way to create lists. Example: [x*x for x in range(5)].
 9. Differentiate between a list and a tuple.
Lists are mutable, while tuples are immutable.
10. What is the use of the id() function in Python?
It returns the unique memory address of an object.
11. How do you convert a string to an integer in Python?
Using the int() function.
12. What is the purpose of __init__() in Python classes?
It is a constructor used to initialize object attributes.
13. What is the difference between break and continue?
break exits the loop; continue skips the current iteration.
14. How do you import a module in Python?
Using the import module_name statement.
15. What is slicing in Python?
It is extracting a portion of a sequence using [start:stop:step].
16. How do you check the type of a variable?
Using the type() function.
17. What is the output of bool('False')?
True — any non-empty string is True.
18. How can you remove duplicates from a list?
Convert it to a set using set(list).
19. What are Python decorators?
Functions that modify the behavior of other functions.
20. How is memory managed in Python?
Using automatic garbage collection and reference counting.
21. What is the use of with statement in Python?
It simplifies exception handling for resources like files.
22. What is the difference between append() and extend()?
append() adds a single element; extend() adds elements from another iterable.
23. What are docstrings in Python?
Strings used to document a function, class, or module.
24. What is the purpose of zip() in Python?
Combines elements from multiple iterables into tuples.
25. How do you reverse a list in Python?
Using list.reverse() or list[::-1].

OS
1.What is Operating System?
Software that acts as an interface between user and hardware.
2.Batch Processing and Real-time Processing
Batch – Executes jobs in groups with no interaction.
Real-time – Processes tasks within strict time limits.
3.Multiprogramming, Multiprocessing, Multitasking
Multiprogramming – Multiple programs in memory.
Multiprocessing – Multiple CPUs executing processes.
Multitasking – Running multiple tasks by time-sharing.
4.Functions of OS
File Mgmt: Organizes, stores, retrieves files
Memory Mgmt: Allocates/deallocates memory
Process Mgmt: Manages process execution
 Device Mgmt: Controls device communication
Memory Management:
5a. Fixed & Variable Partition
Fixed – Equal-sized memory blocks
Variable – Different-sized blocks based on need
5b. Fragmentation
Internal – Unused space inside a block
External – Free space scattered across memory
5c. Paging
Memory divided into fixed-size pages & frames
5d. Segmentation
Divides memory into logical segments (code/data)
5e. Virtual Memory
Uses disk as extended RAM for large programs
5f. Demand Paging
Pages loaded into memory only when needed
5g. Page Replacement Algorithms
 LFU – Least Frequently Used
 LRU – Least Recently Used
 NRU – Not Recently Used
 FIFO – First In First Out
5h. Physical vs Logical Address
Logical – Generated by CPU
Physical – Actual address in memory
5i. Page Fault
Occurs when a page is not in memory
5j. Thrashing
Excessive paging causes performance drop

6. Process Scheduling
Selects which process to run next on the CPU
7. Process States & Transition
New → Ready → Running → Waiting → Terminated
8. Preemptive vs Non-preemptive Scheduling
Preemptive – CPU can be taken away
Non-preemptive – CPU runs till task completes
9. Independent vs Cooperating Process
Independent – No data sharing
Cooperating – Share data/resources
10. Inter-process Communication (IPC)
Mechanism for processes to exchange data
11. Context Switching
Saving/restoring process states during switch
12. Mutual Exclusion
Ensures only one process accesses critical section
13. Thread
Lightweight process; shares memory with other threads
14. Starvation
Process waits indefinitely for resources
15. Semaphore
Signaling mechanism to control access to resources
16. Deadlocks
Processes wait forever for each other’s resources
17. Conditions for Deadlocks
 Mutual Exclusion
  Hold and Wait
 No Preemption
 Circular Wait
18. Deadlock Prevention Techniques
Break one of the four conditions (e.g., no hold and wait)
19. FAT vs NTFS
FAT – Simple, no security
NTFS – Advanced, supports permissions and recovery
20. Seek and Latency Time
Seek – Time to move disk arm
Latency – Time for sector to rotate under head
21. Kernel
Core part of OS; manages system resources
22. Cache Memory
High-speed memory between CPU and RAM
23. Reader-Writer Problem
Synchronization issue; readers can read together, writers need exclusive access
24. Banker’s Algorithm
Deadlock avoidance algorithm using resource allocation check
In Unix:
25a. I-node & D-node
I-node – Metadata of file
D-node – Data blocks containing actual file content
25b. Fork Command
Creates a child process
25c. Pipes, Shared Memory, Message Queue
IPC mechanisms:
 Pipe – One-way communication
 Shared memory – Fastest, direct access
 Message Queue – Message-based communication
25d. Basic Unix Commands
ls, cd, pwd, mkdir, rm, cp, mv, cat, chmod

26.Features of Android & Latest Version

Features – Open-source, customizable UI, multitasking, app support
Latest version (as of 2025) – Android 15 (Vanilla Ice Cream)

Computer Networks
1. What is computer network?

A computer network is a group of connected devices that can share data and resources
(like files, printers, internet). Connections can be wired or wireless.

2. Simplex ,Half duplex and Full duplex communication

 Simplex: Simplex is a one-way communication method where data flows in only

one direction. The sender can only send, and the receiver can only receive.
Example: A keyboard sending input to the computer, or a TV broadcast.

 Half duplex: Half-duplex allows both devices to send and receive, but only one at
 a time. Devices must take turns.
◻ Example: Walkie-talkies – you press to talk and release to listen.

 Full-duplex: Full-duplex allows simultaneous two-way communication. Both devices

can transmit and receive at the same time.
◻ Example: A phone call – both people can talk and hear at the same time.

3. Topology

Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of devices (nodes) in a

computer network. It defines how computers, cables, switches, and routers are connected and
how data flows in the network.

Types:

 Bus

 Star

 Ring

 Mesh

 Hybrid
4. Seven layers and its functions

1. Physical – Transmission of raw bits

2. Data Link – Frames, MAC, error detection
3. Network – Routing, IP
4. Transport – Reliable delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session – Session control
6. Presentation – Data translation, encryption
7. Application – User interface (HTTP, FTP)

5. Functions of networking device (Repeater,Hub,switch,router,Gateway)

 Repeater: Amplifies signal

 Hub: Broadcasts to all ports

 Switch: Smart hub, sends to correct device

 Router: Connects different networks

 Gateway: Translates between protocols

6. Stop and wait protocol

A basic reliable protocol where the sender sends one frame and waits for acknowledgment
before sending the next.

7. Sliding window protocol

 Allows multiple frames to be sent before acknowledgment, improving throughput. Uses
window size to manage flow

8. Piggybacking

Piggybacking is a technique used in bidirectional data communication, especially in

protocols like the Sliding Window Protocol, where acknowledgment (ACK) of received data
is combined with outbound data instead of sending it separately.

9. Define Protocol

A protocol is a set of rules and standards that define how data is transmitted and
communicated between devices over a network.
10. TCP vs UDP
TCP UDP
Feature
Connection Connection-oriented Connectionless
Reliability Reliable, ordered Unreliable, unordered
Speed Slower Faster
Overhead High Low
Use Case File transfer, web, mail Streaming, games, DNS

11. DNS

Domain Name System translates domain names (www.google.com) into IP addresses

(142.250.183.4) so users can access websites easily.

12. ARP,RARP,ICMP

1. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

ARP is used to map an IP address to a MAC address within a local network.

2. RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)

RARP does the opposite of ARP – it maps a MAC address to an IP address.

3. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

ICMP is used for error reporting, diagnostics, and network troubleshooting.

13. Ping

A tool using ICMP to check connectivity between two systems by sending echo requests
and measuring response time.

14. WWW,HTTP,HTTPs,FTP,SMTP
 1. WWW

World Wide Web, System of interlinked web pages accessed via the Internet.
2. HTTP

HyperText Transfer Protocol,

Transfers web pages from server to browser in plain text.

3. HTTPS

HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure

Secure version of HTTP that encrypts data using SSL/TLS.

4. FTP

File Transfer Protocol

Transfers files between client and server over a network.

5. SMTP

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

Sends and routes emails between mail servers

15. Socket,Port,IPaddress

IPAddress:

An IP address is a unique numerical identifier assigned to every device on a network.

Port:

A port is a logical endpoint used to identify specific applications or services running

on a device.

Socket:

 A socket is the combination of an IP address and a port number.

 It uniquely identifies a communication endpoint between two devices.

16. What is Beaconing

Beaconing is the process where a network device (like a router, access point, or
switch) sends out regular signals or frames to announce its presence and availability on a
network.
It’s mostly used in wireless networks where devices need to discover each other and establish
connections.
 17. What is the range of addresses in the classes of internet addresses?

Class A - 0.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255

Class B - 128.0.0.0 - 191.255.255.255

Class C - 192.0.0.0 - 223.255.255.255

Class D - 224.0.0.0 - 239.255.255.255

Class E - 240.0.0.0 - 255.255.255.255

18. IPV4 and IPV6

IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)

IPv4 is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol and the most widely used. It uses
a 32-bit address format, allowing approximately 4.3 billion unique IP addresses.

Written in dot-decimal notation: 192.168.1.1

IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)

IPv6 is the newer version of IP developed to overcome the address exhaustion of

IPv4. It uses a 128-bit address format, allowing 340 undecillion addresses (a crazy huge
number!)

Written in hexadecimal with colons:

2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334

19. Proxy server

A proxy server is an intermediate server that sits between a client (like your browser)
and the internet. It receives requests from the client, forwards them to the destination
server, and then sends the response back to the client.

20. Crptography -Encryption and Decryption

Cryptography is the technique of protecting information by converting it into a secure

format, so only authorized users can access or understand it.

Encryption:
 Encryption is the process of converting plain text (readable data) into cipher text
(unreadable format) using an algorithm and a key.

Decryption:

Decryption is the reverse process — it converts cipher text back into plain text using a
decryption key

21. DES,RSA Algorithm.

DES (Data Encryption Standard):

It is Symmetric key algorithm

Key Length: 56-bit key

Block Size: 64 bits

DES uses the same key for both encryption and decryption

It processes data in 16 rounds using operations like permutation, substitution, and XOR

RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman):

It is Asymmetric key algorithm

Key Length: Typically 1024–4096 bits

Uses two keys: a public key to encrypt and a private key to decrypt

22. Unicasting,Broadcasting,Multicasting and Anycasting

 Unicasting: One-to-one communication

 Broadcasting: One-to-all
 Multicasting: One-to-many (specific group)
 Anycasting: One-to-nearest (used in IPv6)

24. What are the categories of Transmission media?

a. Guided Media

 Twisted Pair: Shielded (STP), Unshielded (UTP)

 Coaxial Cable
 Fiber-optic Cable
b. Unguided Media
  Terrestrial Microwave
 Satellite Communication

24. Ipconfig and ifconfig

Ipconfig:

Ipconfig is a Windows command used to view and manage IP configuration of

network interfaces.
It can display IP addresses, gateways, and renew or release IP settings.

Ifconfig:

Ifconfig is a Linux/Unix command used to configure and display network

interfaces.
It shows IP and MAC addresses and can enable or disable interfaces.

25. LAN,WAN,Internet,Intranet,VPN

LAN:

Local Area Network

Connects computers and devices within a limited area like a home, office, or school.

WAN:

Wide Area Network

Connects multiple LANs over large geographical areas, like cities or countries.

Internet:

Interconnected Network (commonly called "Internet")

A global network connecting millions of computers for sharing data, websites, and
services.

Intranet:

Internal Network
A private network used within an organization for internal communication and
information sharing.
VPN:
 Virtual Private Network
Creates a secure and encrypted connection over the internet, often used to access
private networks remotely.

DSA
1. What is a data structure?
A data structure is a way to store and organize data efficiently for access and
modification.
2. What is the difference between an array and a linked list?
Arrays have fixed size and allow random access; linked lists are dynamic and
support efficient insertions/deletions.
3. What is a stack?
A linear data structure that follows the LIFO (Last In First Out) principle.
4. What is a queue?
A linear data structure that follows the FIFO (First In First Out) principle.
5. What is the time complexity of searching in a binary search tree (BST)?
Average case: O(log n), Worst case: O(n).
6. What is a circular queue?
A queue where the last position is connected back to the first, forming a circle.
7. What is a hash table?
A data structure that maps keys to values using a hash function.
8. What is the difference between BFS and DFS?
BFS explores neighbors level-wise; DFS explores as far as possible along each
branch before backtracking.
9. What is the time complexity of linear search?
O(n)
10. What is the time complexity of binary search?
O(log n)
11. What is a priority queue?
A queue where elements are dequeued based on priority, not order of insertion.
12. What is recursion?
A function calling itself to solve a problem in smaller instances.
13. What is dynamic programming?
A method for solving complex problems by breaking them into subproblems
and storing results.
14. What is a greedy algorithm?
An approach that makes the locally optimal choice at each step hoping to find
the global optimum.
15. What is a graph?
A non-linear data structure consisting of nodes (vertices) and edges.
16. What is the difference between a tree and a graph?
A tree is a hierarchical structure with no cycles; a graph can have cycles and
complex relationships.
17. What is a heap?
A special tree-based structure that satisfies the heap property (max-heap or
min-heap).
 18. What is the use of a Trie data structure?
Efficient for searching and storing strings, like dictionaries or autocomplete.
19. What is the time complexity of bubble sort?
O(n²)
20. What is the best-case time complexity of insertion sort?
O(n)
21. What is a binary tree?
A tree in which each node has at most two children.
22. What is a balanced binary tree?
A tree where the height difference between left and right subtrees is at most
one.
23. What is a spanning tree?
A subgraph of a graph that includes all the vertices with minimum possible
edges and no cycles.
24. What is topological sorting?
Linear ordering of vertices of a DAG (Directed Acyclic Graph) such that for
every directed edge u → v, u comes before v.
25. What is backtracking?
A technique to solve problems incrementally and abandon solutions that fail to
satisfy constraints.

Top 25 SQL Interview Questions and Answers

1. What is SQL and what are its key uses?

SQL (Structured Query Language) is used to communicate with and manipulate databases—
like querying, updating, inserting, and deleting data.
2. What are the different types of SQL statements?
 DDL - CREATE, ALTER
 DML - SELECT, INSERT
 DCL - GRANT, REVOKE
 TCL - COMMIT, ROLLBACK
3. What is the difference between WHERE and HAVING clauses?
WHERE filters rows before grouping; HAVING filters groups after aggregation.
Example:
SELECT department, COUNT(*)
FROM employees
WHERE status='active'
GROUP BY department
HAVING COUNT(*) > 5;

4. What is a view in SQL?

A view is a virtual table based on the result of a SQL query. It doesn't store data itself.
Example:
CREATE VIEW active_employees AS
SELECT * FROM employees WHERE status='active';
5. What is a Common Table Expression (CTE)?
A temporary result set defined using the WITH clause.
Example:
WITH dept_count AS (
SELECT department, COUNT(*) AS total
FROM employees
GROUP BY department
)
SELECT * FROM dept_count;

6. Explain the difference between UNION and UNION ALL.

 UNION removes duplicates.
 UNION ALL includes duplicates and is faster.

7. What is the difference between RANK(), DENSE_RANK(), and ROW_NUMBER()?

 ROW_NUMBER() gives unique numbers.
 RANK() skips ranks after ties.
 DENSE_RANK() doesn’t skip ranks.

8. What are window functions?

Use OVER() to perform calculations across a set of related rows.
Example:
SELECT name, department,
RANK() OVER(PARTITION BY department ORDER BY salary DESC)
FROM employees;

9. What is indexing in SQL and why is it used?

Indexes speed up data retrieval but slow down inserts and updates.

10. What is a covering index?

An index that includes all columns needed by a query—making it faster by avoiding table
lookups.

11. What is a correlated subquery?

A subquery that references a column from the outer query.
Example:
SELECT name
FROM employees e
WHERE salary > (
SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employees WHERE department = e.department
);

12. What is a materialized view?

Unlike regular views, it stores data physically and needs refreshing.

13. What is the purpose of the MERGE statement?

It combines INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE operations into a single statement.

14. What is the difference between IN and EXISTS?

 IN: works well with small lists.
  EXISTS: faster for larger or correlated queries.

15. What is COALESCE()?

Returns the first non-null value.
Example:
SELECT name, COALESCE(phone, 'N/A') FROM users;

16. What is a PIVOT in SQL?

Transforms rows into columns.
Example (SQL Server):
SELECT * FROM (
SELECT dept, gender FROM employees
) src
PIVOT (COUNT(gender) FOR gender IN ([M], [F])) AS pvt;

17. What is a recursive CTE and when would you use it?
A CTE that references itself. Used for hierarchical data.
Example:

WITH RECURSIVE numbers(n) AS (

SELECT 1
UNION ALL
SELECT n + 1 FROM numbers WHERE n < 5
)
SELECT * FROM numbers;

18. What is the difference between temp tables and table variables?
 Temp tables: stored in tempdb, support indexing and transactions.
 Table variables: stored in memory, better for small datasets.

19. What are lateral joins (or CROSS APPLY)?

Allow a subquery in the FROM clause to reference columns from previous tables.

20. What is the GROUPING SETS clause?

Allows multiple GROUP BY combinations in a single query.
Example:
SELECT dept, job, SUM(salary)
FROM employees
GROUP BY GROUPING SETS ((dept), (job));

21. What are scalar vs table-valued functions?

 Scalar: returns a single value.
 Table-valued: returns a table.

22. What is SQL injection and how do you prevent it?

A security vulnerability. Prevent it using parameterized queries or stored procedures.

23. What is a computed column?

A column based on expressions.
Example:
ALTER TABLE orders ADD total AS (price * quantity);

24. What is sharding in SQL databases?

Dividing data across multiple databases for better performance and scalability.

25. How do you optimize a slow SQL query?

Use indexing, avoid SELECT *, analyze execution plans, reduce row scans and join cost.

OOPS(Java) Questions and Answers

1. Java vs C++:
Java is platform-independent, has garbage collection, no pointers, and supports only
OOP.
C++ is platform-dependent, uses manual memory management, supports pointers, and
supports both OOP and procedural programming.

2. Platform Independent:
Java code runs on any OS with JVM due to bytecode.

3. JVM:
Java Virtual Machine runs Java bytecode and provides platform independence.

4. Why public static void main:

public – accessible to JVM, static – no object needed, void – no return, main – entry
point.

5. Interface:
A contract with method declarations only; supports multiple inheritance.

6. Abstract Class:
Class with abstract (unimplemented) and concrete (implemented) methods.

7. Package:
Namespace to group related classes and interfaces.

8. Final:
final class – cannot be inherited,
final method – cannot be overridden,
final variable – constant.

9. Exception:
An event that disrupts normal program flow; handled using try-catch.

10. throw and throws:

throw – used to explicitly throw an exception,
throws – used in method signature to declare exceptions.
11. Uses of finally:
Always executes after try-catch; used to release resources.
12. Uses of super:
Access superclass methods, constructors, and variables.

13. Thread (extend vs implement):

extends Thread – inherit and override run() method,
implements Runnable – implement run() method; preferred for multiple inheritance.

14. Multithreading:
Running multiple threads simultaneously for concurrent execution.

15. Applets:
Java programs that run in browsers; deprecated now.

16. Swings vs Applets:

Swings – rich GUI, part of Java,
Applets – browser-based, now obsolete.

17. JDBC Concepts:

Java API for database connection. Steps: Load driver → Connect → Execute →
Close.

18. Bean:
Reusable Java component with properties, getters/setters.

19. EJB:
Server-side component for enterprise apps.
a. Stateful – maintains session state per client,
Stateless – no client-specific state,
b. Message Driven Bean – processes async messages from JMS,
c. CMB – Container Managed Bean; lifecycle managed by the container.

20. Deployment Descriptor:

XML file (web.xml) that configures servlet and app components.

21. Web Server vs Application Server:

Web Server – handles HTTP requests (e.g., Apache),
Application Server – runs business logic and supports EJB, JDBC (e.g., Tomcat,
JBoss).

22. What is Polymorphism?

Polymorphism allows one interface to be used for different data types or
 implementations.
Types: Compile-time (method overloading) and Run-time (method overriding).
23. What is Encapsulation?
Encapsulation is wrapping data (variables) and code (methods) together and
restricting direct access using access modifiers.

24. What is Inheritance?

Inheritance is when a class (child) acquires properties and behavior from another class
(parent) using the extends keyword.

25. What is Constructor Overloading?

Having multiple constructors in a class with different parameter lists to initialize
objects in different ways.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

1. Data and Information

 Data refers to raw, unprocessed facts (e.g., numbers, text, or images).
 Information is processed data that has meaning (e.g., "John, 25 years old" is
meaningful data).

2. Database & Database Management System (DBMS)

 A database is an organized collection of data stored electronically.
 A DBMS is software that helps store, retrieve, update, and manage data efficiently
(e.g., MySQL, PostgreSQL).

3. DBMS vs RDBMS
 DBMS: Stores data in a file system with no structured relationships (e.g., XML,
JSON).
 RDBMS: Uses structured tables with relationships, follows ACID properties (e.g.,
MySQL, Oracle).

4. Database Models
 Flat Model: Data is stored in a single table with no relationships (like a spreadsheet).
 Hierarchical Model: Organizes data in a tree structure with parent-child relationships
(e.g., XML, Windows Registry).
 Network Model: Uses graph-like connections where multiple parent-child
relationships exist.
 Relational Model: Stores data in tables with rows and columns, supporting
relationships using keys.
5. Codd’s 12 Rules (Any five)
1. Information Rule: All data must be stored in tables.
2. Guaranteed Access: Every data element is accessible using a table name, primary
key, and column name.
3. Systematic Treatment of NULLs: NULL values should be treated consistently.
4. Dynamic Online Catalog: Metadata should be stored as tables and accessed using
SQL.
 5. Comprehensive Data Language: The database must support a language for defining,
accessing, and managing data (like SQL).

6. Entity
An entity is any real-world object or concept that can be distinctly identified in a
database. It represents something that has attributes (characteristics) and can be stored as
a record in a table.
Types of Entities
 Strong Entity
 Weak Entity

7. Attributes
An attribute is a characteristic or property of an entity that helps
describe it. In a database , attributes are represented as columns in a
table.
Types of Attributes
 Single-valued vs Multi-valued: A single-valued attribute has only one value (e.g.,
Age), whereas a multi-valued attribute has multiple values (e.g., Contact Numbers).
 Simple vs Composite: A simple attribute cannot be broken down (e.g., Age), while a
composite attribute has multiple parts (e.g., Name = First Name + Last Name).
 Stored vs Derived: A stored attribute is saved in the database (e.g., Date of Birth),
while a derived attribute is calculated (e.g., Age = Current Date - DOB).

8. Relations
 One-to-One: Each entity in Table A relates to only one entity in Table B (e.g., One
country has one capital).
 One-to-Many: One entity in Table A relates to multiple entities in Table B (e.g., A
teacher can teach multiple students).
 Many-to-Many: Multiple entities in Table A relate to multiple entities in Table B
(e.g., Students enroll in multiple courses, and courses have multiple students).

9. Simple ER Diagram
 An Entity-Relationship (ER) Diagram visually represents entities, attributes, and
relationships.
 Example: A Student (Entity) has Name (Attribute) and is enrolled in a Course
(Entity).

10. Normalization
 1NF (First Normal Form): Ensures atomicity (no repeating groups or multi-valued
attributes).
 2NF (Second Normal Form): Ensures full functional dependency (no partial
dependencies on a composite primary key).
 3NF (Third Normal Form): Removes transitive dependencies (attributes should
depend only on the primary key).
 BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form): Ensures that every determinant is a candidate
key (stronger than 3NF).
 4NF (Fourth Normal Form): Removes multi-valued dependencies to avoid
unnecessary duplication.
11. Candidate Key, Primary Key, Foreign Key, Super Key
 Candidate Key: A minimal set of attributes that uniquely identify a row (e.g., Roll
No in a Student table).
 Primary Key: A selected candidate key to uniquely identify records (e.g., Employee
ID).
 Foreign Key: An attribute in one table that refers to the primary key of another table
(e.g., Student_ID in the Enrollments table referring to Student table).
 Super Key: A set of attributes that uniquely identify a row but may contain extra
attributes (e.g., (Roll No, Name) when Roll No is enough).

12. What is a Transaction?

 A transaction is a sequence of database operations performed as a single unit of
work.
 Example: A bank transfer includes debit from one account and credit to another; both
must happen together.

13. What is ACID?

 Atomicity: Ensures that a transaction is either fully completed or not at all.
 Consistency: Ensures database remains in a valid state before and after a transaction.
 Isolation: Ensures transactions do not interfere with each other.
 Durability: Ensures committed transactions are permanently stored, even after a
system failure.

14. Denormalization
 Denormalization is the process of merging tables to reduce joins and improve
performance by storing redundant data.
 Example: Instead of storing customer address separately, it can be stored in the orders
table to avoid joins.
15. DDL, DML, DCL
 DDL (Data Definition Language): Commands used to define or modify database
structures (e.g., CREATE, ALTER, DROP).
 DML (Data Manipulation Language): Commands used to manipulate data in tables
(e.g., INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE).
 DCL (Data Control Language): Commands used to control database access and
permissions (e.g., GRANT, REVOKE).

16. Difference between DROP, TRUNCATE, and DELETE

Operation Removes Data? Removes Structure? Can be Rolled Back?

DROP Removes table and data Yes No
TRUNCATE Removes all data No No
DELETE Removes selected rows No Yes

17. When to use WHERE and HAVING?

 WHERE: Used to filter rows before aggregation (e.g., SELECT * FROM students
WHERE age > 18).
 HAVING: Used to filter after aggregation (e.g., SELECT dept, COUNT(*) FROM
employees GROUP BY dept HAVING COUNT(*) > 5).
18. Example for Self Join, Left Join, and Right Join
 Self Join: Joining a table with itself.
SELECT A.name, B.manager_name
FROM employees A, employees B
WHERE A.manager_id = B.emp_id;
 Left Join: Returns all records from the left table and matching records from the right
table.
SELECT employees.name, departments.dept_name
FROM employees
LEFT JOIN departments ON employees.dept_id = departments.dept_id;

 Right Join: Returns all records from the right table and matching records from the
left table.

SELECT employees.name, departments.dept_name

FROM employees
RIGHT JOIN departments ON employees.dept_id = departments.dept_id;

19. Cartesian Product

 The result of joining two tables without any condition, multiplying row
combinations.
 If Table A has 3 rows and Table B has 4 rows, Cartesian Product results in 3 × 4 = 12
rows.
 Eg. SELECT * FROM students, courses;

20. Correlated Query

 A subquery that depends on the outer query for each row processed.
 Example: Find employees earning more than the average salary of their
department.
SELECT name, salary FROM employees E1
WHERE salary > (SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employees E2 WHERE
E1.dept_id = E2.dept_id);

21. What is a Stored Procedure?

 A precompiled SQL script stored in the database that executes business logic.
 Example:
CREATE PROCEDURE GetAllEmployees()
AS
BEGIN
SELECT * FROM employees;
END;

22. What is a Trigger?

 A trigger is an automatic database action that executes before or after an event
(INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE).
 Example: Log changes to an employee table.
CREATE TRIGGER LogChanges
AFTER UPDATE ON employees
 FOR EACH ROW
INSERT INTO log_table (emp_id, action_time) VALUES (NEW.emp_id,
NOW());

23. What is a View?

 A virtual table that stores the result of a SQL query and simplifies complex queries.
 Example:
CREATE VIEW HighSalary AS
SELECT name, salary FROM employees WHERE salary > 50000;

24. RAID – Levels

 RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) improves storage reliability.
 Levels:
o RAID 0: Data striping (no redundancy).
o RAID 1: Mirroring (full redundancy).
o RAID 5: Striping with parity (fault tolerance).
o RAID 10: Mirroring + Striping (high performance and redundancy).

25. What is a Distributed Database?

 A database spread across multiple locations or servers, but appearing as a single
database.
 Used for load balancing, fault tolerance, and scalability (e.g., Google Cloud
Spanner).

26. Char, Varchar2, Blob – Data Type Uses

Data Type Usage
CHAR(n) Fixed-length string (e.g., CHAR(10) always stores 10 characters).
Variable-length string (e.g., VARCHAR2(10) stores up to 10 characters,
VARCHAR2(n)
saving space).
BLOB Stores large binary objects like images, videos, and documents.

27. What is Big Data?

 Large, complex datasets that traditional databases cannot handle efficiently.
 Defined by 3Vs:
o Volume (huge data size),
o Velocity (high-speed processing),
o Variety (structured, semi-structured, unstructured data).

28. What is MapReduce?

 A data processing model in Hadoop that processes large-scale data in parallel.
 Steps:
1. Map: Splits data and processes it in parallel.
2. Reduce: Aggregates and summarizes the results.
Example: Counting words in a dataset.
29. What is NoSQL?
 A non-relational database designed for flexibility, scalability, and high-speed
operations.
 Types:
o Key-Value Stores (e.g., Redis),
o Document Databases (e.g., MongoDB),
o Column-Family Stores (e.g., Cassandra),
o Graph Databases (e.g., Neo4j).

30. What is Hadoop?

 An open-source framework for distributed storage and processing of big data.
 Components:
o HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System) → Stores large data files.
o MapReduce → Processes data in parallel.
o YARN → Manages resources.

AIML

1. What is Artificial Intelligence?

AI is the simulation of human intelligence in machines that can learn, reason,
and make decisions.
2. Define Machine Learning.
Machine Learning is a subset of AI where machines learn patterns from data
without being explicitly programmed.
3. What is supervised learning?
A type of ML where the model is trained on labeled data.
4. What is unsupervised learning?
Learning from data without labels to find hidden patterns or groupings.
5. What is reinforcement learning?
A learning technique where an agent learns to act in an environment by
receiving rewards or penalties.
6. What is a dataset?
A collection of data used to train and test machine learning models.
7. What is the difference between AI and ML?
AI is the broader concept of machines being intelligent; ML is a subset that
focuses on learning from data.
8. What is overfitting in machine learning?
When a model learns the training data too well, including noise, and performs
poorly on unseen data.
9. What is underfitting?
When a model is too simple to capture the patterns in the data, leading to poor
performance.
10. What is a feature in machine learning?
An individual measurable property or characteristic of the data.
11. What is a label in supervised learning?
The output or target variable that the model aims to predict.
12. What is the confusion matrix?
A table used to evaluate the performance of a classification model.
 13. What is precision in ML classification?
The ratio of true positives to the sum of true and false positives.
14. What is recall?
The ratio of true positives to the sum of true positives and false negatives.
15. What is accuracy?
The ratio of correctly predicted observations to total observations.
16. What is a neural network?
A series of algorithms that mimic the operations of a human brain to recognize
relationships in data.
17. What is deep learning?
A subset of ML involving neural networks with many layers for complex
pattern recognition.
18. What is gradient descent?
An optimization algorithm used to minimize the loss function by adjusting
model parameters.
19. What is a loss function?
A method to evaluate how well the model's predictions match the actual
values.
20. What is k-means clustering?
An unsupervised algorithm that groups data into k clusters based on feature
similarity.
21. What is a decision tree?
A flowchart-like tree structure used for decision making and classification.
22. What is a support vector machine (SVM)?
A supervised learning algorithm that finds the optimal boundary between
classes.
23. What is the purpose of train-test split?
To evaluate a model’s performance on unseen data by splitting data into
training and testing sets.
24. What is cross-validation?
A technique to assess how a model will generalize to an independent dataset.
25. What is an AI agent?
An entity that perceives its environment through sensors and acts upon it using
actuators.

Cloud Computing
1. What is cloud computing ?

A Cloud is a virtual space on the Internet where users can store resources like software,
applications, and files. Cloud technology allows computing services, including servers,
networks, storage, databases, software, analytics, and intelligence, to be delivered over the
Internet.

2. What are main features of cloud computing?

 Agility – Huge amounts of computing resources can be provisioned in minutes

 Location Independence – Resources can be accessed from anywhere with an
internet connection
 Better Storage – with cloud storage, there are no limitations of capacity like in
physical devices
  Multi-Tenancy – resource sharing is possible among a large group of users
 Reliability – data backup and disaster recovery become easier and less
expensive with cloud computing
 Scalability – Cloud allows businesses to scale up and scale down as and when
needed.

3. What are the cloud delivey models?/ What are service models in cloud computing ?

 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – the delivery of services like servers, storage,

networks, and operating systems on a request basis.
 Platform as a Service (PaaS) – it combines IaaS with an abstracted collection of
middleware services, software development, and deployment tools. PaaS helps
developers quickly create web or mobile apps on a cloud.
 Software as a Service (SaaS) – software applications are delivered on-demand in a
multi-tenant model.
 Function as a Service (FaaS) – allows end-users to build and run app functionalities
on a serverless architecture.

4. What are the different versions of cloud ? / What are the types of cloud computing?

 Public Cloud – the set of computer resources like hardware, software, servers, storage,
etc., owned and operated by third-party cloud providers for use by businesses or
individuals.
 Private Cloud – a set of resources owned and operated by an organization for use by
its staff, partners, or customers.
 Hybrid Cloud – a combination of public and private cloud services.

5. Name the main constituents of the Cloud ecosystem.

 Cloud Consumers
 Direct Customers
 Cloud Service Providers

6. Who are the cloud service providers?

Cloud service providers are commercial vendors or companies developing their cloud service
capabilities and selling their services to consumers.
7. Who are Direct Customers?
Direct customers are users who often use the services developed by your business within a
cloud environment. They do not know if you’re using a public or private cloud.
8. Who are cloud consumers?
Cloud consumers are individuals or groups within a business unit that use the various cloud
services provided to complete a task.
9. Describe cloud computing Architecture ?

 The client uses the front end, which consists of client-side interfaces and applications
needed to access cloud computing platforms. This includes web servers like Chrome
and Firefox, tablets, and mobile devices.
  A service provider uses the back end to manage all resources needed for Cloud
computing services. This includes data storage, virtual machines, servers, deploying
models, etc.
The different components of the cloud architecture are:
 Client Infrastructure – provides GUI for cloud interaction
 Application – software or platform
 Service – a type of service accessed

10. What are the cloud storage levels ?

 Files
 Block
 Datasets
 Object

11. How to use cloud computing?

We use cloud computing by accessing computing services like storage, servers, databases,
and applications over the internet, typically provided by cloud platforms like AWS, Azure,
or Google Cloud. These services are on-demand, pay-as-you-go, and scalable, so we can
develop, deploy, and manage applications without worrying about the physical hardware
12. What are the advantages of cloud computing?

 Cost savings
 Scalability
 Flexibility
 High availability
 Improved performance
 No hardware maintenance
 Faster development and deployment
 Automation
 Global reach
 Security

13. What is virtualization ?

Virtualization is the creation of a virtual version of resources (like servers or storage). It

enables multiple virtual machines to run on a single physical machine, which is fundamental
in cloud computing for resource efficiency.

14. What is a hypervisor? Can you name some popular ones?

A hypervisor is software that creates and manages virtual machines. Examples: VMware
ESXi, Microsoft Hyper-V, KVM, Xen.
15. What are the types of Hypervisor?

Type 1 Hypervisor - Installed directly on physical hardware. It runs virtual machines without
needing a host operating system.

Type 2 Hypervisor - Runs on top of a host operating system (like Windows, macOS, or
Linux). Then, it hosts virtual machines within that OS.
16. What is AWS ?
AWS (Amazon Web Services) is a cloud computing platform provided by Amazon. It
offers on-demand services like computing power, storage, databases, networking, machine
learning, and more, helping individuals and organizations build and scale applications
without managing physical infrastructure.
17. What is the main role in AWS ?
An AWS job refers to a task or process running on AWS infrastructure, typically
in the form of:
 Data processing jobs (e.g., AWS Glue ETL jobs)
 Batch computing jobs (e.g., using AWS Batch)
 Lambda functions for serverless tasks
 Scheduled tasks using AWS CloudWatch Events or Step Functions
 In career terms, an AWS job also refers to roles like AWS Cloud Engineer, DevOps
Engineer, or Solutions Architect.

18. What is EC2 in AWS ?

EC2 (Elastic Compute Cloud) is a web service that provides resizable virtual servers
(instances) in the cloud. It allows users to run applications on virtual machines and provides
full control over the OS and software.

19. Types of EC2 instances

 General Purpose: Balanced compute, memory, and networking (e.g., t3, m5)
 Compute Optimized: High-performance processors (e.g., c5)
 Memory Optimized: High memory for in-memory apps (e.g., r5, x1)
 Storage Optimized: High-speed local storage (e.g., i3, d2)
 Accelerated Computing: GPUs for ML or graphics (e.g., p3, g4)

20. What is container ? / what is meant by containerization ?

Cloud containers are software code packages that contain an application’s code, its libraries,
and other dependencies that it needs to run in the cloud. Any software application code
requires additional files called libraries and dependencies before it can run.

21. What is Docker ?

Docker is a software platform that allows you to build, test, and deploy applications
quickly. Docker packages software into standardized units called containers that have
everything the software needs to run including libraries, system tools, code, and runtime.
22. What is IAM ?

IAM (Identity and Access Management) is a service in AWS that allows you to securely
manage users, groups, roles, and their permissions to AWS resources. It helps control who
can access what in your AWS environment.
23. What is serverless computing?
Serverless computing is a cloud computing model in which a cloud provider assumes
responsibility for server operations and computer resource management. Since third-party
providers automatically deploy servers in the cloud, there are no physical or virtual servers to
maintain.
24. Define microservices ?
Microservices is the process of creating applications that include code that is independent of
each other and of the inherent development platform.
25. Define service-oriented architecture (SOA)?
Service-oriented architecture is a design pattern for developing distributed systems that
expose services to other applications across protocols. In a service-oriented architecture,
more than one service communicates with each other either by passing data or coordinating
the activities of two or more services.

Web Technology
1.Static web page
A static web page, sometimes which is called a flat page or a stationary page, is a web page
that is delivered to a web browser exactly as stored, in contrast to dynamic web pages which
are generated by a web application.
2.Dynamic Page
A dynamic web page is a web page that generates content in real-time, often based on
user interaction or data retrieved from a database. Unlike static pages, dynamic pages can
change their content automatically without the developer editing the code manually.
(or)
A dynamic page is a web page whose content is generated on the server-side or through
client-side scripting and can change based on user actions, preferences, or other variables,
unlike static pages that are delivered as they are stored.
3.Web server and Application server
A web server delivers static content like HTML, CSS, and images, while an application
server handles dynamic content generation, business logic, and database interactions.
4.What is HTML?
HTML, which stands for Hyper Text Markup Language, is the foundation of web pages,
defining their structure and content by using tags and elements that tell a web browser how to
display text, images, and other multimedia on a webpage.
5.Cell Spacing and Cell Padding
1. Cell Spacing:
 Definition: Cell spacing refers to the space between the borders of adjacent table
cells.
 Purpose: It visually separates cells from each other, creating space outside the cells.
 Attribute: cell spacing
2. Cell Padding:
 Definition: Cell padding is the space between the cell content and the cell border.
 Purpose: It adds internal spacing to make content more readable.
 Attribute: cellpadding
6.What is CSS?
CSS stands for Cascading Style Sheets. It is a stylesheet language used to control the
presentation and layout (Style of a document) of HTML elements on a web page.
While HTML defines the structure of a webpage, CSS is used to define how it looks—
including colors, fonts, spacing, alignment, and responsiveness.
CSS is a cornerstone technology of the World Wide Web, alongside HTML and
JavaScript.
7.GET and POST method
GET and POST are HTTP methods used to send data between a client and a server:
GET: Sends data through the URL, mainly used to retrieve data. It is less secure and used
for actions like searching.
POST: Sends data in the request body, mainly used to submit data (e.g., forms). It is more
secure and supports larger amounts of data.
8.DOM parser
DOM stands for Document Object Model. A DOM Parser is a method used to read,
access, and manipulate XML or HTML documents by converting them into a tree-like
structure (DOM tree) in memory, (DOM) that can be manipulated by scripts or
programming languages.
9.What is JAVA script?
JavaScript is a scripting language used to make web pages interactive and dynamic. It
runs on the client-side (in the browser) and can control HTML elements, handle events,
validate forms, and update content without reloading the page.
10.Server script and Client script?
1. Client-side Script:
 Executed in the browser (on the user’s device).
 Used for creating interactive features like form validation, animations, and dynamic
content updates without reloading the page.
 Faster because it doesn’t require a round trip to the server.
 Cannot access databases or secure files on the server.
Languages Used:
 JavaScript, HTML, CSS
2. Server-side Script:
 Executed on the web server before the page is sent to the browser.
 Used for processing data, accessing databases, authentication, and generating
dynamic web content.
 More secure, as code is not visible to the user.
Languages Used:
 PHP, Python, Node.js, ASP.NET, Java (JSP)
11.What is XML?
XML (Extensible Markup Language) is a markup language designed to store and
transport data, allowing for the exchange of structured information between different systems
and applications
12. Well formed and Valid XML
1. Well-Formed XML:
A well-formed XML document follows the basic syntax rules of XML. It ensures the
document is structurally correct and readable by an XML parser.
Rules:
 Must have a single root element
 Tags must be properly nested and closed
 Attribute values must be in quotes
 Case-sensitive tags
2. Valid XML:
A valid XML document is not only well-formed but also follows a defined structure given
by a DTD (Document Type Definition) or XML Schema.
Requirements:
 Must be well-formed
 Must follow rules defined in the DTD or Schema
13. What is XSL?
XSL stands for Extensible Stylesheet Language. It is used to transform and style XML
documents. XSL helps in converting XML data into a human-readable format like HTML
or text.
The most commonly used part of XSL is XSLT (XSL Transformations), which is used to
transform XML data into other formats.
14.What is session?
A session is a way to store user-specific data on the server for a limited time while the
user is actively using a website. It allows web applications to remember user actions, like
login status, across multiple pages.
15.What is cookie?
A cookie is a small text file of data stored on the user's browser by website. It is used to
remember user information like login details, preferences, or tracking data between visits.
16.What is the use of Meta Tags?
Meta tags provide metadata about a web page, such as description, keywords, author, and
viewport settings. They are placed in the <head> section of HTML and are used for SEO,
page behavior, and browser instructions.
17.What is AJAX?
AJAX stands for Asynchronous JavaScript and XML. It allows web pages to send and
receive data from a server without reloading the entire page, enabling dynamic and fast
user experiences.
18.What is Web Service?
A Web Service is a software component that allows applications to communicate over the
web using standard protocols like HTTP. It helps in data exchange between systems.
19.What is SOAP and REST protocol?
 SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol) is a protocol for exchanging structured XML
data via web services.
 REST (Representational State Transfer) is an architectural style using HTTP
methods (GET, POST, etc.) and usually JSON for lightweight communication.
20.Angular 2 vs AngularJS
 AngularJS is the first version, based on JavaScript and uses a controller-based
structure.
 Angular 2+ is based on TypeScript, uses components, and provides better
performance and modern development features.
21.What is NodeJS?
Node.js is a JavaScript runtime environment that allows you to run JavaScript on the
server-side. It is non-blocking and ideal for building scalable network applications.
22.What is CMS (Content Management System)?
A CMS is a software application used to create, manage, and modify digital content
without needing coding knowledge. Examples: WordPress, Drupal, Joomla
23. What is jQuery and JSON?
 jQuery is a JavaScript library that simplifies HTML DOM manipulation,
animations, and AJAX.
 JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) is a lightweight data format used to store and
exchange data between server and client
24.LAMP, WAMP, XAMPP
These are software stacks used for web development:
 LAMP: Linux, Apache, MySQL, PHP
 WAMP: Windows, Apache, MySQL, PHP
 XAMPP: Cross-platform, Apache, MySQL/MariaDB, PHP, Perl
25.JSP and ASP
 JSP (Java Server Pages) is a Java-based technology for creating dynamic web pages.
 ASP (Active Server Pages) is a Microsoft technology used for building dynamic web
applications with VBScript or C#.
SECURITY FUNDAMENTALS

1. What is cybersecurity?
Cybersecurity is the practice of protecting systems, networks, and data
from digital attacks.
2. What is the CIA triad?
Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability — the core principles of
information security.
3. What is a firewall?
A firewall is a security device that monitors and controls incoming and
outgoing network traffic.
4. What is encryption?
Encryption is the process of converting plain text into unreadable form
to prevent unauthorized access.
5. What is the difference between symmetric and asymmetric encryption?
Symmetric uses the same key for encryption and decryption;
asymmetric uses a public and a private key.
6. What is a vulnerability?
A weakness in a system that can be exploited to compromise security.
7. What is malware?
Malicious software designed to harm, exploit, or disrupt systems and
networks.
8. What is phishing?
A social engineering attack where attackers trick users into revealing
personal or sensitive information.
9. What is two-factor authentication (2FA)?
A security method requiring two different forms of identification to
access an account.
10. What is an intrusion detection system (IDS)?
A system that monitors network traffic for suspicious activity and
possible threats.
11. What is hashing?
A process that converts data into a fixed-size hash value, typically used
for verifying data integrity.
12. What is the role of antivirus software?
It detects, prevents, and removes malware from computers and
networks.
13. What is a digital certificate?
A digital file that verifies the ownership of a public key, issued by a
Certificate Authority (CA).
14. What is a DDoS attack?
Distributed Denial of Service — an attack that overwhelms a server or
network with traffic to make it unavailable.
15. What is authentication?
The process of verifying the identity of a user or system.
16. What is authorization?
The process of giving access rights to authenticated users based on
roles or policies.
17. What is a man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack?
An attack where the attacker secretly intercepts and possibly alters
communication between two parties.
18. What is social engineering?
A manipulation technique to trick users into giving confidential
information.
19. What is a security policy?
A documented set of rules and procedures for maintaining and
enforcing security in an organization.
20. What is penetration testing?
A simulated cyberattack to test the security of systems and identify
vulnerabilities.
21. What is a zero-day vulnerability?
A security flaw that is unknown to the vendor and has no patch
available.
22. What is public key infrastructure (PKI)?
A framework for managing digital certificates and public-key
encryption.
23. What is access control?
A security method that restricts access to systems or data to authorized
users only.
24. What is a brute-force attack?
An attack that tries every possible password combination to gain
unauthorized access.
25. What is multi-factor authentication (MFA)?
A security process that uses more than one method of authentication
from independent categories.