1 Define Probability?

Probability is the measure of the likelihood that an event will occur, expressed as a number
between 0 and 1, where 0 indicates impossibility and 1 indicates certainty.
2 Define random Variable?
A random variable is a numerical outcome of a random phenomenon, representing the possible
values from a stochastic process, and is typically denoted by a symbol like \( X \).
3 Define Pdf , Cdf, Expectation ?
PDF (Probability Density Function): A function that describes the likelihood of a continuous
random variable to take on a particular value.
CDF (Cumulative Distribution Function): A function that describes the probability that a
continuous random variable will take a value less than or equal to a specific value.
Expectation (Expected Value): The weighted average of all possible values of a random
variable, with weights being the probabilities of those values.
4 Define Marginal Distribution?
Marginal distribution is the probability distribution of a subset of a collection of random
variables, obtained by summing or integrating out the other variables in the set.
5 Define Conditional probability ?
Conditional probability is the probability of an event occurring given that another event has
already occurred, denoted as P(A∣B)=
6 Define Covariance?
Covariance is a measure of the degree to which two random variables change together,
indicating the direction of their linear relationship. It is calculated as the expected value of the
product of their deviations from their respective means.
Cov(X,Y)= E(XY)-E(X)E(Y)
7 Define Joint Probability Distribution?
A joint probability distribution provides the probabilities of different outcomes for two or more
random variables together, specifying the likelihood of various combinations of values they can
take. This distribution can be represented in a table, formula, or graph, and it encompasses all
possible combinations of the variables involved.
8 Define Population?
In statistics, a population is the entire set of individuals or observations that a researcher is
interested in studying, from which a sample may be drawn for analysis.
9 Define a sample?
A sample is a subset of individuals or observations selected from a larger population, used to
make inferences or draw conclusions about the population characteristics.
10 Define Significance limits?
Significance limits, often referred to in statistical hypothesis testing, indicate the thresholds
beyond which a result is considered statistically significant. These limits are typically set based
on a chosen level of significance (e.g., 0.05 or 0.01) and help determine whether to reject the
null hypothesis in favor of an alternative hypothesis.
11 Define Confidence Limits?
Confidence limits, also known as confidence intervals, are ranges of values derived from sample
data that are used to estimate population parameters with a specified level of confidence. For
example, a 95% confidence interval indicates that there is a 95% probability that the interval
contains the true population parameter.
12 Define Sampling?
Sampling is the method of selecting a subset of individuals or observations from a larger
population to study and draw conclusions about the entire group's characteristics or behavior.
13 Define Hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon or a tentative statement about the
relationship between variables, which can be tested through research and experimentation.
14 Define Null Hypothesis?
The null hypothesis H0 is a statement that suggests there is no significant difference or
relationship between variables or populations being studied. It serves as a baseline assumption
to be tested against an alternative hypothesis H1.
15 Define One tailed and two Tailed Test?
In hypothesis testing:
One-tailed test: Also known as a directional test, it checks for the possibility of the effect in one
specific direction (either positive or negative).
Two-tailed test:Also known as a non-directional test, it checks for the possibility of the effect in
either direction (both positive and negative).
16 Define Critical Region?
The critical region, also known as the rejection region, is the set of all possible values of a test
statistic that leads to the rejection of the null hypothesis in a hypothesis test. It is determined
based on the chosen level of significance (alpha) and the nature of the hypothesis (one-tailed or
two-tailed).
17 Define Degrees of Freedom?
Degrees of freedom in statistics refers to the number of values in a calculation that are free to
vary without violating any given constraints. It often represents the number of independent
observations available for estimating statistical parameters.
18 Define Correlation Coefficient ?
A correlation coefficient is a numerical measure that describes the strength and direction of the
linear relationship between two variables. It ranges from -1 to 1, where:
1 indicates a perfect positive linear relationship,
- 1 indicates a perfect negative linear relationship,
0 indicates no linear relationship.
19 Define Regression?
Regression is a statistical technique used to quantify the relationship between one or more
predictor variables (independent variables) and a response variable (dependent variable). It
aims to find the best-fitting line (or curve) that predicts the response variable based on the
predictor variables.
20 Define a vector Space?
A vector space vector space V over a field F is a set with two operations:
1.Vector addition: For any two vectors v,u ÎV there exists a vector v+u ÎV such that addition is
commutative and associative, and there exists a zero vector 0 ÎV such that 0+ v ÎV for all v ÎV

2 Scalar multiplication: For any scalar µ ÎV and any vector v ÎV there exists a vector µ v ÎV
such that multiplication is distributive over vector addition and scalar addition, and 1v=v

These operations satisfy the axioms of a vector space, including closure under addition and
scalar multiplication, associativity of addition, existence of additive and multiplicative identities,
and distributivity of scalar multiplication over field addition over a field F
21 write z-test, t-test and chi-square test formula.

A Z-test is used to determine if there is a significant difference between sample and population
means or between the means of two samples when the variances are known and the sample
size is large (typically n>30).
 x
z
/ n
A T-test is used to determine if there is a significant difference between sample and population
means or between the means of two samples when the variances are unknown and the sample
size is small (typically n<30).
x
t
s/ n
A Chi-square test is used to determine if there is a significant association between categorical
variables or if the observed frequencies differ from the expected frequencies.
(Oi  Ei )2
2  
Ei