Form 2 : Science
Unit 1 : Respiration
1.1 : Human Respiratory system
Characteristic of all living organisms is respiration
Thoracic Cavity : the space in the thorax containing heart , lungs and
organs .
-Breathing
Respiration -> External Respiration (Exchange of gases) / Internal
Respiration (Cellular Respiration / Aerobic Respiration)
Inhaled air (C6H12O6) -> Exhaled air (6CO2 + H2O)
Respiratory System
-Process
Nasal cavity or mouth -> Pharynx -> Trachea(Wind Pipe which has rings of
cartilage to prevent your windpipe from collapsing) -> Bronchus ->Bronchiole ->
Air sac
-Structure
Nasal Cavity and Mouth (Entrances)
Voicebox (Larynx)
Windpipe (Trachea)
Rings of Cartilage
Lung
Bronchus (Bronchi for plural)
Bronchiole
Rib bone
Intercoastal Muscle (Muscle between ribs)
Diaphragm
Air Sacs
Form 2 : Science 1
Pharynx
1.2 : Gas Exchange
Lungs mostly made of holes (Called air sacs or alveoli)
Tiny blood vessels wrapped around lungs called capillaries
-Structure
Contain one layer of cell thick walls
Diffuses the oxygen in and out of the air sac
-Process of Gas Exchange
Gas Exchange happens when oxygen is diffused from the air into the blood and
carbon dioxide is diffused out of the blood and into the air . The Oxygen is
dissolved into the red blood cells (haemoglobin) to form oxyhaemoglobin and
after the oxygen is exchanged into carbon dioxide , it becomes
deoxyhaemoglobin .
1.3 : Breathing
Breathing IN Breathing OUT
Form 2 : Science 2
Intercoastal Muscle contract pulling ribs Intercoastal Muscle relax and allows ribs to
upwards and outwards drop down
Muscle in diaphragm contract and pulls Muscles in diaphragm relax and diaphragm
downwards becomes normal , domed shape
Increase Volume in Lungs Decrease volume in lungs
Pressure inside lungs and chest
Pressure inside lungs and chest increase
decrease
Air moves down through trachea into the
Air is squeezed out of the lungs
lungs , to fill in extra space
1.4 : Respiration
Carbohydrates are our main sources of energy
It is broken down to become glucose , an energy store (Type of Sugar)
The energy is locked up inside glucose and has to be released through the
mitochondria
Mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell
It carries a chemical reaction called aerobic respiration
Glucose + Oxygen = Water + Carbon Dioxide
Done in a controlled way
1.5 : Blood
Delivery of oxygen and glucose and Removal of carbon dioxide and water is
done by the blood
Liquid part is called the blood plasma which is very pale yellow
Blood looks red due to containing a lot of red blood cells (Average adult has
20 Trillion)
White blood cells which are bigger than red blood cells look red due to a
stain
-Plasma
Liquid part of the blood , mostly water
Transports red and white blood cells
Contains a lot of dissolved substances (Glucose , Carbon dioxide and more)
Form 2 : Science 3
Red Bloods Cells
Unusual cells
Full of a red pigment called haemoglobin
Doesn’t contain nucleus to make space for haemoglobin
Cytoplasm contains haemoglobin which contains oxygen
No Mitochondria so that oxygen won’t be used
Only contains Cell membrane and Cytoplasm
White Bloods Cells
Easy to distinguish from red blood cells
Have nucleus
Some larger than Red Blood Cells
Immune System
Immunocompromised – Having a compromised immune system
Immunodeficiency – Having a weakened immune system
Defends us against pathogens (Bacteria and viruses)
Phagocytosis
Some white blood cell change their shape and push their cytoplasm out to
make fingers that capture a pathogen
White blood cell then produces Chemicals (Enzymes) that kill and digest the
pathogen
Other Methods
Other white blood cell produces chemicals that kills pathogens .
These chemicals are called antibodies
Different kind of antibodies needed for different types of pathogens .
Antibodies stick onto the pathogens
Some kill the pathogen directly while some glue to the pathogens together
so they can’t move and make it easy for other white blood cells to kill the
pathogen
Form 2 : Science 4
Unit 2 : Properties of Materials
2.4 : Paper chromatography
-Separate out coloured inks by using paper chromatography
The resulting image is called a chromatogram
The ink separate because the water dissolves them
Water is the solvent
The different kinds of ink particles are carried different distances because
not all ink particle has the same solubility . The higher the ink , the more
soluble it is
Then dyes which contains only one substance is called a pure substance
The higher the ink , the more soluble it is
Some ink isn’t soluble in water such as permanent marker so you would
need to use a different solvent such as alcohol .
When comparing substances ,you may use a larger piece of paper to place
spots of different items alongside each other to match the dyes
Unit 3 : Forces and energy
3.1 : Forces and motion
Two forces are balanced which means the forces are equal in size and
opposite in direction
Gravity and contact force are balanced forces .
An unbalanced force will cause an object to move in the direction of the
stronger force
Contact force has an equivalent magnitude of their weight
Weight = Mass (Kg) x Gravitational Acceleration (N)
Force = Mass x Acceleration
-Slowing down and Changing direction
Unbalanced or unequal force will cause an object to slow down
Example
Form 2 : Science 5
When Parachute first open the forces are unbalanced , this makes it slow
down
When the object slows ,m air resistance decreases , so that the object falls
at a constant speed
Changing Direction
Unbalanced forces can make an object change direction
Slowing down -> Stop -> Change direction
Unit 6 : Light
6.1 : Reflection
Law of Reflection : Angle of Reflection (r) is equal to Angle of Incidence (I)
Plane Mirror refers to a flat mirror
Light travels in a straight line called rays
The normal line is the line perpendicular to the mirror
Concave mirrors , which are curved inwards , will magnify the image
Convex mirror , which are curved outwards , will widen the field of view but
make the image smaller
Ray Diagram
Form 2 : Science 6
Form 2 : Science 7
