Chapter 6

The Cell
 Eukaryotic cells
Can you spot any differences or similarities?

Animal cell Plant cell

Animal and plant cells are eukaryotic

Prokaryotic cells

• Bacteria and archaea cells are prokaryotic

• Do you see any differences between the Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells?
 Eukaryotic cells Prokaryotic cells
(eu = true; kary = nucleus) (pro = before; kary = nucleus)

• Have a nucleus where genetic information • NO nucleus; DNA is stored in region of

(DNA) is stored cell called the nucleoid

• Contain membrane-bound organelles • NO membrane- bound organelles

(Golgi, mitochondria etc...) (less compartmentalized)

• Domain Eukarya (Kingdoms: Animalia, • Domain Bacteria & Archaebacteria

Fungi, Plantae; protists)
 Eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells
Animal cells Plant cells
(bacterial and archaea)
Cytoplasm ✔ ✔ ✔
Plasma membrane ✔ ✔ ✔
All cells Ribosomes ✔ ✔ ✔
DNA ✔ ✔ ✔

Nucleus ✔ ✔ ✖
Many membrane-
bound organelles
✔ ✔ ✖
Not ✖
Chloroplast ✖ ✔
all (Can still be photosynthetic)

cells Central vacuole ✖ ✔ ✖

Cell wall ✖ ✔ ✔
 Cells are small!
• Cells are microscopic

• Prokaryotic cells are usually smaller

than eukaryotic cells (~10x)

• Eukaryotic cells (10-100 mm)

• Prokaryotic cells (1-10 mm)

1 mm = 1000 mm
1mm = 10-6 m
 Why are cells so small?
• As cell volume increases, the S-to-V ratio
decreases

• Nutrients must cross the cell membrane

• Surface area determines how fast nutrients

can enter the cell

• Several small cells will exchange materials

better than one large cell because a small
cell has a greater ratio of surface area to
volume

• If the volume is too large the surface area

would not be large enough to meet the
metabolic requirements of the cell!
 Cell size vs Surface area to volume
ratio
• As cells increase in size, there is a lot
more space to fill with stuff
(organelles and proteins)

• You need raw material to make all of

this.

• Raw material (nutrients) comes from

outside the cell and must pass the
plasma membrane

• So the limiting factor for the amount

of nutrients that can enter the cell is
the surface area of the cell (the area
of the plasma membrane

• As cells get larger, the increase in

volume, and thus the increase in the
amount of nutrients is higher than
the increase in the surface area (the
capacity to get nutrients)
 Cell organelles and structures
Plasma membrane
Membrane–bound organelles:

Endomembrane system:

• Nucleus
• Endoplasmic reticulum
(smooth and rough)
• Golgi Apparatus
• Lysosomes (animal)
• Vacuole (plants and protists)

Other membrane-bound organelles:

• Mitochondria
• Chloroplasts
• Peroxisomes
 Cell organelles and structures
Plasma membrane
Membrane–bound organelles: Structures without membranes:

Endomembrane system: Inside cell:

• Nucleus • Ribosomes
• Endoplasmic reticulum • Cytoskeleton
(smooth and rough) • microtubules,
• Golgi Apparatus • intermediate filaments
• Lysosomes (animal) • actin filaments (microfilaments)
• Vacuole (plants and protists)
Surrounding and external to cell:
Other membrane-bound organelles:
• Cell wall
• Mitochondria • Extracellular matrix
• Chloroplasts
• Peroxisomes
 Cell organelles and structures
Plasma membrane
Membrane–bound organelles: Structures without membranes:

Endomembrane system: Inside cell:

• Nucleus • Ribosomes
• Endoplasmic reticulum • Cytoskeleton
(smooth and rough) • microtubules,
• Golgi Apparatus • intermediate filaments
• Lysosomes (animal) • actin filaments (microfilaments)
• Vacuole (plants and protists)
Surrounding and external to cell:
Other membrane-bound organelles:
• Cell wall
• Mitochondria • Extracellular matrix
• Chloroplasts
• Peroxisomes
Recall biological membranes
• Formed from 2 layers of phospholipids phospholipid bilayer

• Contain proteins
o Organelles have different combinations of phospholipids and proteins
• They form a barrier that is selectively permeable (only some things can cross)
• They create different environments within the cell (compartmentalization)
• Allow different conditions in different organelles (lysosome has pH 5)
• Facilitates specific metabolic functions
• Some membranes have enzymes embedded in them
 Why do they form like this?
• Remember micelles?
• The hydrophilic heads are
oriented towards the outside
of the cell and towards the
cytoplasm (where the water
is).
• The hydrophobic tails are
sequestered (hidden) in the
membrane (where there isn’t
any water).
 Biological membrane
• Double layer of phospholipids
• Is a selective barrier that
separates inside from outside
• Controls what is transported
into and out of the cell!
• Also contains other lipids and
proteins
• Each type of membrane has a
unique combination of lipids
and proteins
Endomembrane system
1. Nuclear envelope
2. Endoplasmic reticulum (smooth and rough)
3. Golgi apparatus
4. Lysosome
5. Vacuoles
6. Plasma membrane
Endomembrane system
All components are interrelated

1. Directly through physical contact

• Ex. endoplasmic reticulum and nucleus which are
physically linked

1. Indirectly through vesicles

• Membrane-enclosed sacs which can travel from one
member of the endomembrane system to another
member of the endomembrane system
sphospholipidbilayer
 The nucleus
• A membrane bound organelle which contains chromatin (DNA
+ histone proteins).
• What happens in the nucleus? ase enzyme
• DNA replicates to make a copy of itself – DNA polymerase does this.
• Synthesis of RNA through the process of transcription (copy in the
same language) – RNA polymerase is the enzyme that does this
 The nucleus
• Nuclear
envelope/membrane: is a
double phospholipid bilayer.
• Fusion of the 2 bilayers form
nuclear pores
• Large molecules (ex. mRNA)
can pass through these pores
• On the nuclear side there is a
network of proteins called
the nuclear lamina which
serves to maintain the shape
of the nucleus
 Nuclear pore

• You can see the fusion of the phospholipid

bilayer in 3D in these images.

• You do not need to worry about the

proteins that make up the pore.
 The nucleus
• DNA: found in the nucleus
associated with histone
proteins
• Disorganized form of DNA is
called chromatin
• The nucleolus is also found
in the nucleus and is the
site of synthesis of rRNA
(rRNA is part of the
structure of the ribosome)
The nucleus
Remember!
• Prokaryotes DO NOT have a nucleus
• Eukaryotes HAVE a nucleus
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Endoplasmic = within cytoplasm
• Reticulum = network
• Extensive membranous network of tubules and
sacs continuous with the nuclear envelope
2 types of endoplasmic reticulum
(ER)
• Smooth (SER): lacks ribosomes
• Synthesizes lipids
• Participates in carbohydrate metabolism
• Drug and poison detoxification
• Stores Ca2+ in muscle cells
• Rough (RER): has ribosomes on its surface
• Synthesis of secreted proteins and proteins destined for
insertion in the plasma membrane
• Produces membrane for its own structure, and this
membrane can also be added to other members of the
endomembrane system
Ribosomes
• Function: Synthesize proteins
• Composed of rRNA and ribosomal proteins
• 2 types of ribosomes:
1. Free ribosomes
• Found in the cytoplasm
• Synthesize cytosolic proteins
2. Bound ribosomes
• Bound to the endoplasmic reticulum
• Synthesize membrane-bound and secreted proteins
Ribosomes
2 types of endoplasmic reticulum
(ER)
ER function
• Newly synthesized proteins depart from the ER in
transport vesicles which bud from the ER itself
• These vesicles fuse with the Golgi apparatus
ER function
 Golgi apparatus (shipping and
receiving dept.)
• Flattened membranous sacs called
cisternae
• Important for sorting, modifying
and packaging proteins.
• Proteins are modified by adding
and removing carbohydrate
groups (glycoproteins)
• Sorts & packages proteins and
targets them either for various
destinations in the cell or for
secretion from the cell
• Proteins are packaged into
membrane-bound sacs called
transport vesicles
Golgi apparatus function
Lysosomes
• Membrane enclosed sac of hydrolytic enzymes and
very acidic pH (4.5 - 5)
1. Carries out intracellular digestion:
• Lysosome fuses with a food vacuole which was produced during
phagocytosis (process by which cell engulfs a food particle)
2. Digests damaged organelles & macromolecules
(autophagy) and releases any monomers for recycling
• Lysosomes break down and destroy things:
i. to protect the cell
ii. for regular maintenance
iii. to recycle intracellular components (ex: old/damaged
organelles)
Destruction by Lysosome
Phagocytosis: (phago = eat; cyt = cell) Autophagy: (auto = self; phago = eat)
 Phagocytosis
• Plasma membrane engulfs particle
• Membrane pinches off and forms a vacuole
containing the particle
• Examples:
• Human neutrophil (white blood cell) engulfs bacteria

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z_mXDvZQ6dU
Phagocytosis is similar to vesicle
budding
Phagocytosis/endocytosis
Vacuole
A membrane bound sac
• There are 3 types
• Food vacuole
• Contractile vacuole
• Central vacuole
Food vacuole
• Digestion in protozoa (single celled animal-like organism)
• Similar to lysozome
 Contractile vacuole
• Used to pump water out of cell
• In fresh water protozoa
• For osomregulation
 Central vacuole
junkdrawer

• Storage (nutrients/waste)
• Protection (sequesters
harmful compounds)
• Maintains pressure within
cell
• In mature eukaryotic cells
(mostly plant cells)
 Cell organelles and structures
Plasma membrane
Membrane–bound organelles: Structures without membranes:

Endomembrane system: Inside cell:

• Nucleus • Ribosomes
• Endoplasmic reticulum • Cytoskeleton
(smooth and rough) • microtubules,
• Golgi Apparatus • intermediate filaments
• Lysosomes (animal) • actin filaments (microfilaments)
• Vacuole (plants and protists)
Surrounding and external to cell:
Other membrane-bound organelles:
• Cell wall
• Mitochondria • Extracellular matrix
• Chloroplasts
• Peroxisomes
 Mitochondria
• Powerhouse (power plant) of the cell
• Energy transformer in all eukaryotic cells:
• Site of cellular respiration
• ATP production in the presence of oxygen

Glucose + O2→ CO2 + heat + ATP + water

• The number of mitochondria per cell varies with cellular

activity.

More activity = higher ATP requirement = more mitochondria

 Structure of the mitochondria
• Has a double phospholipid bilayer which forms two fluid-filled spaces
• Outer membrane is smooth and highly permeable to small molecules and
ions
• Inner membrane is extensively folded into cristae which increase the
surface area
WHY?

• Inner membrane contains enzymes involved in cellular respiration.

• Inner mitochondrial space, called matrix, is filled with DNA,

ribosomes and enzymes
Mitochondria
Does this structure remind you of anything we’ve already
seen?
Endosymbiosis theory
Chloroplasts
• Energy transformer in plant cells: site of
photosynthesis
Light (solar energy) + CO2 + H2O → glucose + O2
• Contains chlorophyll (green pigment)
• Surrounded by a double phospholipid bilayer
 Structure of the Chloroplast
• Inner bilayer
surrounds fluid
(stroma) that contains
DNA, ribosomes and
enzymes involved in
photosynthesis
• Stroma contains
thylakoids
(membranous sacs
which contain
chlorophyll)
• Thylakoids are stacked
into grana
(singular=granum)
 Peroxisomes
Lysosome doesNOTdo
• Surrounded by a single detoxication reaction

phospholipid bilayer
• Contains oxidative enzymes
• In animals:
• Contain enzymes that carry out
detoxification reactions (ex.
alcohol detoxification).
• Contain enzymes for the
breakdown of fatty acids which
serve as fuel for cellular
respiration.
• In plants:
• Specialized peroxisomes called
glyoxysomes contain enzymes for
the breakdown of stored fats in
germinating seeds
Cytoskeleton
• The cell’s skeleton
• A dynamic network of
protein fibers found in the
cytoplasm
• There are 3 types of fibers
in the cytoskeleton
1. Microtubules: thickest
2. Microfilaments: thinnest
3. Intermediate filaments:
intermediate
 Cytoskeleton: 3 types of fibres

Microtubules Actin filaments Intermediate filaments

(microfilaments)
Hollow tubes made from tubulin Solid rods made from actin Solid rods made from keratin
monomers (thickest) protein monomers (thinnest) proteins (various types)

• Cell shape • Cell shape • Cell shape

• Organelle movement • Muscle contraction • Fixes organelle location
• Chromosome movement • Cell motility (pseudopodia) • Nucleus shape and rigidity
• Cell motility (cilia and flagella) • Cell division (cleavage furrow) (nuclear lamina)
• Cytoplasmic streaming
 Cytoskeleton function

• Maintain/change cell shape

(support)
• Organelle movement (think of
vesicles)
• Cell movement
• Muscle contraction
 Microtubules: structure and
function
• Hollow rods constructed from the globular
protein tubulin
• Flagella:
• Wavelike motion
• Long
• One or a few/cell
• Ex.
• Some bacteria
• Sperm cells

• Cilia:
• Move like an oar
• Short
• Many on cell surface
• Ex.
• Paramecium – movement
• Respiratory lining – move liquids

• Organelle movement
 Microfilaments: structure and
function
• Solid rods, constructed from
actin
1. Maintain cell shape
2. Muscle contraction
• Actin filaments slide along myosin
filaments
3. Cell motility (pseudopodia
formation during
phagocytosis)
4. Cell division
5. Cytoplasmic streaming
• Move fluid throughout the cell to
circulate its contents
YouTube fun! (pseudopodia)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pvOz4V699gk
&feature=youtu.be

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mv6Ehv06mX
Y&feature=youtu.be
Intermediate filaments: structure
and function
• Diverse class of proteins, depending on cell type
• Contain keratin
• Reinforce cell shape
• Fix organelle location
• Gives the nucleus shape and rigidity as part of the
nuclear lamina
 Cell wall
• The cell wall is external to the plasma membrane. Present in plants,
bacteria, fungi and some protists. Not in animal cells!

Functions: Cell wall

• Maintain cell shape (it is
rigid)
• Prevent excess water
uptake

Composition:
• Bacteria: peptidoglycan
• Plants: cellulose
• Fungi: chitin
• Protists (algae): cellulose
• Which type of organelles would each of these cell types contain large amounts
of?

(1) B cells are immune cells that produce large amounts of antibodies (proteins) that are
secreted into the blood. (name 3 organelles) Roughendoplasmicreticulumboundribosomes golgiapparatus

(2) Liver cells are very important to remove poisons, drugs and toxins from your body (name
1 organelle) Peroxisomes smoothendoplasmicreticulum

(3) Muscle cells require a large amount of energy in the form of ATP to contract and produce
movement. Proteins called actin and myosin are synthesized in large amounts to generate
these contractions (name 2 organelles) Mitochondria freeribosomes

(4) White blood cells phagocytize (eat) bacteria and destroy them. (name 1 organelle; what
cytoskeletal component is involved in phagocytosis?) Lysosomes actinfilaments

(5) Beta cells in the pancreas produce and secrete large amounts of insulin, a protein
hormone that is important for blood sugar homeostasis . (name 3 organelles)Rougher
boundribosomes golgiapparatus
Activated plasma cell (antibody-secreting B-cell)

https://theadventuresofbecky.files.wordpress.com/2010/03/plasma-cell-em.jpg
 Inner life of the cell
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wJyUtbn0O5Y&t=91s
 Make tables!
Ex: Membrane-bound organelles
Organelle Structure Function

Nucleus

Golgi

ER (smooth)

ER (rough)

Mitochondria

Lysosome

Chloroplast

Peroxisomes

Vacuole

Plasma membrane

• Do the same for cellular structures without membranes (inside the cell and surrounding the cell)