ECE 151 – Introduction to

Programming
The Increment and Decrement
Operators

● ++ is the increment operator.

It adds one to a variable.

val++; is the same as val = val + 1;

● ++ can be used before (prefix) or after (postfix) a

variable:
++val; val++;
The Increment and Decrement
Operators

● -- is the decrement operator.

It subtracts one from a variable.

val--; is the same as val = val - 1;

● -- can be also used before (prefix) or after (postfix) a

variable:
--val; val--;
Increment and Decrement
Operators in Program 5-1

Continued…
Increment and Decrement
Operators in Program 5-1
Prefix vs. Postfix

● ++ and -- operators can be used in complex statements and expressions

● In prefix mode (++val, --val) the operator increments or decrements,
then returns the value of the variable
● In postfix mode (val++, val--) the operator returns the value of the
variable, then increments or decrements
Prefix vs. Postfix - Examples

int num, val = 12;

cout << val++; // displays 12,
// val is now 13;
cout << ++val; // sets val to 14,
// then displays it
num = --val; // sets val to 13,
// stores 13 in num
num = val--; // stores 13 in num,
// sets val to 12
Notes on Increment and Decrement

● Can be used in expressions:

result = num1++ + --num2;
● Must be applied to something that has a location in
memory. Cannot have:
result = (num1 + num2)++;
● Can be used in relational expressions:
if (++num > limit)

pre- and post-operations will cause different comparisons

Introduction to Loops:
The while Loop
● Loop: a control structure that causes a statement or statements to repeat
● General format of the while loop:

while (expression)

statement;
● statement; can also be a block of statements enclosed in { }
The while Loop – How It Works

while (expression)

statement;
● expression is evaluated

○ if true, then statement is executed, and expression is evaluated again

○ if false, then the loop is finished and program statements following

statement execute
The Logic of a while Loop
The while loop in Program 5-3
How the while Loop in Program 5-3 Lines 9
through 13 Works
Flowchart of the while Loop in Program 5-3
The while Loop is a Pretest Loop

expression is evaluated before the

loop executes. The following loop will
never execute:

int number = 6;
while (number <= 5)
{
cout << "Hello\n";
number++;
}
Watch Out for Infinite Loops

● The loop must contain code to make expression become false

● Otherwise, the loop will have no way of stopping
● Such a loop is called an infinite loop, because it will repeat an infinite
number of times
Example of an Infinite Loop

int number = 1;
while (number <= 5)
{
cout << "Hello\n";
}
Using the while Loop for Input Validation

● Input validation is the process of inspecting data that is given to the program
as input and determining whether it is valid.

● The while loop can be used to create input routines that reject invalid data,
and repeat until valid data is entered.
Using the while Loop for Input Validation

● Here's the general approach, in pseudocode:

Read an item of input.

While the input is invalid
Display an error message.
Read the input again.
End While
Input Validation Example

cout << "Enter a number less than 10: ";

cin >> number;
while (number >= 10)
{
cout << "Invalid Entry!"
<< "Enter a number less than 10: ";
cin >> number;
}
Flowchart for Input Validation
Input Validation in Program 5-5
Counters

● Counter: a variable that is incremented or decremented each time a loop

repeats
● Can be used to control execution of the loop (also known as the loop control
variable)
● Must be initialized before entering loop
A Counter Variable Controls the Loop in
Program 5-6

Continued…
A Counter Variable Controls the Loop in
Program 5-6
The do-while Loop

● do-while: a posttest loop – execute the loop, then

test the expression
● General Format:
do
statement; // or block in { }
while (expression);

● Note that a semicolon is required after

(expression)
The Logic of a do-while Loop
An Example do-while Loop

int x = 1;
do
{
cout << x << endl;
} while(x < 0);

Although the test expression is false, this loop will

execute one time because do-while is a posttest
loop.
A do-while Loop in Program 5-7

Continued…
A do-while Loop in Program 5-7
do-while Loop Notes

● Loop always executes at least once

● Execution continues as long as expression is true, stops repetition
when expression becomes false
● Useful in menu-driven programs to bring user back to menu to make another
choice (see Program 5-8 on pages 245-246)
The for Loop

● Useful for counter-controlled loop

● General Format:

for(initialization; test; update)

statement; // or block in { }

● No semicolon after the update expression or after the

)
for Loop - Mechanics

for(initialization; test; update)

statement; // or block in { }

1) Perform initialization
2) Evaluate test expression
○ If true, execute statement

○ If false, terminate loop execution

3) Execute update, then re-evaluate test expression
for Loop - Example

int count;

for (count = 1; count <= 5; count++)

cout << "Hello" << endl;
A Closer Look at the
Previous Example
Flowchart for the Previous Example
A for Loop in Program 5-9

Continued…
A for Loop in Program 5-9
A Closer Look at Lines 15 through 16 in
Program 5-9
Flowchart for Lines 15 through 16 in Program
5-9
When to Use the for Loop

● In any situation that clearly requires

○ an initialization

○ a false condition to stop the loop

○ an update to occur at the end of each iteration

The for Loop is a Pretest Loop

● The for loop tests its test expression before each iteration, so it is a pretest
loop.
● The following loop will never iterate:

for (count = 11; count <= 10; count++)

cout << "Hello" << endl;
for Loop - Modifications

● You can have multiple statements in the

initialization expression. Separate the
statements with a comma:
Initialization Expression

int x, y;
for (x=1, y=1; x <= 5; x++)
{
cout << x << " plus " << y
<< " equals " << (x+y)
<< endl;
}
for Loop - Modifications

● You can also have multiple statements in the

test expression. Separate the statements
with a comma:
Test
Expression

int x, y;
for (x=1, y=1; x <= 5; x++, y++)
{
cout << x << " plus " << y
<< " equals " << (x+y)
<< endl;
}
for Loop - Modifications

● You can omit the initialization expression if it has already been

done:

int sum = 0, num = 1;

for (; num <= 10; num++)
sum += num;
for Loop - Modifications

● You can declare variables in the initialization expression:

int sum = 0;

for (int num = 0; num <= 10; num++)

sum += num;

The scope of the variable num is the for loop.

Keeping a Running Total

● running total: accumulated sum of numbers from each

repetition of loop
● accumulator: variable that holds running total
int sum=0, num=1; // sum is the
while (num <= 10) // accumulator
{ sum += num;
num++;
}
cout << "Sum of numbers 1 – 10 is"
<< sum << endl;
Logic for Keeping a Running Total
A Running Total in Program 5-12

Continued…
A Running Total in Program 5-12
Sentinels

● sentinel: value in a list of values that indicates end of data

● Special value that cannot be confused with a valid value, e.g., -999 for a test
score

● Used to terminate input when user may not know how many values will be
entered
A Sentinel in Program 5-13

Continued…
A Sentinel in Program 5-13
Deciding Which Loop to Use

● The while loop is a conditional pretest loop

○ Iterates as long as a certain condition exits

○ Validating input

○ Reading lists of data terminated by a sentinel

● The do-while loop is a conditional posttest loop

○ Always iterates at least once

○ Repeating a menu

● The for loop is a pretest loop

○ Built-in expressions for initializing, testing, and updating

○ Situations where the exact number of iterations is known

Nested Loops

● A nested loop is a loop inside the body of another loop

● Inner (inside), outer (outside) loops:

for (row=1; row<=3; row++) //outer

for (col=1; col<=3; col++)//inner

cout << row * col << endl;

Nested for Loop in Program 5-14

Inner Loop

Outer Loop
Nested Loops - Notes

● Inner loop goes through all repetitions for each repetition of outer loop

● Inner loop repetitions complete sooner than outer loop

● Total number of repetitions for inner loop is product of number of repetitions

of the two loops.
Breaking Out of a Loop

● Can use break to terminate execution of a loop

● Use sparingly if at all – makes code harder to understand and debug

● When used in an inner loop, terminates that loop only and goes back to outer
loop
The continue Statement

● Can use continue to go to end of loop and prepare for next repetition

○ while, do-while loops: go to test, repeat loop if test passes

○ for loop: perform update step, then test, then repeat loop if test passes
● Use sparingly – like break, can make program logic hard to follow
Thank You