Imperialism
● By the 19th century, new types of imperialism appeared that differed substantially from
earlier versions
● Forces of nationalism and industrialization made it possible for European nations to build
global empires that stretched across continents
● Nationalism enabled governments to rally citizens’ support for expansion
● Industrialization allowed goods to be produced for foreign markets
● European countries that became great imperialist powers were Britain, France,
Germany, Netherlands, and Russia
● Industrialization made communications and transportation efficient
● US and Japan joined Europeans in forming overseas empires by the end of 19th
century
Types of Imperialism
● Imperialism described the new type of empire-building
● Colonial Imperialism
○ A territory or colony would be occupied and ruled by a foreign nation, with
its economy, government, and lifestyles controlled by European nations
● Political Imperialism
○ Dominant countries use diplomacy or military force to influence the
internal affairs of a weaker nation
● Economic imperialism
○ Inspired by the desire to control global trade and commerce
● Social-cultural imperialism
○ Based on the desire to influence a territory to adopt the cultural values and
social customs of the imperialist country
● Multiple types of imperialism could be practiced
Forms of Imperialism
● Imperialist countries set up tropical dependencies and settlement colonies
● Tropical dependencies were small numbers of Europeans ruling non-western
people who came under European rule
● Settlement colonies were destinations for European settlers so their populations
had large percentages of people of European ancestry
● European claims were often contested, with frequent clashes over land rights,
control of natural resources, and cultural and social differences
Industrialization and Imperialism
● Industrialization changed the nature of the process of empire-building
● Empire builders looked for raw materials instead of gold, silver, and land
● European nations looked for overseas markets for machine-made goods that
flooded existing marketplaces
● The Bessemer steel converter allowed iron ore to be converted to steel efficiently
● Chemical industries grief with production of synthetic substances for dyes for
textiles, fertilizers, and explosives
● Plastics and more uses of electricity became available
● Industrialization made it possible for Europeans to penetrate beyond sea coasts
● Steamboats and railroads allowed Europeans to explore internal rivers and lands
away from coasts
● Industrialization promoted economic imperialism
● Industrialization brought the construction of the Suez and Panama Canals
○ Incredible engineering accomplishments made by new industrial
technologies
○ Greatly facilitated travel of ships
○ Lowered costs of trade between imperial powers
○ Made communications much easier
Imperialism in Africa
● Industrialization in western nations brought dramatic changes to Africa
○ Technological capacity to go inland became possible, and the abundance
of raw materials in AFrica stimulated western explorations
● The Scramble for Africa was further promoted by modern journalism
Northern Africa
● Muhammad Ali envisioned Egypt as a benificary of western technology
○ Introduced new irrigation projects to boost the productivity of Egyptian
cotton farmers
○ Established mills, modernize the army, built a system of secular state
schools, and increased the efficiency of the government
● Too much money was borrowed for internal improvements which led to debt
allowing American cotton to take over the demand for Egyptian cotton
● European creditors leaned heavily on the Egyptian government
○ European advisors were installed
○ British forces sent to protect Suez canal
● French suppressed piracy and collected debts by invading Algeria
● French won wars against Algerian independence but hostility toward their
occupation continued to fester
South Africa
● The Dutch established Cape Colony at the southern tip of Africa
● The expansion of the colony contributed to the political and social unrest among
surrounding African states
● Shaka organized an army and attacked neighboring African states in competition
for grazing land
○ Short stabbing spear brought a tremendous advantage
○ Shaka’s armies displaced may African groups within the borders of the
Cape Colony
● Britain took control of the Cape Colony through the Napoleonic Wars,which
caused many Dutch settlers to move inland away from British-controlled port
cities
● “Great Trek” of Dutch descent “Boers” added to the turmoil of African
displacement
● Boers established two republics, the Orange Free State and the Transvaal
○ Sought freedom from British control until diamonds were discovered in the
Orange Free State
● The Discovery of diamonds and gold deposits found near the Suez Canal
revitalized the area and brought Europeans to seek their fortune there
● British entrepreneurs such as Cecil Rhodes and prospectors increased hostilities
between British and Dutch settlers in competition to control the diamond and gold
mines
● Rhodes came to dominate the world’s diamond trade, but also wished to
establish British political domination
● Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) was named
after Rhodes
● Britain tried to annex the Boer republics, they sparked the African War between
the Dutch and the British
● Britain won the war decisively but the British government led the settlers to
govern themselves
○ Afrikaners eventually came to dominate the Union of South Africa
Explorers and Missionaries
● David Livingstone, a Scottish Protestant, was influenced by the reform
movements of his day in his desire to convert Africans to Christianity and to free
them from slavery
○ Seeked converts and made detailed maps of the parts of Africa that he
explored
○ Published “Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa”
■ Filled huge gaps in western knowledge of central and southern
Africa
○ Searched for the source of the Nile River in central Africa but nothing was
heard of him for several months
● Henry Stanley, an American journalist, set off amidst great publicity to find him
● Dr. Lvingstone died a few months later after being found, without finding the
source of the Nile
● Stanley established trading stations for King Leopold II of Belgium
○ Profited personally from the publicity of his expedition and the trading
arrangement
● Stanley and Dr. Livingstone stimulated the Scramble for Africa
The Scramble for Africa
● Between 1875 and 1900, European imperial powers set off to claim lands in
Africa
● Knowledge gained about the great African rivers allowed others to reach inland
regions
● King Leopold II declared the Basin of the Congo River to be a free-trade zone but
filled it with rubber plantations run by forced African labor that increased his
personal wealth
● British laid claim to Egypt, and other European statement feared that their
countries would be left behind unless they also claimed territories
● Using the principle of balance of power, Otto von Bismarck called a meeting of
fourteen states to meet up
● The Berlin Conference was meant to calm rivalries and avoid war
○ Produced an agreement that any European state could establish colonies
in unclaimed land in Africa, but must first notify the other states of its
intentions
● Representatives from European countries divided land in Africa in order to split
territories between them
○ Each country sent armies to validate claims
■ African spears and outdated muskets were no match for European
cannons and machine guns
● By 1900, all areas of Africa were colonized except for Ethiopia and Liberia
The British Empire in India
● As Mughal power weakened, Muslim princes called nawabs asseted regional
control at the expense of the empire
○ Made independent agreements with European nations which allowed
them to establish trading posts
● Company men would organize trade and protect warehouses and offices
● As Britain gained the upper hand in the 7 years war, The East India company
secured trading posts at the expense of the French
Rule by the East India Company
● The East India Company secured many footholds in India by 1818
○ Established the British Raj
● The company’s motives were economic; economic imperialism
○ The british government was not directly involved
● Protection of property and trading rights led to political imperialism
● Company encouraged Christian missionaries to convert Indian people
○ Limited success with conversions but social-cultural imperialism kept
pressure up for British-style social reforms
● Both Muslim and Hindu Indian princes received more power than ever
● Indians saw that they needed to preserve their cultural heritage and conform to
British customs and beliefs
● The Industrial Revolution allowed for economic demands to change, which both
helped and hurt the Indian economy
● British raj created new jobs for Indians in trade and the military
● Handcraft textile industry was weakened by British factories
● British manufacturers demanded raw cotton instead of finished goods from India
The Sepoy Rebellion
● Convinced the British government that only colonial imperialism would work in
India
● Sepoys staged a mutiny and proclaimed their allegiance to the Mughals,
eventually joined by elites and peasants
● British government was forced to send forces to India
○ Order was restored and direct imperial rule was imposed
British Imperial Rule
● The viceroy’s elite Indian Civil Service was staffed almost completely by
Englishmen
● British formulated and executed virtually all domestic and foreign policy in India
● Last traces of Mughal and company rule were eliminated
● British rule continued to emphasize both Indian tradition and modern reform
○ Queen Victoria proclaimed that all Indians had equal protection of the law
and the freedom to practice their religions and social customs
● Rights of Indian princes to rule their territories were guaranteed
● Power was compromised by the large bureaucracy set up by the British to
establish a strong central government in India
● Indian princes and viceroys lived luxurious life-styles in order to establish their
legitimacy
● India Civil Service held the senior administrative and judicial positions
● High desirable positions were open to everyone, but examinations made it
impossible for Indians to take them
● Economic imperialism transformed India through massive British investment in
infrastructure, cities, harbors, canals, and other public works
● Railroads received building priority
● Steamboats traveled Indian rivers and canals built by the British
● Indian products became part of international trade
○ Cotton, opium, tea, silk, and sugar
● British economic reorganization led to the growth of cities
● Disease and epidemics traveled and developed
● A new sewage system and other sanitary measures eventually lowered death
rates in other areas, but cholera was a serious threat in India
Indian Nationalism
● British decided to emphasize western-style schools for the children of Indian elite
● The raj needed people to fill administrative posts who understood the English
language and customs
● Schools transmitted technical and scientific knowledge, along with western
literature, manners, values, and beliefs
● Some Indians who had received such educations found that they were still
excluded from top jobs and were socially segregated
● Western-educated Indians no longer had many things in common with traditional
Indians, including their family members
● Indians encountered liberal values that had been spawned by the Enlightenment
and honed through the revolutions that promoted them
● Indians wondered why they were excluded from ideas such as equality, justice,
and freedom
○ This led to the Indian nationalist movement
● Rammohun Roy promoted Pan-Indian nationalism in the early 19th century
● Founded a society called Brahmo Samaj, whose goal was to reconcile western
values with the ancient religious traditions of India
○ Joined the British in their campaign to ban sati, or burn widows at their
husbands’ funeral pyres
● By the late 19th century, other leaders were emerging from the growing Indian
middle class, which had propsored from India’s industrialization
● Educated and ambitious Indians convened the first Indian National Congress
○ Aimed to create a larger role for Indians in the Civil Service
○ Unable to develop a broad appeal among ordinary Indians
○ Their movement did not bring about much change in British India until the
20th century
Americas After Independence
● The paths of North and Latin America diverged as they were ruled by different
European powers
● Once the colonies gained independence to become the US, economic and
cultural tied to Britain insured that industrialization would diffuse to North America
● Latin America had traditions rooted in Spain and Portugal which made it a
struggle for them to prosper
The Rise of the United States
● The colonies’ ability to gain independence came largely because their leaders
understood the rivalry between England and France and acted to capitalize on it
● The US developed internally and was preoccupied with westward expansion and
political stability
● Americans tried to do their best to stay out of European affairs
● The isolationist policy was written down in the Monroe Doctrine, which warned
against Europeans meddling in the Americas
● Nation expanded rapidly through the Louisiana Purchase, Annexation of Texas,
and the acquisition of California and other western territories
● By mid-century, the country extended coast to coast, and the new lands allowed
for Americans to prosper
● Immigration from Europe intensified due to the potato famine and political turmoil
● New immigrants provided labor necessary for industrialization and technological
innovations
The Civil War
● Between 1861 and 1865, the US fought a civil war between the northern states
and the southern states
○ Complex causes based on conflicting regional interests
● Northern economy was growing based on industrialization while southern states
grew based on agriculture
○ Economy was dominated by export-oriented plantations that were worked
by slaves
● Abolitionist movement grew stronger in the North and put pressure on
government officials to end slavery
● The South believed the central government was dominated more and more by
the North
● The North believed the war was fought to keep the country united, although
many supported it as they opposed slavery
● The North’s victory resulted in the emancipation of the slaves
○ Freed slaves’ civil rights were severely limited
● The US remained as one country, which laid the groundwork for its rise to a world
power
Economic Development
● Civil War accelerated industrialization in the US
● Heavy industry developed along with railroad building in order to facilitate
transportation
● Rail lines were built that connected the country coast to coast
● Increased mechanization of farming and new agricultural methods allowed
agriculture to be more productive
● Booming industry of armaments manufacturers attracted a new wave of
immigrants from Europe, providing the necessary labor for industrialization
Diplomacy and Cultural Development
● Traditional foreign policy of isolationism began to change during the 19th century
● Defeat of Spain in the Spanish American War brought new territories in the
Caribbean and the Pacific
● Roosevelt understood the importance of sea power and promoted an expansion
of the navy and the building of the US controlled Panama Canal
○ Opened to traffic and allowed the US navy to more easily travel from coast
to coast
● Isolationism remained a strong thread in American diplomacy and the US had
very little influence outside the Western Hemisphere
● American culture had its own uniqueness but remained dependent on European
culture throughout the 19th century
● Romanticism was an important movement in arts and literature, which began in
Europe and spread to the US
● Romanticism was a reaction to the Enlightenment’s emphasis on rational thought
○ Held the emotion and impressions shape the human experience
○ Artists and novelists tried to reach human emotions by depicting beauty,
passion, or tragedy
● Advances in science kept the rationalist tradition alive
● Charles Darwin developed the evolutionary theory that all living species had
evolved from earlier species through time as they adapted to changes in the
environment
○ His ideas contradicted to traditional Chritstian beliefs that humans were
created by God
● Social sciences continued to rely on the scientific method for their development
○ Sigmund Freud greatly altered psychology and related fields with his
theories of the irrational subconscious mind
● The US had its own technological and scientific innovators, but it remained
dependent on European culture and science throughout the 19th century
Migration to the Americas
● The economic development of the Americas was fueled by the mass migration of
Europeans and Asians to the Western Hemisphere to work in factories, railroad
construction sites, and plantations
● Immigrants brought their beliefs and customs which resulted in diversified
American states
● Immigrants with few skills in NA were welcome as factory workers
○ The new economy was based on division of labor that created simple
tasks that could be done by almost anyone
● Industrialists were able to pay them low wages, which led to maximized profits
● Some immigrants moved west to farm the lands in the Ohio and Mississippi River
Valleys but many stayed with factories and businesses
● Chinese immigration increased during the 1840’s as a result of turmoil in sc
○ Most came as indentured servants since the Qing government allowed
foreigners to recruit them in CHina
■ Came to work in agriculture or on the construction of the Central
Pacific Railroad
● Some immigrants came in response to the Gold Rush
● Immigrants to Latin America worked on mainly agricultural plantations
● Once the US expanded its sugar and pineapple industries to Hawaii, many
Asians immigrated to work on island plantations
Relations Between North and Latin America
● As the US rapidly industrialized after the Civil War, commerce and investments
began to expand into Latin America
● The Spanish American War
○ Cuban nationalists fought for independence
○ US investors had interests in sugar; major market for Cuban sugar
● The US JOined Cuba in war7 against Spain
● Spain had only the remnants of its former power and US intervention resulted in
the loss of Spain’s last colonies
● The US kept control in Cuba and controlled the actions of the new government in
accordance with US interests
● By 1900, resentments between Latin American and US governments were
growing and would accelerate during the early 20th century as the US
increasingly asserted its power on the world stage
Global Changes in the Age of Imperialism
● Imperialism widened the gap between rich and poor nations
● Global economy that developed consisted of countries that controlled and
countries that were controlled
● Almost all areas of the world were affected by industrialization, including those
that remained agricultural
● Forces of industrialization became more powerful which allowed western nations
to explore the ends of the Earth for natural resources and markets
● Western European nations were eventually joined by Russia, Japan, and the US
in the quest for expansion
● Economic Changes
○ Global economy was reorganized so that imperialist countries controlled
natural resources in their subject societies around the world
○ Many resources served as raw materials for the factories of industrialized
nations
○ New natural resources were discovered and means of transportation
improved
○ Some subject lands continued to produce raw materials to be exported to
the mother country
○ In other areas, crops were newly introduced, so most of the land space
was taken up by the crops for export
■ Often at at the expense of raising food necessary for the subject
people
● Labor Migrations
○ Imperialist countries encouraged people to migrate to areas where labor
was most needed
○ Many migrants became indentured servants
○ As slave labor systems declined, the plantations made use of contract
laborers recruited from lands where poverty levels were high and
populations were dense
○ Most European migrants were not indentured servants, but sought cheap
land to cultivate
○ Most migrants headed to colonies controlled by their homeland
○ Expansion west provided cheap land and industrializing cities offered
factory jobs
● Social Consequences
○ Conflicts emerged between colonizers and the colonized
○ Europeans segregated themselves from the natives
○ Mixed marriages or living arrangements were frowned upon
○ Women and children did not have the work-related contacts that men had
○ Upper and middle classes rarely socialized with Europeans
○ Exclusion from imperialists led to independence movements
○ Missionary girls were first established to provide literacy skills to deprived
social groups
○ Women were able to attend schools sponsored by European colonizers
○ Men became westernized and wished for their wives to do the same
○ Educational opportunities opened up for women
■ Mainly focused on domestic skills
○ Some European women found liberation in their new roles from social
constraints at home
● Scientific Racism
○ Economic changes came with an academic pursuit known as scientific
racism
○ Studies were based on the assumption that the world is divided into 4
main racial groups
○ Joseph Arthur de Gobineau
■ Africans as lazy and unintelligent
■ Europeans as intelligent and morally superior
■ Asians as smart but non-assertive
■ American natives as arrogant yet dull
○ Scientists supported the notion that Europeans were superior and the
natural masters of the world
○ Social Darwinists applied survival of the fittest to social situations
■ Herbert Spencer argued that successful and races emerged to
dominate others
■ His ideas were used to justify both the wealth of entrepreneurs in
opposition to laborers, and European imperialists over subjects
● Massive political and economic changes in Europe transformed societies there,
but also impacted other areas of the world
● Liberalism and nationalism spread throughout the world as Europeans came to
dominate other areas with industrial might
● Economic world order changes as non-Europeans supplied labor and natural
resources for industrial countries
● US and Japan emerged as industrial powers but competition among European
powers increased and eventually led to wars during the early 20th century
○ World war that impacted virtually all areas of the world
Crisis and Collapse of the Imperial Order
● By the ‘s the world order was based on imperialism and the ability of western
countries to dominate others
● Imperialist possibilities were provoked among European nations, leading to
World War I in 1914
● World War I was followed by an economic depression
● By the end of World War II, countries of Western Europe were weakened and the
foundations of European imperialism crumbled
● The overall impact of the two wars and depression caused the US and Soviet
Union to emerge as the world’s superpowers by the end of World War II
The Buildup to World War I
● The Great War involved more countries than any previous war in history
● First total war in which governments mobilize virtually every person and natural
resource available to support the war effort
● Nationalism bound civilians to the war
● Technologies brought by industrialization increased the number of human
casualties
○ 9,000,000 soldiers dead, 21,000,000 injured
● The war damaged the national economies of European nations on both winning
and losing sides
● World War I was the first step toward the loss of western European hegemony
Underlying Causes of the War
● European countries had a long history of conflict
● Economic and military competition extended to the world stage, as Germany
joined the question for new colonies in Africa and Asia
● Rivalries intensified by Nationalism
○ All industrialized nations of Europe competed for foreign markets
○ Increase in production in the US was responsible for Britain’s drop
○ Germany was catching up to Britain’s lead in sea power
● Colonial Disputes
○ Scramble for empire was spurred by nationalist rivalries among European
countries
○ European countries constantly underwent conflicts between each other
over control of lands
● Self-Determination
○ The spirit of nationalism supported the notion that people with common
national identities have the right to form their own sovereign states
■ Belief was formalized into the doctrine of self-determination which
inspired many people in eastern Europe to fight for their
independence
○ Many countries gained their independence from the weakening Ottoman
Empire while others had nationalist aspirations which spawned resistance
to Habsburg rule
○ Russia encouraged Pan-Slavism, a feeling of cultural and ethnic kinship
among the Slavic people
● Entangling Alliances
○ The Great War was sparked by the assassination of Archduke Ferdinant
of Austria-Hungary by a Serb nationalist
■ Never would have led to the widespread war had it not been for the
system of alliances that had been building in Europe over the
previous decades
○ Alliances combined with a build-up of each country’s military to divide
Europe into two hostile armed camps
● A Serbian nationalist group called the “Black Hand” claimed responsibilty for the
assassination of Archuduke Ferdinand
● One by one, countries of Europe took sides and declared war on one another
● Ties of empire drew millions of colonists into the war to serve as soldiers and
laborers
