GRADE 12

CHEMISTRY

Sheron Runodamoto
 2
1.1 Information sheets – Paper 2 (Chemistry)

TABLE 1: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

NAME SYMBOL VALUE

Standard pressure p 1,013 x 105 Pa
Molar gas volume at STP Vm 22,4 dm3∙mol-1
Standard temperature T 273 K
Charge on electron e -1,6 x 10-19 C
Avogadro’s constant NA 6,02 x 1023 mol-1

TABLE 2: FORMULAE

m N
n= n=
M NA
n m V
n=
c= OR c =
V MV Vm
c a Va na
= pH = -log[H3O+]
c b Vb nb

Kw = [H3O+][OH-] = 1 x 10-14 at 298 K

Eθ = Eθ − Eθ
cell cathode anode

Eθ = Eθ − Eθ
cell reduction oxidation

Eθ = Eθ − Eθ
cell oxidisingagent reducingagent
 3
Contents
THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS ……………………………………….4

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS………………………………………………………7

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY…………………………………………………………16
WRITING IUPAC NAMES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS…………………...18
Melting and boiling points………………………………………………………. 22
TYPES OF REACTIONS………………………………………………………...23
ORGANIC MOLECULES: NOMENCLATURE………………………………...26
ORGANIC MOLECULES: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES………………………..39
ORGANIC MOLECULES: ORGANIC REACTIONS…………………………..49

CHEMICAL CHANGE (RATE AND EXTENT OF REACTION)……….….…. 60

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM……………………………………………….….…..79

ACIDS AND BASES……………………………………………………….….….92

GALVANIC CELLS……………………………………………………….……....99

ELECTROLYTIC CELLS AND OTHER CELLS…………………….………..112

FERTILISERS…………………………………………………………..……….126

BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………...………131
 4

THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

5
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(I) (II) Atomic number (III) (IV) (V) (VI) (VII) (VIII)
KEY/SLEUTEL Atoomgetal
1 2
2,1

H He
1 29 4
Symbol

1,9
3 4 Electronegativity Cu Simbool
5 6 7 8 9 10
1,0

1,5

2,0

2,5

3,0

3,5

4,0
Li Be Elektronegatiwiteit 63,5 B C N O F Ne
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
0,9

1,2

1,5

1,8

2,1

2,5

3,0
Na Mg Approximate relative atomic mass Aℓ Si P S Cℓ Ar
23 24 Benaderde relatiewe atoommassa 27 28 31 32 35,5 40
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
0,8

1,0

1,3

1,5

1,6

1,6

1,5

1,8

1,8

1,8

1,9

1,6

1,6

1,8

2,0

2,4

2,8
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 63,5 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
0,8

1,0

1,2

1,4

1,8

1,9

2,2

2,2

2,2

1,9

1,7

1,7

1,8

1,9

2,1

2,5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
86 88 89 91 92 96 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Tℓ
0,7

0,9

1,6

1,8

1,8

1,9

2,0

2,5
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Pb Bi Po At Rn
133 137 139 179 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209
87 88 89
0,7

0,9

Fr Ra Ac
226 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140 141 144 150 152 157 159 163 165 167 169 173 175
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232 238
 5

TABLE 4A: STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS

Half-reactions E θ (V)
−
F2(g) + 2e ⇌ 2F− + 2,87
Co3+ + e− ⇌ Co2+ + 1,81
+ −
H2O2 + 2H +2e ⇌ 2H2O +1,77
− + 1,51
MnO 4 + 8H+ + 5e− ⇌ Mn2+ + 4H2O
Cℓ2(g) + 2e− ⇌ 2Cℓ− + 1,36
2− + 1,33
+ 14H++ 6e−
3+
Cr2O 7 ⇌ 2Cr + 7H2O
O2(g) + 4H+ + 4e− ⇌ 2H2O + 1,23
MnO2+ 4H+ + 2e− ⇌ Mn2+ + 2H2O + 1,23
Pt2+ + 2e− ⇌ Pt + 1,20
Br2(ℓ) + 2e− ⇌ 2Br− + 1,07
− + 0,96
NO 3 + 4H+ + 3e− ⇌ NO(g) + 2H2O
−
2+
Hg + 2e ⇌ Hg(ℓ) + 0,85
Ag+ + e− ⇌ Ag + 0,80
− + 0,80
NO 3 + 2H+ + e− ⇌ NO2(g) + H2O
Fe3+ + e− ⇌ Fe2+ + 0,77
O2(g) + 2H+ + 2e− ⇌ H2O2 + 0,68
I2 + 2e− ⇌ 2I− + 0,54

Increasing reducing ability/

Cu+ + e− ⇌ Cu + 0,52
Increasing oxidising ability

SO2 + 4H+ + 4e− ⇌ S + 2H2O + 0,45

2H2O + O2 + 4e− ⇌ 4OH− + 0,40
Cu2+ + 2e− ⇌ Cu + 0,34
2− + 0,17
SO 4 + 4H+ + 2e− ⇌ SO2(g) + 2H2O
Cu2+ + e− ⇌ Cu+ + 0,16
Sn4+ + 2e− ⇌ Sn2+ + 0,15
S + 2H+ + 2e− ⇌ H2S(g) + 0,14
2H+ + 2e− ⇌ H2(g) 0,00
Fe3+ + 3e− ⇌ Fe − 0,06
Pb2+ + 2e− ⇌ Pb − 0,13
Sn2+ + 2e− ⇌ Sn − 0,14
Ni2+ + 2e− ⇌ Ni − 0,27
Co2+ + 2e− ⇌ Co − 0,28
Cd2+ + 2e− ⇌ Cd − 0,40
Cr3+ + e− ⇌ Cr2+ − 0,41
Fe2+ + 2e− ⇌ Fe − 0,44
Cr3+ + 3e− ⇌ Cr − 0,74
Zn2+ + 2e− ⇌ Zn − 0,76
2H2O + 2e− ⇌ H2(g) + 2OH− − 0,83
Cr2+ + 2e− ⇌ Cr − 0,91
Mn2+ + 2e− ⇌ Mn − 1,18
Aℓ3+ + 3e− ⇌ Aℓ − 1,66
Mg2+ + 2e− ⇌ Mg − 2,36
Na+ + e− ⇌ Na − 2,71
Ca2+ + 2e− ⇌ Ca − 2,87
Sr2+ + 2e− ⇌ Sr − 2,89
Ba2+ + 2e− ⇌ Ba − 2,90
Cs+ + e- ⇌ Cs - 2,92
K+ + e− ⇌ K − 2,93
Li+ + e− ⇌ Li − 3,05
 6
TABLE 4B: STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS
Half-reactions E θ (V)
+
Li + e −
⇌ Li − 3,05
+
K +e −
⇌ K − 2,93
Cs+ + e− ⇌ Cs − 2,92
Ba2+ + 2e− ⇌ Ba − 2,90
2+
Sr + 2e −
⇌ Sr − 2,89
Ca2+ + 2e− ⇌ Ca − 2,87
+
Na + e −
⇌ Na − 2,71
2+
Mg + 2e −
⇌ Mg − 2,36
Aℓ3+ + 3e− ⇌ Aℓ − 1,66
2+
Mn + 2e −
⇌ Mn − 1,18
Cr2+ + 2e− ⇌ Cr − 0,91
2H2O + 2e− ⇌ H2(g) + 2OH− − 0,83
Zn2+ + 2e− ⇌ Zn − 0,76
Cr3+ + 3e− ⇌ Cr − 0,74
2+
Fe + 2e −
⇌ Fe − 0,44
Increasing oxidising ability

3+
Cr + e −
⇌ Cr2+ − 0,41

Increasing reducing ability

2+
Cd + 2e −
⇌ Cd − 0,40
2+
Co + 2e −
⇌ Co − 0,28
Ni2+ + 2e− ⇌ Ni − 0,27
Sn2+ + 2e− ⇌ Sn − 0,14
2+
Pb + 2e −
⇌ Pb − 0,13
Fe3+ + 3e− ⇌ Fe − 0,06
2H+ + 2e− ⇌ H2(g) 0,00
+ −
S + 2H + 2e ⇌ H2S(g) + 0,14
Sn4+ + 2e− ⇌ Sn2+ + 0,15
Cu2+ + e− ⇌ Cu+ + 0,16
2−
SO 4 + 4H+ + 2e− ⇌ SO2(g) + 2H2O + 0,17
Cu2+ + 2e− ⇌ Cu + 0,34
2H2O + O2 + 4e− ⇌ 4OH− + 0,40
SO2 + 4H+ + 4e− ⇌ S + 2H2O + 0,45
Cu+ + e− ⇌ Cu + 0,52
I2 + 2e− ⇌ 2I− + 0,54
O2(g) + 2H+ + 2e− ⇌ H2O2 + 0,68
Fe3+ + e− ⇌ Fe2+ + 0,77
−
NO 3 + 2H+ + e− ⇌ NO2(g) + H2O + 0,80
+ −
Ag + e ⇌ Ag + 0,80
Hg2+ + 2e− ⇌ Hg(ℓ) + 0,85
−
NO 3 + 4H+ + 3e− ⇌ NO(g) + 2H2O + 0,96
Br2(ℓ) + 2e− ⇌ 2Br− + 1,07
Pt2+ + 2 e− ⇌ Pt + 1,20
MnO2+ 4H+ + 2e− ⇌ Mn2+ + 2H2O + 1,23
O2(g) + 4H+ + 4e− ⇌ 2H2O + 1,23
2−
Cr2O 7 + 14H+ + 6e− ⇌ 2Cr + 7H2O
3+
+ 1,33
Cℓ2(g) + 2e− ⇌ 2Cℓ− + 1,36
−
MnO 4 + 8H+ + 5e− ⇌ Mn2+ + 4H2O + 1,51
H2O2 + 2H+ +2 e− ⇌ 2H2O +1,77
Co3+ + e− ⇌ Co2+ + 1,81
F2(g) + 2e− ⇌ 2F− + 2,87
 7

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

MATTER AND MATERIALS: ORGANIC MOLECULES
Addition reaction A reaction in which a double bond in the starting material is broken and
elements are added to it.
Addition polymer A polymer formed when monomers (usually containing a double bond)
combine through an addition reaction.
Addition polymerisation A reaction in which small molecules join to form very large molecules by
adding on double bonds.
Alcohol An organic compound in which H atoms in an alkane have been substituted
with hydroxyl groups (-OH groups).
General formula: CnH2n+1OH
Aldehydes Organic compounds having the general structure RCHO where R = H or
alkyl.
General formula: RCHO (R = alkyl group)
Alkane An organic compound containing only C-H and C-C single bonds.
General formula: CnH2n+2
Alkene A compound of carbon and hydrogen that contains a carbon-carbon double
bond.General formula: CnH2n
Alkyl group A group formed by removing one H atom from an alkane.
Alkyne A compound of carbon and hydrogen that contains a carbon-carbon triple
bond.
Boiling point The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid equals
atmospheric pressure.
Carbonyl group Functional group of ketones (>C=O)
Carboxyl group Functional group of carboxylic acids (-COOH)
Carboxylic acid An organic compound containing a carboxyl group (-COOH group).
General formula: CnH2n+1COOH (or RCOOH)
Chain isomers Compounds with the same molecular formula, but different types of chains.
Condensation polymer A polymer formed by two monomers with different functional groups that are
linked together in a condensation reaction in which a small molecule,
usually water, is lost.
Condensation Molecules of two monomers with different functional groups undergo
polymerisation condensation reactions with the loss of small molecules, usually water
Condensed structural A formula that shows the way in which atoms are bonded together in the
formula molecule, but DOES NOT SHOW ALL bond lines.
Cracking The chemical process in which longer chain hydrocarbon molecules are
broken down to shorter more useful molecules.
Dehydration Elimination of water from a compound usually such as an alcohol.
Dehydrohalogenation The elimination of hydrogen and a halogen from a haloalkane.
Dipole-dipole force Intermolecular forces found between polar molecules i.e. molecules in
which there is an uneven distribution of charge so that the molecule has a
positive and a negative side.
Elimination reaction A reaction in which elements of the starting material are “lost” and a double
bond is formed.
Esterification The preparation of an ester from the reaction of a carboxylic acid with an
alcohol.
Functional group A bond or an atom or a group of atoms that determine(s) the physical and
chemical properties of a group of organic compounds.
Functional isomers Compounds with the same molecular formula, but different functional
groups.
Haloalkane An organic compound in which one or more H atoms in an alkane have
(Alkyl halide) been replaced with halogen atoms.
General formula: CnH2n+1X (X = F, Cℓ, Br or I)
 8

Halogenation The reaction of a halogen (Br2, Cℓ2) with a compound.

Homologous series A series of organic compounds that can be described by the same general
formula.

OR
A series of organic compounds in which one member differs from the next
with a CH2 group.
Hydration The addition of water to a compound.
Hydrocarbon Organic compounds that consist of hydrogen and carbon only.
Hydrogenation The addition of hydrogen to an alkene
Hydrogen bond A strong intermolecular force found between molecules in which an H atom
is covalently bonded to wither an N, O or F atom.
Hydrohalogenation The addition of a hydrogen halide to an alkene.
Hydrolysis The reaction of a compound with water.
Intermolecular force Forces between molecules that determine physical properties of
compounds.
IUPAC name A chemical nomenclature (set of rules) created and developed by the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) to generate
systematic names for chemical compounds.
London force A weak intermolecular force between non-polar molecules.
Macromolecule A molecule that consists of a large number of atoms.
Melting point The temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are at
equilibrium.
Molecular formula A chemical formula that indicates the type of atoms and the correct number
of each in a molecule, e.g. CH4.
Monomer Small organic molecules that can be covalently bonded to each other in a
repeating pattern.
Organic chemistry Chemistry of carbon compounds.
Polymer A large molecule composed of smaller monomer units covalently bonded to
each other in a repeating pattern
Polymerisation A chemical reaction in which monomer molecules join to form a polymer
Positional isomer Compounds with the same molecular formula, but different positions of the
side chain, substituents or functional groups on the parent chain.
Primary alcohol One C atom is bonded to the C atom bonded to hydroxyl group.

Primary haloalkane One C atom is bonded to the C atom bonded to the halogen.
Example:
H H
H C C Br
H H
Saturated compounds Compounds in which there are no multiple bonds between C atoms in their
hydrocarbon chains.
OR
Compounds with only single bonds between C atoms in their hydrocarbon
chains.
 9

Secondary alcohol Two C atoms bonded to the C atom that is bonded to hydroxyl group.

Secondary haloalkane Two C atoms bonded to the C atom bonded to the halogen.

Structural formula A structural formula of a compound shows which atoms are attached to
which within the molecule. Atoms are represented by their chemical
symbols and lines are used to represent ALL the bonds that hold the atoms
together.

Structural isomer Organic molecules with the same molecular formula, but different structural
formulae.
Substituent A group or branch attached to the longest continuous chain of C atoms in
(branch) an organic compound.

Substitution reaction A reaction in which an atom or a group of atoms in a molecule is replaced

by another atom or group of atoms.
Tertiary alcohol Three C atoms bonded to carbon that is bonded to hydroxyl group.

Tertiary haloalkane Three C atoms bonded to the C atom bonded to the halogen.

Unsaturated Compounds in which there are multiple bonds (double or triple bonds)
compounds between C atoms in their hydrocarbon chains.
Van der Waals forces A combined name used for the different types of intermolecular forces.
Vapour pressure The pressure exerted by a vapour at equilibrium with its liquid in a closed
system.
 10

CHEMICAL CHANGE: QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF CHEMICAL CHANGE

Mole One mole of a substance is the amount of substance having the same
number of particles as there are atoms in 12 g carbon-12.
Molar gas volume at The volume of one mole of a gas.
STP (1 mole of any gas occupies 22,4 dm3 at 0 °C (273 K) and 1 atmosphere
(101,3 kPa).
Molar mass The mass of one mole of a substance. Symbol: M Unit: g∙mol-1

Avogadro’s Law Under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, the same number of
moles of all gases occupy the same volume.

Concentration The amount of solute per litre/cubic decimeter of solution.

n
In symbols: c = Unit: mol∙dm-3
V
Empirical formula The simplest positive integer ratio of atoms present in a compound.

Percentage yield Yield is the amount of product obtained from a reaction.

actual mass obtained
percentage yield = 100
calculated mass
Percentage purity mass of pure chemical
percentage purity = 100
total mass of sample
Percentage The percentage of each of the components in a substance.
composition mass contribute d by component
Percentage of component = 100
mass of all components
Limiting reagents The substance that is totally consumed when the chemical reaction is
complete.

CHEMICAL CHANGE: ENERGY AND CHANGE

Heat of reaction (ΔH) The energy absorbed or released in a chemical reaction.
Exothermic reactions Reactions that release energy. (ΔH < 0)
Endothermic Reactions that absorb energy. (ΔH > 0)
reactions
Activation energy The minimum energy needed for a reaction to take place.
Activated complex The unstable transition state from reactants to products.

CHEMICAL CHANGE: RATE OF REACTION

Reaction rate The change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time.
c
Rate = Unit: mol∙dm-3∙s-1
t
Collision theory a model that explains reaction rate as the result of particles colliding with a
certain minimum energy.
Catalyst A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself
undergoing a permanent change.
(A catalyst increases the rate of a reaction by providing an alternative path of
lower activation energy. It therefore decreases the net/total activation energy.)

Factors that affect Nature of reacting substances, surface area, concentration (pressure for
reaction rate gases), temperature and the presence of a catalyst.
 11

CHEMICAL CHANGE: CHEMCIAL EQUILIBRIUM

Open system A system which continuously interacts with the environment – it exchanges
matter and energy with its environment.
Closed system A system that only exchanges energy with its surroundings, but it does not
exchange matter with its surroundings.
Reversible reaction A reaction is reversible when products can be converted back to reactants.
Chemical equilibrium Dynamic equilibrium when the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of
the reverse reaction.
Factors that Pressure (gases only), concentration and temperature.
influence the
equilibrium position
Le Chatelier's When the equilibrium in a closed system is disturbed, the system will re-
principle instate a new equilibrium by favouring the reaction that will oppose the
disturbance.

CHEMICAL CHANGE: ACIDS AND BASES

Acid-base indicator A dye used to distinguish between acidic and basic solutions by means of
the colour changes it undergoes in these solutions.
Amphiprotic A substance that can act as either an acid or a base.
substance/ampholyte
Arrhenius theory An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+)/ hydronium ions
(H3O+) when it dissolves in water.
A base is a substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH-) when it dissolves
in water.
Auto-ionisation of A reaction in which water reacts with itself to form ions (hydronium ions and
water hydroxide ions).
Concentrated Contain a large amount (number of moles) of acid/base in proportion to the
acids/bases volume of water.
Conjugate acid-base A pair of compounds or ions that differ by the presence of one H+ ion.
pair Example: CO32− and HCO3− OR HCℓ and Cℓ-
Conjugate acid and A conjugate acid has one H+ ion more than its conjugate base.
base Example: HCO3− is the conjugate acid of base CO32−.
CO32− is the conjugate base of acid HCO3− .

Dilute acids/bases Contain a small amount (number of moles) of acid/base in proportion to the
volume of water.
Diprotic acid An acid that can donate two protons.
Example: H2SO4
Dissociation The process in which ionic compounds split into ions.
Endpoint The point in a titration where the indicator changes colour.
Equivalence point The point in a reaction where equivalent amounts of acid and base have
reacted completely.
Hydrolysis The reaction of a salt with water.
OR
The reaction of an ion with water to produce the conjugate acid and a
hydroxide ion or the conjugate base and a hydronium ion.
Ionisation The process in which ions are formed during a chemical reaction.
Ion product of water The product of the ions formed during auto-ionisation of water i.e.
[H3O+][OH–] at 25 °C.
Ionisation constant of The equilibrium value of the ion product [H3O+][OH–] at 25 °C.
water (Kw)
Ka value Ionisation constant for an acid.
Kb value Dissociation or ionisation constant for a base.
 12

Lowry-Brønsted theory An acid is a proton (H+ ion) donor.

A base is a proton (H+ ion) acceptor.
Monoprotic acid An acid that can donate one proton.
Example: HCℓ
Neutralisation The reaction of an acid with a base to form a salt (ionic compound) and
water.
pH The negative of the logarithm of the hydronium ion concentration in
mol·dm-3.
In symbols: pH = -log[H3O+] Unit: None
pH scale A scale from 0 – 14 used as a measure of the acidity and basicity of
solutions where pH = 7 is neutral, pH > 7 is basic and pH < 7 is acidic.
Salt The ionic compound that is the product of a neutralisation reaction.
Standard solution A solution of precisely known concentration.
Strong bases Dissociate completely in water to form a high concentration of OH- ions.
Examples: sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH)
Strong acids Ionise completely in water to form a high concentration of H3O+ ions.
Examples:
hydrochloric acid (HCℓ), sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3)
Titration The procedure for determining the amount of acid (or base) in a solution by
determining the volume of base (or acid) of known concentration that will
completely react with it.
Weak acids Ionise incompletely in water to form a low concentration of H3O+ ions.
Examples: ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) and oxalic acid (COOH)2

Weak bases Dissociate/ionise incompletely in water to form a low concentration of OH-

ions.
Examples:
ammonia (NH3), sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3), sodium carbonate
(Na2CO3), potassium carbonate (K2CO3), calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

CHEMICAL CHANGE: ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTIONS

Galvanic cell A cell in which chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. A
galvanic (voltaic) cell has self-sustaining electrode reactions.
Electrolytic cell A cell in which electrical energy is converted into chemical energy.
Redox reaction A reaction in which an electron transfer takes place.
Oxidation A loss of electrons./An increase in oxidation number.
Reduction A gain of electrons./A decrease in oxidation number.
Oxidising agent A substance that is reduced/gains electrons/whose oxidation number
decreases.
Reducing agent A substance that is oxidised/loses electrons/whose oxidation number
increases.
Anode The electrode where oxidation takes place.
Cathode The electrode where reduction takes place.
Electrolyte A solution that conducts electricity through the movement of ions.
Electrolysis The chemical process in which electrical energy is converted to
chemical energy OR the use of electrical energy to produce a chemical
change.
Salt bridge The connection between two half-cells needed to ensure electrical neutrality
in the cell.
OR
A component used in a galvanic cell to complete the circuit.
Electrodes An electrical conductor used in a galvanic cell to make contact with a non-
metallic part of the circuit e.g. the electrolyte.
 13

Cell notation A short way to represent a galvanic cell.

When writing cell notation, the following convention should be used:

o The H2|H+ half-cell is treated just like any other half-cell.
o Cell terminals (electrodes) are written on the outside of the cell notation.
o Active electrodes:
reducing agent | oxidised species || oxidising agent | reduced species
o Inert electrodes (usually Pt or C):
Pt | reducing agent | oxidised species || oxidising agent | reduced species | Pt
Example: Pt | Cℓ-(aq) |Cℓ2(g) || F2(g) | F-(aq) | Pt
Overall cell reaction The reaction obtained by combining two half-reactions.
Positive value of the The reaction is spontaneous under standard conditions.
standard emf
Standard conditions Temperature: 25 °C / 298 K
for a galvanic cell Concentration: 1 mol∙dm-3
Pressure (gases only): 101,3 kPa / 1 atmosphere

Standard hydrogen The reference electrode used to compile the Table of Standard Reduction
electrode Potentials. The hydrogen half-cell was given a standard reduction potential of
0 V.

Half-cell notation: Pt | H2(g) | H+(aq)

Half-reaction: 2H+ + 2e- ⇌ H2
Electroplating The covering of an object with a metal by making it the cathode in an
electrolytic cell.
Bauxite The ore from which aluminium is recovered.
Cryolite An aluminium compound in which aluminium oxide is dissolved to reduce the
cost of the extraction of aluminium. Cryolite has a lower melting point than
aluminium oxide.

CHEMICAL SYSTEMS: FERTILISERS

Non-mineral nutrients C, H and O
in plants Obtained from the atmosphere (CO2) and rain (H2O)
Primary nutrients for Nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) and potassium (K)
plants
Function:
N: essential for plant growth, green leaves
P: development of roots, stems and seeds
K: resistance against diseases and production of flowers/fruits
NPK fertilisers Fertilisers containing the three primary nutrients for plants. They contain
ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), ammonium phosphate [(NH4)3PO4] and
potassium chloride (KCℓ).

N : P : K ratio The percentage nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium in a fertiliser.

Fractional distillation Industrial preparation of nitrogen from air.
of liquid air
Steam reforming Preparation of hydrogen from earth gas (methane)
Reaction: CH4 + H2O → 3H2 + CO
Haber process Industrial preparation of ammonia
Reaction: N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3
Iron catalyst
 14

Ostwald process Industrial preparation of nitric acid

Reactions:
Catalytic oxidation of ammonia; catalyst:
Pt 4NH3 + 5O2 ⇌ 4NO + 6H2O

2NO + O2 → 2NO2
3NO2 + H2O → 2HNO3 + NO OR 4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 → 4HNO3
Contact process Industrial preparation of sulphuric acid
Reactions:
S + O2 → SO2
2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3 Contact catalyst: vanadium pentoxide (V2O5)
SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7
(H2S2O7: fuming sulphuric acid OR pyro sulphuric acid OR oleum)
H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4
Preparation of ammonia + sulphuric acid → ammonium sulphate
ammonium sulphate
2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
Preparation of ammonia + nitric acid → ammonium nitrate
ammonium nitrate
NH3 + HNO3 → NH4NO3
15
 16
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
• A structural formula of a compound shows which atoms are attached to which within the molecule.
Atoms are represented by their chemical symbols and lines are used to represent ALL the bonds
that hold the atoms together.
H H O H

H C C C C H

H H H
• Structural isomers are organic molecules with the same molecular formula, but different structural
formulae.
• Chain isomers have the same molecular formula, but different types of chains, e.g. butane and
2-methylpropane.
H H H

H H H H H C C C H

H C C C C H H H
H C H
H H H H H

Butane 2-methylpropane

• Positional isomers have the same molecular formula, but different positions of the side chain,
substituents or functional groups on the parent chain, e.g. 1-chloropropane and 2-chloropropane or
but-2-ene and but-1-ene.

H H H H H H

H C C C Cl H C C C H

H H H H Cl H

1-chloropropane 2-chloropropane

H H H H H H
C C C C H H C C C C H
H H H H H H H

but-1-ene but-2-ene

• Functional isomers have the same molecular formula, but different functional groups, e.g methyl
methanoate and ethanoic acid.

O H H O

H C O C H H C C O H
H H

methyl methanoate ethanoic acid

 17

• Representations of Organic Molecules

Molecular formula: C6H13OH
Condensed formula: CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2OH

Structural formula:
 18
WRITING IUPAC NAMES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

The name of each organic molecule has three parts:

prefix parent suffix

Type and position of Number of C atoms Type of functional group
substituents in the longest chain? or homologous series

Step 1: Suffix
• Determine the functional group in the structure of the given compound or the homologous series
to which the compound belongs.
• The functional group or homologous series determines the suffix (last part of the name).

Step 2: Parent name

• The number of C atoms in the longest carbon chain that contains the functional group
determines the parent name.
• Count the number of C atoms in the longest chain containing the functional group.

Number of carbon atoms 1 2 3 4 5 6

Parent name meth eth prop but pent hex

• Alkanes and haloalkanes: Number from the side that will give the substituents the smallest
numbers.
• Alkenes, alkynes, alcohols, ketones: Number from the side that will the functional group the
smallest number. The functional group receives a number that is written between parent name
and suffix.
• Aldehydes and carboxylic acids: Number from the C atom that forms part of the functional
group.
• Esters: To determine the first part of the name, count the C atoms attached to the single
bonded O atom of the functional group. Add –yl to this part e.g. ethyl.
To determine the last part of the name, number from the C atom bonded to the O atom with a
double bond. Add the -anoate to this part e.g. butanoate.

Step 3: Prefix
• Identify substituents on the parent chain. Substituents can be methyl (one C atom i.e. – CH3) or
ethyl (2 C atoms i.e. –CH2CH3).
• Use numbers on the parent chain to indicate the position of the substituents on the parent
chain.
• Arrange substituents in alphabetical order in the IUPAC name (bromo, chloro, ethyl, methyl)
• If two or more of the same substituents occur, use di- and tri- in front of the name of the substituent
e.g. dimethyl or tribromo. (Di- and tri are ignored when arranging substituents in alphabetical
order.)
• When there are two (or more) identical groups on the same C atom, the number of the C atom is
repeated with commas between the numbers e.g. 2,4,4-trimethylhexan-3-one
• Final IUPAC names, except those of esters, are written as one word with COMMAS BETWEEN
NUMBERS and HYPHENS BETWEEN NUMBERS AND WORDS e.g. 2,4,4-trimethylhexan-3-one.
IUPAC names of esters and carboxylic acids are written as two words e.g. ethyl methanoate and
pentanoic acid.
19
20
21
 22

Homologous Series Melting and boiling points

Alkanes • Contain non-polar molecules with weak Van der Waals forces.
Alkynes • Low boiling points
Alkenes

• The carbon-halogen bond makes haloalkanes slightly polar.

• Between the polar parts of the molecule, Van der Waals dipole-
Haloalkanes dipole forces exist.
• Between the non-polar parts normal Van der Waals forces exist.
•

• The double bond between the carbon and oxygen makes these
Ketones hydrocarbons polar.
Aldehydes • Between the polar parts of the molecule, Van der Waals dipole-
Esters dipole forces exist.
• Between the non-polar parts normal Van der Waals forces exist.

• Alcohols have high boiling and melting points because of the

Alcohols hydrogen bond between the H and O molecules and the Van der
Waals dispersion forces between the non-polar C-H groups of
the molecule.

• Contain the OH and C=O group, which are both polar.

• Therefore, carboxylic acids contain two hydrogen bonds
between the polar parts of the hydrocarbon and Van der Waals
Carboxylic acids dispersion forces between the non-polar parts of the
hydrocarbon.
• Carboxylic acids have the highest boiling points and melting
points.

• Boiling and Melting Points: As the strength of the intermolecular forces increase, the boiling point
and melting point will increase. Thus molecules where there are hydrogen bonds present will have a
higher melting point and boiling point than those molecules where there are weaker London forces or
Van der Waals forces present.
• Vapour Pressure: Vapour pressure is the amount of pressure that the gaseous molecules exert above
the surface of the liquid phase. The vapour pressure will decrease as the size of the molecule
increases (chain length). Vapour pressure is an indication that there are weak intermolecular forces
present in the liquid phase.
• Viscosity A liquid that has a low viscosity will be able to flow more easily. Thus, where hydrogen
bonds are present, there will be a much higher degree of viscosity. The opposite is true for the weak
Van der Waals forces. Viscosity will also increase as the length of the carbon chain increases. Density
The density of organic molecules will increase as the length of the chain increases.
 23

TYPES OF REACTIONS
Reaction Types of the reaction Reactants Reaction Products
Conditions

• Halogenation Alkene + none Haloalkane

halogen(X2)

• Hydrohalogenation Alkene + HX none Haloalkane

ADDITION

• Hydration Alkene + H2O Excess H2O + Alcohol

H2SO4/H3PO4

• Hydrogenation Alkene + H2 Pt,Pd or Ni Alkane

catalyst

• Dehydration Alcohol Heat, Alkene, H2O

concentrated
acid(H2SO4)
ELIMINATION
Haloalkane + Heat, Alkene,H2O,
• Dehydrohalogenation concentrated concentrated NaCl/NaBr
strong base strong base
(NaOH, KOH,
LiOH)

Shorter
• Cracking Long alkane chains Heat, Pressure, alkane,
catalyst alkene/
alkene+ H2

• Halogenation Alkane + X2 Heat or sunlight Haloalkane +

HX

• Hydrolysis 1 Haloalkane + H2O Heat + H2O Haloalkane +

excess H2O
SUBSTITUTION

• Hydrolysis 2 Haloalkane + dilute Heat Alcohol +

strong base NaCl/KCl/LiCl

• Alcohol – haloalkane Alkane + HX Heat + H2SO4 Haloalkane +

H2O
24
25
 26

QUESTIONS

ORGANIC MOLECULES: NOMENCLATURE

QUESTION 1

Consider the organic compounds represented by the letters A to F in the table below.

1.1 Write down the LETTER that represents the following:

1.1.1 An aldehyde (1)

1.1.2 A condensation polymer (1)

1.1.3 A compound which has a carbonyl group bonded to two carbon atoms as
its functional group (1)

1.2 Write down the IUPAC name of:

1.2.1 Compound C (3)

1.2.2 The monomer of compound D (1)

1.3 Write down the structural formula of:

1.3.1 Compound A (2)

1.3.2 Compound B (2)

1.4 The table contains compounds which are functional isomers.

1.4.1 Define the term functional isomer. (2)

1.4.2 Write down the LETTERS that represent two compounds that are
functional isomers. (1)
[14]
 27

QUESTION 2

The letters A to F in the table below represent six organic compounds.

2.1 Write down the:

2.1.1 NAME of the functional group of compound B (1)
2.1.2 Homologous series to which compound C belongs (1)
2.1.3 Type of polymerisation reaction that produces compound F (1)
2.2 Write down the IUPAC name of:
2.2.1 The monomer used to prepare compound F (1)
2.2.2 Compound C (2)
2.2.3 Compound D (2)
2.3 Write down the NAME or FORMULA of each product formed during the complete
combustion of compound D. (2)
2.4 Write down the structural formula of:
2.4.1 Compound B (2)
2.4.2 A CHAIN ISOMER of compound A (2)
2.5 A laboratory assistant uses bromine water to distinguish between compounds D and
E. She adds bromine water to a sample of each in two different test tubes. She
observes that the one compound decolourises the bromine water immediately, whilst
the other one only reacts after placing the test tube in direct sunlight. Write down the:
2.5.1 Letter (D or E) of the compound that will immediately decolourise the
bromine water (1)
2.5.2 Name of the type of reaction that takes place in the test tube containing
compound D (1)
2.5.3 Structural formula of the organic product formed in the test tube containing
compound E (2)
[18]
 28

QUESTION 3

The letters A to F in the table below represent six organic compounds.

Use the information in the table (where applicable) to answer the questions that follow.

3.1 Write down the LETTER that represents a compound that:

(A compound may be used more than once.)

3.1.1 Is a haloalkane (1)

3.1.2 Has a hydroxyl group as functional group (1)

3.1.3 Belongs to the same homologous series as ethanoic acid (1)

3.2 Write down the:

3.2.1 IUPAC name of compound B (3)

3.2.2 IUPAC name of compound E (2)

3.2.3 Structural formula of the functional group of compound D (1)

3.3 Compound C has CHAIN and POSITIONAL isomers.

3.3.1 Define the term positional isomer. (2)

3.3.2 Write down the IUPAC name of each of the TWO positional isomers of
compound C. (4)

3.3.3 Write down the structural formula of a chain isomer of compound C. (2)

3.4 Compound F reacts at high pressure and high temperature to form compounds P
and Q as given below.
 29

Write down the:

3.4.1 Type of reaction that takes place (1)
3.4.2 IUPAC name of compound Q (1)
3.4.3 Molecular formula of compound P (1)

Compound Q is the monomer of a polymer used to make plastic bags.

3.4.4 Write down the NAME and CONDENSED FORMULA of this polymer. (3)
[23]

QUESTION 4

The letters A to D in the table below represent four organic compounds.

4.1 Write down the:

4.1.1 Letter that represents a ketone (1)
4.1.2 Structural formula of the functional group of compound C (1)
4.1.3 General formula of the homologous series to which compound A belongs (1)
4.1.4 IUPAC name of compound A (3)
4.1.5 IUPAC name of compound B (2)

4.2 Compound D is a gas used in cigarette lighters.

4.2.1 To which homologous series does compound D belong? (1)
4.2.2 Write down the STRUCTURAL FORMULA and IUPAC NAME of a
structural isomer of compound D. (4)
4.2.3 Is the isomer in QUESTION 4.2.2 a CHAIN, POSITIONAL or
FUNCTIONAL isomer? (1)

4.3 Compound D reacts with bromine (Br2) to form 2-bromobutane.

Write down the name of the:

4.3.1 Homologous series to which 2-bromobutane belongs (1)

4.3.2 Type of reaction that takes place (1)
[16]
 30

QUESTION 5

5.1 Consider the organic compounds represented by the letters A to C below.

Write down the:

5.1.1 Name of the homologous series to which compound C belongs (1)

5.1.2 IUPAC name of compound A (3)

5.1.3 Structural formula of a tertiary alcohol that is a structural isomer of

compound B (2)

5.2 An alcohol and methanoic acid are heated in the presence of concentrated sulphuric
acid to form an ester.

5.2.1 What is the role of the concentrated sulphuric acid in this reaction? (1)

5.2.2 Write down the NAME or FORMULA of the inorganic product formed. (1)

The ester contains 6,67% hydrogen (H), 40% carbon (C) and 53,33% oxygen (O).
The molar mass of the ester is 60 g·mol-1. Use a calculation to determine its:

5.2.3 Empirical formula (5)

5.2.4 Molecular formula (3)

Write down the:

5.2.5 Structural formula of methanoic acid (1)

5.2.6 IUPAC name of the ester (2)

[19]
 31

QUESTION 6
Consider the organic compounds A to F below.

6.1 Write down the LETTER that represents a compound that:

6.1.1 Has a carbonyl group (1)

6.1.2 Is an alcohol (1)

6.1.3 Is a CHAIN ISOMER of CH3(CH2)3CH3 (1)

6.2 Write down the:

6.2.1 IUPAC name of compound B (2)

6.2.2 Structural formula of compound F (2)

6.2.3 IUPAC name of a POSITIONAL isomer of compound A (3)

6.3 Compound E is formed when a carboxylic acid reacts with another organic compound.

Write down the:

6.3.1 Homologous series to which compound E belongs (1)

6.3.2 NAME or FORMULA of the catalyst used for the preparation of

compound E (1)

6.3.3 IUPAC name of compound E (2)

[14]
 32

QUESTION 7

The letters A to F in the table below represent six organic compounds.

7.1 Write down the LETTER that represents the following:

7.1.1 A hydrocarbon (1)

7.1.2 A functional isomer of compound F (1)

7.1.3 A compound which belongs to the same homologous series as

compound B (1)

7.1.4 A plastic (1)

7.2 Write down the STRUCTURAL FORMULA of EACH of the following:

7.2.1 Compound C (3)

7.2.2 The acid used to prepare compound B (2)

7.2.3 The monomer used to make compound D (2)

7.3 Compound A reacts with an unknown reactant, X, to form 2-methylpropane.

Write down the:

7.3.1 NAME of reactant X (1)

7.3.2 Type of reaction that takes place (1)

[13]
 33
QUESTION 8

8.1 Define the term functional group of organic compounds. (2)

8.2 Write down the:
8.2.1 Structural formula of the functional group of aldehydes (1)
8.2.2 Name of the functional group of carboxylic acids (1)
8.3 The IUPAC name of an organic compound is 2,4-dimethylhexan-3-one. For this
compound, write down the:
8.3.1 Homologous series to which it belongs (1)
8.3.2 Structural formula (3)
8.4 Write down the IUPAC names of the following compounds:

8.4.1

(3)
8.4.2

(2)

QUESTION 9

The letters A to F in the table below represent six organic compounds.

9.1 Write down the letter that represents EACH of the following:

9.1.1 A hydrocarbon (1)

9.1.2 An alcohol (1)
 34
9.1.3 An ester (1)
9.2 Write down the IUPAC name of:
9.2.1 Compound A (1)
9.2.2 Compound B (3)
9.3 Compound C is a functional isomer of compound A. Write down the structural formula of
compound.(2)

9.4 Compound D is used as one of the reactants to prepare compound F. Write down the:

9.4.1 Type of reaction which takes place to prepare compound F (1)

9.4.2 IUPAC name of compound D (2)
9.4.3 Structural formula of the other organic reactant used (2)
9.4.4 IUPAC name of compound F (2)
[16]
QUESTION 10

10.1 Study the structural formula below. For this compound, write down the:

10.1.1 Homologous series to which it belongs (1)

10.1.2 IUPAC name IUPAC name of the organic acid used in its preparation (1)
10.1.3 STRUCTURAL FORMULA of its straight chain (unbranched) functional isomer (2)
10.2 Write down the structural formula of 4-methylpentan-2-one. (3)
10.3 Consider the structural formula alongside. For this compound, write down the:

10.3.1 General formula of the homologous series to which it belongs (1)

10.3.2 IUPAC name (3) [13]

 35
QUESTION 11

The letters A to E in the table below represent six organic compounds.

11.1 Write down the LETTER that represents EACH of the following:
11.1.1 A tertiary alcohol (1)
11.1.2 An aldehyde (1)
11.1.3 A ketone (1)
11.1.4 A functional isomer of compound B (1)
11.2 Write down the IUPAC name of:
11.2.1 Compound B (1)
11.2.2 Compound E (4)
11.3 Define the term positional isomers. (2)
11.4 Write down the STRUCTURAL FORMULA of:
11.4.1 A positional isomer of compound C (2)
11.4.2 Compound D (2)
11.4.3 The organic acid that will react with compound C to form butyl propanoate (2)
[17]
QUESTION 12

Next to each letter, A to F, in the table below is the molecular formula of an organic compound.

A C2H5Br B C2H4
C C4H10 D C2H6O
E C3H6O F C3H6O2

12.1 Choose a molecular formula above that represents an organic compound below. Write
down only the letter (A to F) next to the question numbers.
12.1.1 A haloalkane (1)
 36
12.1.2 An alcohol (1)
12.1.3 An unsaturated hydrocarbon (1)
12.1.4 An aldehyde (1)
12.1.5 A product of thermal cracking of compound C (1)
12.2 If compound F is a carboxylic acid, write down the following:
12.2.1 The structural formula of a FUNCTIONAL isomer of F (2)
12.2.2 The IUPAC name of a FUNCTIONAL isomer of F (2)
12.3 Compound B is a monomer used to make a polymer. Write down the:
12.3.1 Definition of a polymer. (2)
12.3.2 IUPAC name of the polymer (1)
12.3.3 Balanced equation for the polymerisation reaction (3)
12.4 Compound A is used as a reactant in the production of compound D. Name the type of reaction
that takes place. (1)
12.5 State TWO changes that can be made to the reaction conditions in QUESTION 12.4 to obtain
compound B, instead of D, as product. (2)
[18]

QUESTION 13

A test tube containing a straight

chain organic acid X, ethanol and
a catalyst is heated in a water
bath, as illustrated.
Organic compound Y is
produced according to the
following equation:

X + C2H5OH ⟶ Y + H2O

13.1 Give a reason why the test tube is heated in a water bath instead of directly over the flame. (1)
13.2 Write down the:
13.3.1 Type of reaction that takes place here (1)
13.3.2 FORMULA of the catalyst needed (1)
13.3.3 Homologous series to which compound Y belongs (1)

The molecular mass of compound Y is 144 g∙mol-1 and its empirical formula is C4H8O.
13.3 Determine the molecular formula of compound Y. (2)
13.4 Write down the IUPAC name of compound Y. (2)
13.5 Write down the structural formula of the organic acid X. (2)
[10]
 37

QUESTION 14

The letters A to F in the table below represent six organic compounds.

14.1 Is compound C SATURATED or UNSATURATED? Give a reason for the answer. (2)
14.2 Write down the LETTER that represents each of the following:
14.2.1 An ester (1)
14.2.2 A FUNCTIONAL ISOMER of butanal (1)
14.2.3 A compound with the general formula CnH2n-2 (1)
14.2.4 A compound used as reactant in the preparation of compound D (1)
14.3 Write down the STRUCTURAL FORMULA of:
14.3.1 The functional group of compound C (1)
14.3.2 Compound D (2)
14.3.3 A CHAIN ISOMER of compound A (2)
14.4 Write down the:
14.4.1 IUPAC name of compound F (3)
14.4.2 Balanced equation, using MOLECULAR FORMULAE, for the complete combustion
of compound A(3)
[17]
QUESTION 15
15.1 The IUPAC name of an organic compound is 4,4-dimethylpent-2-yne.
15.1.1 Write down the GENERAL FORMULA of the homologous series to which this
compound belongs.
15.1.2 Write down the STRUCTURAL formula of this compound. (3)
15.2 The organic compound below has one positional isomer and one functional isomer.
 38
15.2.1 Define the term positional isomer. (2)
For this compound, write down the:
15.2.2 IUPAC name of its POSITIONAL isomer (2)
15.2.3 Structural formula of its FUNCTIONAL isomer (2)
15.3 Consider the condensed structural formula of an organic compound below.
CH3CH2C(CH3)CH3
OH
15.3.1 Is this a PRIMARY, SECONDARY or TERTIARY alcohol? Give a reason for the answer.(2)
15.3.2 Write down the IUPAC name of the above compound. (2)
15.3.3 Write down the IUPAC name of the MAJOR ORGANIC PRODUCT formed when this
compound undergoes an elimination reaction. (2)
[16]
QUESTION 16

The letters A to E in the table below represent five organic compounds.

A B C3H8O

C D Pentan-2-one

E 4-methylpent-2-yne

Use the information in the table to answer the questions that follow.
16.1 For compound D, write down the:
16.1.1 Homologous series to which it belongs (1)
16.1.2 IUPAC name of a FUNCTIONAL ISOMER (2)
16.2 Write down the:
16.2.1 IUPAC name of compound A (3)
16.2.2 STRUCTURAL FORMULA of compound E (2)
16.3 Compound B is a primary alcohol.
16.3.1 Write down the meaning of the term primary alcohol. (2)
Compound B reacts with another organic compound X to form compound C. Write down the:
16.3.2 Type of reaction that takes place (1)
16.3.3 IUPAC name of compound X (1)
[12]
 39
ORGANIC MOLECULES: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

QUESTION 1

1.1 Give a reason why alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. (1)

1.2 Write down the structural formula of:

1.2.1 The functional group of alcohols (1)

1.2.2 A tertiary alcohol that is a structural isomer of butan-1-ol (2)

1.3 Learners investigate factors that influence the boiling points of alkanes and alcohols.
In one of the investigations they determine the boiling points of the first three
alkanes.

1.3.1 Write down an investigative question for this investigation. (2)

1.3.2 Fully explain why the boiling point increases from methane to propane. (3)

1.4 The learners find that the boiling point of propan-1-ol is higher than that of propane.
Explain this observation by referring to the TYPE of INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
present in each of these compounds. (3)
[12]

QUESTION 2

Learners use compounds A to C, shown in the table below, to investigate a factor which
influences the boiling point of organic compounds.

A CH3CH2CH2CH3
B CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
C CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3

2.1 Which ONE of the compounds (A, B or C) has the highest boiling point? (1)

2.2 For this investigation, write down the:

2.2.1 Independent variable (1)
2.2.2 Dependent variable (1)
2.3 Write down the name of the type of Van der Waals force that occurs between the
molecules of compound B. (1)

2.4 How will the vapour pressure of 2-methylpentane compare to that of compound C?
Write down only HIGHER THAN, LOWER THAN or EQUAL TO. (1)

The learners now compare the boiling points of compounds D and E, shown in the table below.
D CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH
E CH3CH2CH2COOH

2.5 How does the boiling point of compound D compare to that of compound E? Write
down HIGHER THAN, LOWER THAN or EQUAL TO. Fully explain the answer. (4)
[9]
 40

QUESTION 3

The table below shows five organic compounds represented by the letters A to E.

A CH4
B CH3CH3
C CH3CH2CH3
D CH3CH2CH2CH3
E CH3CH2OH

3.1 Is compound B SATURATED or UNSATURATED? Give a reason for the answer. (2)

Consider the boiling points of compounds A to E given in random order below and use them,
where applicable, to answer the questions that follow.

0 °C - 162 °C - 42 °C - 89 °C 78 °C

3.2 Write down the boiling point of:

3.2.1 Compound C (1)

3.2.2 Compound E (1)

3.3 Explain the difference in boiling points of compounds C and E by referring to the
TYPE of intermolecular forces present in EACH of these compounds. (3)

3.4 Does vapour pressure INCREASE or DECREASE from compounds A to D? Fully

explain the answer. (4)

3.5 How will the vapour pressure of 2-methylpropane compare to the vapour pressure of
compound D? Write down only HIGHER THAN, LOWER THAN or EQUAL TO. (1)
[12]

QUESTION 4

Four compounds of comparable molecular mass are used to investigate the effect of functional
groups on vapour pressure. The results obtained are shown in the table below.

VAPOUR PRESSURE
COMPOUND (kPa at 20 °C)
A Butane 204
B Propan-2-one 24,6
C Propan-1-ol 2
D Ethanoic acid 1,6

4.1 Define the term functional group of an organic compound. (2)

4.2 Which ONE of the compounds (A, B, C or D) in the table has the:

4.2.1 Highest boiling point

(Refer to the vapour pressures in the table to give a reason for the
answer.) (2)

4.2.2 Weakest intermolecular forces (1)

 41

4.3 Refer to the type of intermolecular forces to explain the difference between the
vapour pressure of compound A and compound B. (3)

4.4 The vapour pressures of compounds C and D are much lower than those of
compounds A and B. Name the type of intermolecular force in A and B that is
responsible for this difference. (1)

4.5 Briefly explain the difference in vapour pressure between compound C and
compound D. (2)

4.6 During a combustion reaction in a closed container of adjustable volume, 8 cm3 of

compound A (butane) reacts in excess oxygen according to the following balanced
equation:
2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) → 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)
If the initial volume of the oxygen in the container was 60 cm3, calculate the TOTAL
volume of the gases that are present in the container at the end of the reaction. All the
gases in the container are at the same temperature and pressure. (5)
[16]

QUESTION 5

5.1 Define the term boiling point. (2)

5.2 What is the relationship between strength of intermolecular forces and boiling point? (1)

The relationship between strength of intermolecular forces and boiling point is investigated using
four organic compounds from different homologous series. The compounds and their boiling
points are given in the table below.

COMPOUND BOILING POINT (°C)

A Propane -42
B Propan-2-one 56
C Propan-1-ol 97
D Propanoic acid 141

5.3 Refer to the TYPE and the STRENGTH of intermolecular forces to explain the
difference in boiling points between:

5.3.1 Compounds A and B (3)

5.3.2 Compounds C and D (3)

5.4 Is compound B a GAS or a LIQUID at room temperature? (1)

[10]
 42

QUESTION 6
The relationship between boiling point and the number of carbon atoms in straight chain
molecules of alkanes, carboxylic acids and alcohols is investigated. Curves P, Q and R are
obtained.
GRAPH OF BOILING POINT VERSUS NUMBER OF C ATOMS
500 Curve R
Curve Q
400
Boiling point (K)

Curve P

300

200

100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Number of C atoms
6.1 Define the term boiling point. (2)
6.2 For curve P, write down a conclusion that can be drawn from the above results. (2)
6.3 Identify the curve (P, Q or R) that represents each of the following:
6.3.1 Alkanes (1)
6.3.2 Carboxylic acids (1)
6.4 Explain the answer to QUESTION 6.3.2 by referring to the:
• Types of intermolecular forces present in alkanes, carboxylic acids and
alcohols
• Relative strengths of these intermolecular forces
• Energy needed (5)
[11]
QUESTION 7
The boiling points of three isomers are given in the table below.
ISOMERS BOILING POINT (°C)
A 2,2-dimethylpropane 9
B 2-methylbutane 28
C pentane 36
7.1 Define the term structural isomer. (2)
7.2 What type of isomers (POSITIONAL, CHAIN or FUNCTIONAL) are these three
compounds? (1)
7.3 Explain the trend in the boiling points from compound A to compound C. (3)
7.4 Which ONE of the three compounds (A, B or C) has the highest vapour pressure?
Refer to the data in the table to give a reason for the answer. (2)
7.5 Use MOLECULAR FORMULAE and write down a balanced equation for the
complete combustion of compound B.
(3)
 43
QUESTION 8
The boiling points of some organic compounds are given in the table below. Y represents an
unknown boiling point.

COMPOUND BOILING POINT (°C)

A Methanol 64,7
B Ethanol 78,3
C Propan-1-ol 97,2
D Butan-1-ol 117,7
E Butan-2-ol 99,5
F 2-methylpropan-1-ol Y
G 2-methylpropan-2-ol 82,5

8.1 For compounds listed above, write down the:

8.1.1 Structural formula of compound F (3)
8.1.2 LETTER that represents a POSITIONAL isomer of compound E (1)
8.1.3 LETTER that represents a CHAIN isomer of compound E (1)
8.2 The boiling points increase from compound A to compound D.
8.2.1 Give a reason for this increase in terms of the molecular structure. (1)
8.2.2 Name the intermolecular force in these compounds responsible for this increase. (1)
8.3 Consider the boiling points given below.

85 °C 108°C 122 °C
8.3.1 From these boiling points, choose the boiling point represented by Y in the table above. (1)
8.2.2 Fully explain how you arrived at the answer to QUESTION 8.3.1. (4)
8.4 Hydrogen bonding is responsible for the relatively high boiling points of compounds
A to G in comparison with hydrocarbons of similar molecular size. Draw TWO
structural formulae of compound A. Use a dotted line to show the hydrogen bonding
between the two structural formulae. (2)
8.5 Compound B reacts with propanoic acid in the presence of concentrated
sulphuric acid. Write down the:
8.5.1 Type of reaction that takes place (1)
8.5.2 Structural formula of the organic product formed (2)
[17]
QUESTION 9

Learners investigate factors which influence the boiling points of alcohols.

They use equal volumes of each of the alcohols and heat them separately in a water bath. The
temperature at which each boils is measured. The results obtained are shown in the table below.

ALCOHOLS BOILING POINTS OF ALCOHOLS

(°C)
Butan-1-ol 117,7
Pentan-1-ol 138,5
Hexan-1-ol 157,0
9.1 Define the term boiling point. (2)
9.2 What property of alcohols requires them to be heated in a water bath? (1)
9.3 The boiling points of the alcohols are compared with each other.
9.4
9.4.1 What structural requirements must the alcohols meet to make it a fair comparison? (2)
9.4.2 Fully explain the trend in the boiling points. (3)
 44
9.5 How will the boiling point of hexan-1-ol be affected if the volume of hexan-1-ol used is doubled?
Choose from INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME. (1)
9.6 In another investigation the learners compare the boiling points of hexan-1-ol and hexanal.
9.6.1 Write down the independent variable for this comparison. (1)
9.6.2 They find that the boiling point of hexan-1-ol is higher than that of hexanal. Fully explain
this observation. (4)
[17]
 45
QUESTION 10

The vapour pressure versus temperature graph below was obtained for four straight chain
(unbranched) alkanes (P, Q, R and S). FROM P TO S, EACH COMPOUND DIFFERS FROM THE
PREVIOUS COMPOUND BY A –CH2 GROUP. The vapour pressures are measured in mmHg.
Atmospheric pressure is 760 mmHg.

10.1 Give a reason why alkanes are said to be SATURATED. (1)

10.2 Define vapour pressure. (2)
10.3 Use the information in the graph above to answer the following questions.
10.3.1 What is the effect of an increase in temperature on vapour pressure? Choose from
INCREASES, DECREASES or NO EFFECT. (1)
10.3.2 Which compound has a boiling point of approximately 68 °C? Give a reason for the answer. (2)
10.3.3 Which compound has the longest chain length? Fully explain the answer. (4)
10.4 Compound P has FIVE carbon atoms.
10.4.1 Draw the structural formula of a chain isomer of P. Write down the IUPAC name of this
isomer. (3)
10.4.2 How will the vapour pressure of this isomer compare with that of compound P? Choose
from HIGHER THAN, LOWER THAN or EQUAL TO. (1)
[14]
QUESTION 11
Study the vapour pressure versus temperature graphs for three organic compounds, X, Y and Z,
below which belong to different homologous series. Atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa.
 46

11.1 Write down the vapour pressure of compound Y at 90 °C. (1)

11.2 The graphs can be used to determine the boiling points of the three compounds.
11.2.1 Define boiling point. (2)
11.2.2 Determine the boiling point of compound X. (1)
11.3 The homologous series to which the three compounds of similar molecular masses
belong, were identified in random order as: alcohol; carboxylic acid; ketone
11.3.1 Which compound (X, Y or Z) is the carboxylic acid? (1)
11.3.2 Explain the answer to QUESTION 11.3.1 by referring to the type of intermolecular
forces in compounds of each of the homologous series above. (4)
11.3.3 Compound X has three carbon atoms per molecule. Write down its IUPAC name. (1)
[10]
QUESTION 12
The boiling points of straight-chain alkanes and straight-chain alcohols are compared in the table.
NUMBER OF BOILING POINTS OF BOILING POINTS OF
CARBON ATOMS ALKANES (°C) ALCOHOLS (°C)
1 – 162 64
2 – 89 78
3 – 42 98
4 – 0,5 118
12.1 Explain the increase in boiling points of the alkanes, as indicated in the table. (3)
12.2 Explain the difference between the boiling points of an alkane and an alcohol, each having
THREE carbon atoms per molecule, by referring to the TYPE of intermolecular forces. (4)
12.3 Does the vapour pressure of the alcohols INCREASE or DECREASE with an increase in the
number of carbon atoms? (1)
12.4 How will the boiling point of 2-methylpropane compare to that of its chain isomer?
Write down HIGHER THAN, LOWER THAN or EQUAL TO. Give a reason for the answer by
referring to the structural differences between the two compounds. (2)
[10]
QUESTION 13

The boiling points of different organic compounds are given below.

COMPOUND BOILING POINT (°C)
A HCOOH 101
B CH3COOH 118
C CH3CH2COOH 141
D CH3CH2CH2COOH 164
13.1 Define boiling point. (2)
13.2 Write down the:
13.2.1 Name of the FUNCTIONAL GROUP of these compounds (1)
13.2.2 IUPAC name of compound C (1)
13.2.3 Structural formula of the FUNCTIONAL isomer of compound B (2)
13.3 Which ONE of the compounds, A or B or C, has the highest vapour pressure? Refer to the data in
the table to give a reason for the answer. (2)
13.4 The boiling point of compound B is now compared with of compound X.
 47
COMPOUND BOILING POINT
(°C)
B CH3COOH 118
X CH3CH2CH2OH 98
13.4.1 Besides the conditions used to determine boiling points, give a reason why this is a
fair comparison. (1)
13.4.2 Is compound X a PRIMARY, SECONDARY or TERTIARY alcohol? Give a reason for
the answer. (2)
13.4.3 Fully explain the difference between the boiling points by referring to the types of
Intermolecular forces present in each of these compounds. (4)
[15]
QUESTION 14
Three compounds are used to investigate one of the factors that influences boiling point. The results
obtained are shown in the table below.
COMPOUND MOLECULAR MASS BOILING POINT
(g·mol-1) (°C)
A Butane 58 – 0,5
B Propan-1-ol 60 98
C Ethanoic acid 60 118

14.1 In one investigation the boiling points of compound B and compound C are compared.
14.1.1 Is this a fair investigation? Write down YES or NO. Refer to the data in the table and
give a reason for the answer. (2)
14.1.2 Write down the independent variable for this investigation. (1)
14.2 Which ONE of the compounds (A, B or C) has the highest vapour pressure? Give a reason for
the answer. (2)
14.3 Refer to the intermolecular forces present in each compound and FULLY explain the trend in
boiling points, as shown in the above table. (5)
14.4 Which compound, BUTAN-1-OL or PROPAN-1-OL, has the higher boiling point? Give a reason for
the answer. (2)
[12]
QUESTION 15

The boiling points of five organic compounds (P, Q, R, S and T) are studied.
COMPOUND IUPAC NAME
P Pentanal
Q 2,2-dimethylbutane
R 3-methylpentane
S Hexane
T Pentan-1-ol
15.1 Define the term boiling point. (2)
The boiling points of compounds Q, R and S are compared.
15.2 Give a reason why this is a fair comparison. (1)
The boiling points of Q, R and S are given below (NOT necessarily in the correct order).

55 °C 49,7 °C 68 °C
15.3 Which ONE of the three boiling points is most likely the boiling point of compound R? Explain
the answer. (4)

15.4 A mixture of equal amounts of P and T is placed in a flask and heated to a temperature below their
 48
boiling points. Assume that no reaction or condensation takes place. The vapour produced is
collected in a syringe.

Syringe
vapour

Mixture of P and T

15.4.1 Which compound (P or T) will be present in a greater amount in the SYRINGE? (2)
15.4.2 Explain the answer to QUESTION 15.4.1 by referring to the TYPES and STRENGTHS
of intermolecular forces.
 49
ORGANIC MOLECULES: ORGANIC REACTIONS
QUESTION 1

The flow diagram below shows the preparation of an ester using prop-1-ene as a starting
reagent. P, Q, R and S represent different organic reactions.
P Q
Prop-1-ene Propane Haloalkane
Cℓ2
R

Propan-1-ol

Ester
1.1 Write down the type of reaction represented by:

1.1.1 Q (1)

1.1.2 R (1)

1.2 For reaction P write down the:

1.2.1 Type of addition reaction (1)

1.2.2 Balanced equation using structural formulae (3)

1.3 Write down the structural formula of the haloalkane formed in reaction Q. (2)

1.4 In reaction S propan-1-ol reacts with ethanoic acid to form the ester.

For this reaction write down the:

1.4.1 Name of the reaction that takes place (1)

1.4.2 FORMULA or NAME of the catalyst needed (1)

1.4.3 Structural formula of the ester formed (2)

1.4.4 IUPAC name of the ester formed (2)

1.5 The propan-1-ol formed in reaction R can be converted to prop-1-ene. Write down
the FORMULA or NAME of the inorganic reagent needed. (1)
[15]
 50

QUESTION 2

In the flow diagram below, but-1-ene is used as starting material in the preparation of
compound A.
reaction 1
CH3 ― CH2 ― CH = CH2
H2O; H2SO4

reaction 2 HCℓ Compound A

reaction 3
Compound B

2.1 Is but-1-ene a SATURATED or UNSATURATED compound? Give a reason for the

answer. (2)

2.2 Compound A is the major product formed in reaction 1.

Write down the:

2.2.1 Structural formula of compound A (2)
2.2.2 Type of reaction that takes place (1)

2.3 For compound B, write down the:

2.3.1 IUPAC name (2)
2.3.2 Structural formula of the positional isomer (2)
2.4 For reaction 3, write down:

2.4.1 TWO reaction conditions needed (2)

2.4.2 The type of reaction that occurs (1)
2.4.3 A balanced equation, using molecular formulae (3)
[15]

QUESTION 3

Consider the incomplete equations of two reactions below.

X represents the organic product formed in reaction 1, which is a SUBSTITUTION REACTION.
In reaction 2, X reacts with reactant Y as shown.
strong base
Reaction 1: C2H5Br NaBr + X

Concentrated H2SO4
Reaction 2: X + Y C3H6O2 + H2O

3.1 Consider reaction 1. Write down the:

3.1.1 Type of substitution reaction that takes place (1)

3.1.2 TWO reaction conditions (2)

3.1.3 IUPAC name of compound X (1)

 51

3.2 Consider reaction 2. Write down the:

3.2.1 Type of reaction that takes place (1)

3.2.2 Structural formula of compound Y (2)

3.2.3 IUPAC name of the organic product (2)

[9]

QUESTION 4

4.1 The flow diagram below shows two organic reactions. The letter P represents an
organic compound.

Reaction 1
Alcohol + P Ethyl propanoate

Reaction 2

Alkene

Use the information in the flow diagram to answer the questions that follow.

Write down the:

4.1.1 Type of reaction of which Reaction 1 is an example (1)

4.1.2 STRUCTURAL FORMULA of the functional group of ethyl propanoate (1)

4.1.3 IUPAC name of compound P (1)

Reaction 2 takes place in the presence of an acid catalyst and heat.

Write down the:

4.1.4 Type of reaction of which Reaction 2 is an example (1)

4.1.5 NAME or FORMULA of the acid catalyst (1)
4.1.6 STRUCTURAL FORMULA of the alkene (2)

4.2 The condensed formula of a polymer is shown below.

Write down the:

4.2.1 STRUCTURAL FORMULA of the monomer that is used to prepare the above polymer

4.2.2 Type of polymerisation reaction (ADDITION or CONDENSATION) that is used to

prepare this polymer (1)
 52

QUESTION 5

The flow diagram below shows different organic reactions using CH2 = CH2 as the starting
reactant. X, Y and Z represent different organic compounds.

Reaction 4 Reaction 1
C2H6 CH2 = CH2 Y

Reaction 2 + HCℓ

Reaction 3
X Z

5.1 During Reaction 1, CH2 = CH2 undergoes polymerisation to form compound Y.

For this reaction, write down the:

5.1.1 Type of polymerisation (1)

5.1.2 NAME of compound Y (1)

5.2 For Reaction 2, write down the:

5.2.1 IUPAC name of compound X (2)

5.2.2 Type of addition reaction of which this is an example (1)

5.3 During Reaction 3, compound X reacts with excess hot water.

Write down the:

5.3.1 STRUCTURAL FORMULA of compound Z (2)

5.3.2 NAME or FORMULA of the INORGANIC product (1)

5.4 Reaction 4 is an addition reaction.

5.4.1 Is C2H6 a SATURATED or an UNSATURATED compound? Give a

reason for the answer. (2)

5.4.2 Write down the NAME or FORMULA of the INORGANIC reactant needed
for this reaction. (1)

5.4.3 Using molecular formulae, write down a balanced equation for the
complete combustion of C2H6. (3)
[14]
 53

QUESTION 6

The flow diagram below shows how prop-1-ene can be used to prepare other organic
compounds.

propane

compound X alcohol
prop-1-ene (major product)
(major product) HBr

F
6.1 Write down the type of reaction represented by:

6.1.1 A (1)

6.1.2 D (1)

6.1.3 F (1)

6.2 Write down the:

6.2.1 NAME or FORMULA of the catalyst needed for reaction A (1)

6.2.2 NAME or FORMULA of the inorganic reagent needed for reaction B (1)

6.2.3 Type of addition reaction represented by reaction C (1)

6.2.4 IUPAC name of compound X (2)

6.3 Use structural formulae to write down a balanced equation for reaction B. (5)

6.4 Both reactions D and E take place in the presence of a strong base. State TWO
conditions that will favour reaction D over reaction E. (2)
[15]

QUESTION 7

Butane (C4H10) is produced in industry by the THERMAL cracking of long-chain hydrocarbon

molecules, as shown in the equation below. X represents an organic compound that is
produced.
C10H22 → X + C4H10

7.1 Write down:

7.1.1 ONE condition required for THERMAL cracking to take place (1)

7.1.2 The molecular formula of compound X (1)

7.1.3 The homologous series to which compound X belongs (1)

 54

7.2 A mixture of the two gases, compound X and butane, is bubbled through bromine
water, Br2(aq), in a conical flask, as illustrated below. THE REACTION IS CARRIED
OUT IN A DARKENED ROOM.
Syringe
X and C4H10

Br2(aq)

The colour of the bromine water changes from reddish brown to colourless when the
mixture of the two gases is bubbled through it.

Which ONE of the gases (X or BUTANE) decolorises the bromine water? Explain the
answer. (4)

7.3 Study the flow diagram below, which represents various organic reactions, and
answer the questions that follow.

OH
I CH3CH2CHCH3

Butane chlorination
Compound P III
C4H10

II Compound Q
concentrated (major product)
NaOH

Write down the:

7.3.1 IUPAC name of compound P (2)

7.3.2 Type of reaction labelled I (1)

7.3.3 Structural formula of compound Q (2)

7.3.4 The type of addition reaction represented by reaction III (1)

 55
QUESTION 8

The flow diagram below shows how an alkene can be used to prepare other organic compounds. The letters
A to G represent different organic reactions.

8.1 Write down the type of reaction represented by:

8.1.1 A (1)
8.1.2 B (1)
8.1.3 E (1)
8.2 Write down the IUPAC name of compound X. (2)
8.3 For reaction D, write down:
8.3.1 The type of elimination reaction (1)
8.3.2 TWO reaction conditions (2)
8.4 Write down the:
8.4.1 FORMULA of an inorganic reactant needed for reaction F (1)
8.4.2 Balanced equation, using structural formulae, for reaction G (4)
[13]
QUESTION 9

9.1 Consider the reactions represented in the flow diagram below.

Br

CH3 C CH3

CH3
reaction 2
reaction 1

concentrated reaction 3
Alcohol A H SO Compound B
C4H8Br2
2 4 (An alkene)
 56
Write down the:
9.1.1 Type of reaction represented by reaction 1 (1)
9.1.2 NAME or FORMULA of the inorganic reactant needed for reaction 1 (1)
9.1.3 Type of alcohol (PRIMARY, SECONDARY or TERTIARY) of which alcohol A is an example (1)
9.1.4 Type of reaction represented by reaction 2 (1)
9.1.5 IUPAC name of compound B (2)
9.1.6 Type of addition reaction represented by reaction 3 (1)
9.1.7 Balanced equation for reaction 3 using structural formulae (4)
9.2 A wide range of synthetic polymers are produced by combining large numbers of similar
small organic molecules bonded to each other in a repeating pattern. Polymer C below is an
example of such a polymer.

Write down:ONE word for the underlined phrase (1)

9.2.1 The homologous series to which the 'small organic molecules' used to produce polymer C
belong to.

QUESTION 10

The flow diagram below shows how an alcohol (compound P) can be used to prepare other organic compounds.
The letters A to E represent different organic reactions. X, Y and Z are organic compounds.

10.1 Is compound P a PRIMARY, SECONDARY or TERTIARY alcohol? Give a reason for the answer. (2)
10.2 Write down the type of:
10.2.1 Elimination reaction represented by A (1)
10.2.2 Addition reaction represented by B (1)
10.2.3 Elimination reaction represented by D (1)
10.3 Sodium hydroxide is used as one of the reactants in reaction C.
10.3.1 What type of reaction takes place here? (1)
10.3.2 State the TWO reaction conditions for this reaction. (2)
10.3.3 Write down the IUPAC name of compound X. (2)
10.4 Write down the FORMULA of an inorganic reactant needed for reaction D. (1)
10.5 Using STRUCTURAL FORMULAE, write down a balanced equation for reaction E. (3)
10.6 Write down the IUPAC name of compound Z. (1)
 57
QUESTION 11
Consider the incomplete equations for reactions I to IV below. P, Q, R and S are organic compounds.

11.1 Define a cracking reaction. (2)

11.2 Write down the reaction

number (I, II, III or IV)
that represents EACH of
the following:

11.2.1 A cracking reaction (1)

11.2.2 An addition reaction (1)
11.2.3 A substitution reaction (1)

11.3 Write down:

11.3.1 ONE reaction condition for reaction I (1)
11.3.2 The compound (P, Q, R or S) that represents an unsaturated hydrocarbon (1)
11.3.3 The IUPAC name of compound P (1)
11.3.4 The molecular formula of compound R (2)
11.3.5 The structural formula of compound Q (2)
11.3.6 The structural formula of compound S (2)
[14]
QUESTION 12

Propan-1-ol can undergo a number of organic reactions, as indicated by the letters A to D in the diagram below.

12.1 Write down the type of reaction represented by:

12.1.1 A (1)
12.1.2 B (1)
12.1.3 C (1)
12.1.4 D (1)
12.2 For reaction C, write down the:
12.2.1 Function of H2SO4 (1)
12.2.2 IUPAC name of the organic product (2)
12.2.3 Structural formula of the other organic reactant (2)
12.3 Use STRUCTURAL FORMULAE for all organic reactants and products to write a balanced equation
for reaction A. (5)
[14]
QUESTION 13

13.1 Three reactions of organic compounds from the same homologous series are shown below.
 58
13.1.1 Define a homologous series. (2)
13.1.2 Name the type of reaction represented by I. (1)
13.1.3 Write down the formula of the inorganic compound P. (1)
13.1.4 Give the structural formula of a POSITIONAL isomer of 2-bromobutane. (2)
13.1.5 Using molecular formulae, write down a balanced equation for reaction II. (3)
Reaction III is an example of a cracking reaction.
13.1.6 Define a cracking reaction. (2)
13.1.7 Give the structural formula of organic compound Q. (2)
13.2 Study the flow diagram below.

13.1.8 Write down the IUPAC name of compound R. (2)

13.1.9 Compound R reacts in the presence of concentrated phosphoric acid to form an alkene.
Write down the structural formula of the MAJOR PRODUCT in this reaction. (2)
[17]
QUESTION 14

14.1 The balanced equation for a polymerisation reaction is shown below.

Write down the:
14.1.1 Type of polymerisation reaction
represented by the equation (1)
14.1.2 IUPAC name of the monomer (1)
14.1.3 IUPAC name of the polymer (1)

14.2 Propan-1-ol undergoes two different reactions, as shown in the diagram below.

Write down the:

14.2.1 Type of reaction represented by reaction 2 (1)
14.2.2 Function of concentrated H2SO4 in reaction 2 (1)
14.2.3 IUPAC name of compound X (2)
14.2.4 STRUCTURAL FORMULA of compound Y (2)
14.2.5 Type of reaction represented by reaction 3 (1)
14.2.6 IUPAC name of compound Z (2)
[12]
 59
QUESTION 15
The flow diagram below shows how compound A can be used to prepare other organic
compounds. The numbers I, II, III and IV represent different organic reactions. Use the
information in the flow diagram to answer the following questions.
15.1 Name the
homologous series
to which
compound A belongs. (1)
15.2 Write down the TYPE
of reaction
represented by:
15.2.1 I (1)
15.2.2 III (1)
15.2.3 IV (1)

15.3 Consider reaction III. Write down the:

15.3.1 TWO reaction conditions for this reaction (2)
15.3.2 IUPAC name of the primary alcohol that is formed (2)
15.4 Draw the STRUCTURAL FORMULA for compound B. (2)
15.5 Consider reaction IV. Write down the:
15.5.1 Structural formula of organic compound C (2)
15.5.2 NAME or FORMULA of the catalyst that is used (1)
[13]

QUESTION 16
The flow diagram shows how various
organic compounds can be prepared
using compound P as starting reagent.
16.1 Write down the meaning of the term
hydrohalogenation. (2)
16.2 Write down the STRUCTURAL
FORMULA of compound Q. (2)
16.3 Reaction I is an elimination
reaction. Write down the:
16.3.1 TYPE of elimination reaction (1)
16.3.2 MOLECULAR FORMULA
of compound P. (1)
16.4 Write down the IUPAC name of
compound R. (2)
16.5 For the HYDROLYSIS REACTION,
write down the:
16.5.1 Balanced equation using
structural formulae (5)
16.5.2 TWO reaction conditions (2)
 60

CHEMICAL CHANGE (RATE AND EXTENT OF REACTION)

• Activation energy: minimum amount of energy required for a reaction to occur.
• Activated complex: The unstable high energy state of transition from reactants to products during a
reaction.

Activation Complex

EA
Potential
energy E Released

Reactants
∆H

Products

Reaction co-ordinate Endothermic reaction ∆H > 0

Activation Complex

EReleased
POTENTIAL EA
ENERGY Products
∆H

Reactants

Exothermic reaction ∆H < 0

( www.learnextra.co.za Exam school 2012)

 61
Factors that determine the rate of a reaction
• Number of collisions per unit time
• Energy of the colliding particles
• Orientation of the colliding particles.

Factors affecting the rate of reaction:

• The nature of reactants: The are some chemical compounds which are more reactive than
others for example potassium and sodium.
• Temperature: An increase in temperature increases the speed and average kinetic energy
of the particles, this means more particles have energy higher than the activation energy
thus increasing the reaction rate.
• Concentration(liquid) and Pressure (gasses): An increase in concentration of a liquid
and the pressure of a gas increases the number of particles per unit volume thus increases
the chances of effective collisions per unit time.
• Surface Area(solid): When a solid is crushed, this increases the surface area of the solid
thus increases the chances of effective collisions per unit time.
• Catalyst: A catalyst affects the rate of the reaction rate without being used up during the
reaction. A catalyst provides an alternative path with a lower activation energy for the
reaction to take place. A low activation energy means more particles will have kinetic
energy higher than the activation energy, therefore they will have a greater chance of
effective collisions per unit time.
62
 63
Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution curves
 64
REACTION RATE AND ENERGY IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

QUESTION 1

1.1 Define the term reaction rate in words. (2)

Learners use the reaction between IMPURE POWDERED calcium carbonate and excess
hydrochloric acid to investigate reaction rate. The balanced equation for the reaction is:
CaCO3(s) + 2HCℓ(aq) → CaCℓ2(aq) + H2O(ℓ) + CO2(g)
They perform four experiments under different conditions of concentration, mass and
temperature as shown in the table below. They use identical apparatus in the four experiments
and measure the volume of gas released in each experiment.

EXPERIMENT
1 2 3 4
Concentration of acid (mol·dm-3) 1 0,5 1 1
Mass of impure calcium carbonate (g) 15 15 15 25
Initial temperature of acid (°C) 30 30 40 40

1.2 The results of experiments 1 and 3 are compared in the investigation.

Write down the:

1.2.1 Independent variable (1)

1.2.2 Dependent variable (1)

1.3 Use the collision theory to explain why the reaction rate in experiment 4 will be
higher than that in experiment 3. (3)

The learners obtain graphs A, B, C and D below from their results.

A
Volume CO2 (cm3)

Time (s)

1.4 Which ONE of the graphs (A, B, C or D) represents experiment 1? Fully explain the
answer by comparing experiment 1 with experiments 2, 3 and 4. (6)

1.5 When the reaction in experiment 4 reaches completion, the volume of gas formed is
4,5 dm3. Assume that the molar gas volume at 40 °C is equal to 25,7 dm3.

Calculate the mass of the impurities present in the calcium carbonate. (5)
[18]
 65

QUESTION 2

A group of learners uses the reaction of EXCESS hydrochloric acid (HCℓ) with zinc (Zn) to
investigate factors which influence reaction rate. The balanced equation for the reaction is:

Zn(s) + 2HCℓ(aq) → ZnCℓ2(aq) + H2(g)

They use the same volume of hydrochloric acid and 1,2 g of zinc in each of five experiments.
The reaction conditions and temperature readings before and after completion of the reaction in
each experiment are summarised in the table below.

REACTION CONDITIONS
Time
Experiment Concentration of Temperature (°C) State of division
(s)
HCℓ (mol·dm-3) Before After of the 1,2 g of Zn
1 0,5 20 34 granules 50
2 0,5 20 35 powder 10
3 0,8 20 36 powder 6
4 0,5 35 50 granules 8
5 0,5 20 34 granules 11

2.1 Is the reaction between hydrochloric acid and zinc EXOTHERMIC or

ENDOTHERMIC? Give a reason for the answer by referring to the data in the table. (2)

2.2 Give a reason for the difference in reaction rate observed for Experiments 1 and 2. (1)

2.3 The learners compare the results of Experiments 1 and 3 to draw a conclusion
regarding the effect of concentration on reaction rate. Give a reason why this is not a
fair comparison. (1)

2.4 How does the rate of the reaction in Experiment 5 compare to that in Experiment
1? Write down FASTER THAN, SLOWER THAN or EQUAL TO.

Write down the factor responsible for the difference in the rate of reaction and fully
explain, by referring to the collision theory, how this factor affects reaction rate. (5)

2.5 Calculate the rate at which the hydrochloric acid reacts in Experiment 4 in mol·s-1. (6)
[15]

QUESTION 3

A group of learners uses the reaction of clean magnesium ribbon with dilute hydrochloric acid to
investigate factors that influence reaction rate. The balanced equation for the reaction is:

Mg(s) + 2HCℓ(aq) → MgCℓ2(aq) + H2(g) ∆H < 0

3.1 Is the above reaction EXOTHERMIC or ENDOTHERMIC? Give a reason for the
answer. (2)

3.2 In one of the experiments 5 g magnesium ribbon was added to the hydrochloric acid
solution.

3.2.1 If 30 cm3 dilute hydrochloric acid solution of concentration 1,5 mol∙dm-3 is

USED UP in 1 minute, calculate the average reaction rate in mol∙s-1. (5)
 66

The volume of hydrogen gas produced as a function of time in this experiment is represented by
graph S below. (The graph is NOT drawn to scale.)

Volume (cm3)
0 t1 t2 t3 Time (s)

3.2.2 How does the rate of the reaction change between:

(Write down INCREASES, DECREASES or NO CHANGE.)

(a) t1 and t2
Use the collision theory to explain the answer. (4)

(b) t2 and t3
Give a reason for the answer without referring to the graph. (2)

3.3 In another experiment they add 5 g of magnesium to 30 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric

acid of concentration 1,5 mol∙dm-3. They obtained graph T below. (The graph is NOT
drawn to scale.)
Volume (cm3)

T
S

Time (s)
Give TWO possible reasons why graph T differs from graph S. (2)
[15]

QUESTION 4

Dilute acids, indicated in the table below, react with EXCESS zinc in each of the three
experiments to produce hydrogen gas. The zinc is completely covered with the acid in each
experiment.

EXPERIMENT DILUTE ACID

1 100 cm3 of 0,1 mol∙dm-3 H2SO4

2 50 cm3 of 0,2 mol∙dm-3 H2SO4

3 100 cm3 of 0,1 mol∙dm-3 HCℓ

The volume of hydrogen gas produced is measured in each experiment.

4.1 Name TWO essential apparatuses needed to determine the rate of hydrogen
production. (2)
 67

The graph below was obtained for Experiment 1.

Volume (cm3)
Experiment 1

0 t1 t2 t3 Time (s)

Use this graph and answer the questions that follow.

4.2 At which time (t1, t2 or t3) is the:
4.2.1 Reaction rate the highest (1)
4.2.2 Mass of zinc present in the flask the smallest (1)
4.3 In which time interval, between t1 and t2 OR between t2 and t3, does the largest
volume of hydrogen gas form per second? (1)
4.4 Redraw the graph for Experiment 1 in the ANSWER BOOK.
On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs that will be obtained for Experiments 2
and 3. Clearly label the three graphs as EXPERIMENT 1, EXPERIMENT 2 and
EXPERIMENT 3. (4)

4.5 The initial mass of zinc used in each experiment is 0,8 g. The balanced equation for
the reaction in Experiment 3 is:
Zn(s) + 2HCℓ(aq) → ZnCℓ2(aq) + H2(g)
4.5.1 Calculate the mass of zinc present in the flask after completion of the
reaction in Experiment 3. (5)
4.5.2 How will the mass of zinc present in the flask after completion of
the reaction in Experiment 2 compare to the answer to QUESTION
5.5.1? Write down only LARGER THAN, SMALLER THAN or
EQUAL TO. (1)
[15]

QUESTION 5
Methanol and hydrochloric acid react according to the following balanced equation:
CH3OH(aq) + HCℓ(aq) → CH3Cℓ(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
5.1 State TWO factors that can INCREASE the rate of this reaction. (2)
5.2 Define the term reaction rate. (2)
5.3 The rate of the reaction between methanol and hydrochloric acid is investigated. The
concentration of HCℓ(aq) was measured at different time intervals. The following
results were obtained:

TIME (MINUTES) HCℓ CONCENTRATION (mol∙dm-3)

0 1,90
15 1,45
55 1,10
100 0,85
215 0,60
 68

5.3.1 Calculate the average reaction rate, in (mol∙dm-3)∙min-1 during the first
15 minutes. (3)

5.3.2 Use the data in the table to draw a graph of concentration versus time on
a graph paper. (3)

5.3.3 From the graph, determine the concentration of HCℓ(aq) at the

40th minute. (1)

5.3.4 Use the collision theory to explain why the reaction rate decreases with
time. Assume that the temperature remains constant. (3)
5.3.5 Calculate the mass of CH3Cℓ(aq) in the flask at the 215th minute. The
volume of the reagents remains 60 cm3 during the reaction. (5)
[19]

QUESTION 6

The reaction between dilute hydrochloric acid and sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) is used to
investigate one of the factors that influences reaction rate. The balanced equation for the
reaction is:
Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HCℓ(aq) → 2NaCℓ(aq) + S(s) + H2O(ℓ) + SO2(g)
The hydrochloric acid solution is added to the sodium thiosulphate solution in a flask. The flask
is placed over a cross drawn on a sheet of white paper, as shown in the diagram below. The
time that it takes for the cross to become invisible is measured to determine the reaction rate.

flask

Na2S2O3(aq) + HCℓ(aq)

white paper

Four experiments, A to D, are conducted during this investigation. The volumes of reactants
used in each of the four experiments and the times of the reactions are summarised in the table
below.

Volume of Volume of Volume of

Experiment Na2S2O3(aq) (cm3) H2O(ℓ) (cm3) HCℓ(aq) (cm3) Time (s)
A 25 0 5 50,0
B 20 5 5 62,5
C 15 10 5 83,3
D 10 15 5 125,0

6.1 State TWO factors that can influence the rate of the reaction above. (2)

6.2 Write down the NAME or FORMULA of the product that causes the cross to become
invisible. (1)

6.3 Give a reason why water is added to the reaction mixture in experiments B
to D. (1)

6.4 Write down an investigative question for this investigation. (2)

6.5 In which experiment (A, B, C or D) is the reaction rate the highest? (1)
 69

6.6 Use the collision theory to explain the difference in reaction rate between
experiments B and D. (3)

6.7 The original Na2S2O3 solution was prepared by dissolving 62,50 g Na2S2O3 crystals+
in distilled water in a 250 cm3 volumetric flask.

Calculate the mass of sulphur, S, that will form in experiment D if Na2S2O3 is the
limiting reactant. (7)
[17]

QUESTION 7

Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, decomposes to produce water and oxygen according to the
following balanced equation:
2H2O2(ℓ) → 2H2O(ℓ) + O2(g)

7.1 The activation energy (EA) for this reaction is 75 kJ and the heat of reaction (ΔH) is –
196 kJ.

7.1.1 Define the term activation energy. (2)

7.1.2 Redraw the set of axes below in your ANSWER BOOK and then
complete the potential energy diagram for this reaction.

Indicate the value of the potential energy of the following on the y-

axis:
• Activated complex
• Products
(The graph does NOT have to be drawn to scale.)
Potential energy (kJ)

H2O2
0

Course of reaction (3)

When powdered manganese dioxide is added to the reaction mixture, the rate of the
reaction increases.

7.1.3 On the graph drawn for QUESTION 7.1.2, use broken lines to show the
path of the reaction when the manganese dioxide is added. (2)

7.1.4 Use the collision theory to explain how manganese dioxide influences the
rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. (3)
 70

7.2 Graphs A and B below were obtained for the volume of oxygen produced over time
under different conditions.

60 ● ● ● ●
●
Graph A
● ●
50
Volume of oxygen gas (dm3)

● Graph B
40

●
30 ●

20
●

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (s)
7.2.1 Calculate the average rate of the reaction (in dm3∙s-1) between
t = 10 s and t = 40 s for graph A. (3)
7.2.2 Use the information in graph A to calculate the mass of hydrogen
peroxide used in the reaction. Assume that all the hydrogen peroxide
1
decomposed. Use 24 dm3·mol- as the molar volume of oxygen. (4)
 71
QUESTION 8
The apparatus below is used to investigate one of the factors that affects the rate of decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide, H2O2. The balanced equation for the reaction is:

2H2O2(ℓ) → 2H2O(ℓ) + O2(g)

Two experiments are conducted. The reaction conditions are as follows:
Experiment I: 50 cm3 of hydrogen peroxide is allowed to decompose at 30 °C.
Experiment II: 50 cm3 of hydrogen peroxide decompose at 30 °C in the presence of copper(II) oxide
powder (CuO).

The results of the investigation are summarised in the table below.

Total volume of O2(g) Time taken for complete

Experiment produced(dm3) decomposition (min.)
I 0,4 12,3
II 0,4 5,8
8.1 For this investigation, write down the function of the:
8.1.1 Graduated syringe (1)
8.1.2 Copper(II) oxide (1)
8.2 How will you know when the reaction is completed? (1)
8.3 Write down the independent variable for this investigation. (1)
8.4 Use the collision theory to fully explain the difference in reaction rates of experiment I and II. (3)
8.5 The graphs below show changes in the potential energy during the decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide in experiment I and experiment II.

8.5.1 Is energy ABSORBED or RELEASED during this reaction? Give a reason for the answer. (2)
8.5.2 Which ONE of the curves, A or B, represents experiment II? (1)
8.6 Calculate the rate, in mol∙dm ∙min , at which 50 cm of hydrogen peroxide decomposes in
-3 -1 3

experiment II. Assume that 1 mole of gas occupies a volume of 25 dm3 at 30 °C. (6)
 72
QUESTION 9

The reaction of copper(II) carbonate with excess dilute hydrochloric acid is used to investigate the rate of
reaction. The balanced equation for the reaction is:
CuCO3(s) + 2HCℓ(aq) → CuCℓ2(aq) + H2O(ℓ) + CO2(g)

9.1 State TWO ways in which the rate of the reaction above can be increased. (2)
During the investigation, samples of both PURE and IMPURE copper(II) carbonate of EQUAL mass
are used. The graphs below are obtained from the results.

170,00

169,95 ----- Impure CuCO3

––– Pure CuCO3
Mass of flask and contents (g)

169,90

169,85

169,80

169,75

169,70
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (s)
9.2 Write down the reaction time for the reaction of the pure CuCO3 with HCℓ. (1)
9.3 Assume that all the gas formed during the two reactions escape from the flask and that the
impurities do not react. Calculate the:
9.3.1 Average rate of the reaction of the pure sample over the first 20 s (3)
9.3.2 Percentage purity of the impure sample (4)
9.3.4 Maximum volume of CO2(g) produced during the reaction of the pure sample of CuCO3 if
the reaction takes place at STANDARD CONDITIONS (3)
9.4 Sketch a graph of the volume of gas produced versus time for the reaction of the pure CuCO3.
Indicate the reaction time on the x-axis. (2)

QUESTION 10

A group of learners uses the reaction between powdered zinc and EXCESS dilute hydrochloric acid to
investigate one of the factors that affects the rate of a chemical reaction. The balanced equation for the
reaction is:
Zn(s) + 2HCℓ(aq) → ZnCℓ2(aq) + H2(g)
They conduct two experiments. The reaction conditions used are summarised in the table below.
 73

EXPERIMENT TEMPERATURE VOLUME OF CONCENTRATION MASS OF

(°C) HCℓ (cm3) OF Zn (g)
HCℓ (mol∙dm-3)
I 25 200 0,25 x
II 25 200 0,40 x

The results obtained are shown in the graph (not

drawn to scale).
10.1.1 Define reaction rate. (2)
10.1.2 Write down an investigative question for this
investigation. (2)
10..1 3 Which curve, P or Q, represents the results of
experiment I? Explain the answer. (3)

10.1.4 The average rate of the production of hydrogen gas, as represented by graph P, was 15
cm3/s. Calculate the mass of zinc used. Take the molar gas volume at 25 °C as
3
24 000 cm .(5)
3 -3
10.2 In a third experiment (experiment III), 200 cm of a 0,25 mol∙dm dilute hydrochloric acid solution at
35 °C reacts with the same amount of zinc powder as in experiment I and experiment II.
10.2.1 How will the heat of reaction of experiment II compare with that of experiment III?
Choose from MORE THAN, LESS THAN or EQUAL TO. (1)
10.2.2 How will the activation energy of the reaction in experiment I compare with that of the
reaction in experiment III? Choose from MORE THAN, LESS THAN or EQUAL TO. (1)
10.3 The rate of the reaction in experiment III is higher than that of experiment I. Fully explain this
statement by referring to the collision theory. (3)
[17]
QUESTION 11

Learners use the reaction between sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid to investigate one of the
factors that affects reaction rate. The balanced equation for the reaction is:
Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HCℓ(aq) → 2NaCℓ(aq) + H2O(ℓ) + SO2(g) + S(s)
3 -3
In the first experiment, 50 cm of the sodium thiosulphate solution is added to 100 cm3 of a 2 mol∙dm
dilute hydrochloric acid solution in a flask that is placed over a cross drawn on a sheet of white paper. The
hydrochloric acid is in excess. The time taken for the cross to become invisible, when viewed from the top,
is recorded. The experiment is then repeated four times with different volumes of the sodium thiosulphate
solution. The results obtained are shown in the table below.
 74

11.1 Define reaction rate. (2)

11.2 How does the concentration of the sodium thiosulphate solution used in experiment 2 compare to
that used in experiment 5? Choose from MORE THAN, LESS THAN or EQUAL TO. (1)
11.3 Draw a graph of average reaction rate versus volume of sodium thiosulphate used on a GRAPH
SHEET. (3)
11.4 Use the information in the graph to answer the following questions.
11.4.1 Determine the volume of dilute sodium thiosulphate solution that needs to react in
order for the cross to become invisible in 40 seconds. USE DOTTED LINES ON
THE GRAPH TO SHOW HOW YOU ARRIVED AT THE ANSWER. (3)
11.4.2 Write down a conclusion for this investigation. (2)
11.5 Use the collision theory to explain the effect of an increase in concentration on reaction rate. (3)
11.6 The mass of sulphur produced in experiment 1 is 1,62 g. Calculate the mass of the sodium
thiosulphate used in experiment 1. (4)
[18]

QUESTION 12

Two experiments are carried out to

investigate one of the factors that affects
the reaction rate between magnesium and
dilute hydrochloric acid. The reaction that
takes place is represented by the
following balanced equation: Mg(s) +
2HCℓ(aq) → MgCℓ2(aq) + H2(g)

In experiment 1 a certain mass of

magnesium ribbon reacts with excess
dilute hydrochloric acid.In experiment 2
magnesium powder of the same mass as
the magnesium ribbon, reacts with the
same volume of excess dilute hydrochloric
acid. The concentration of the acid is the
same in both experiments.

12.1 Define reaction rate. (2)

12.2 For this investigation, write down the:
12.2.1 Independent variable (1)
12.2.2 Controlled variable (1)
 75
The change in mass of magnesium is calculated and recorded in 2-minute intervals for both
experiments. The results obtained are shown in the graph alongside (NOT drawn to scale).

12.3 Use the information on the graph to:

12.3.1 Calculate the volume of hydrogen gas produced in experiment 1 from t = 2 minutes to
t = 10 minutes (Take the molar gas volume as 25 dm3∙mol-1.) (5)
12.3.2 Calculate the initial mass of magnesium used if the average rate of formation of hydrogen
gas in experiment 2 was 2,08 x 10-4mol·s-1. (5)
12.4 Use the collision theory to explain why the curve of experiment 2 is steeper than that of
experiment 1. (3)
[17]
QUESTION 13

The reaction of zinc and EXCESS dilute hydrochloric acid is used to investigate factors that affect
reaction rate. The balanced equation for the reaction is:
Zn(s) + 2HCℓ(aq) ⟶ ZnCℓ2(aq) + H2(g)
13.1 The reaction conditions used and the results obtained for each experiment are summarised in the
table below. The same mass of zinc is used in all the experiments. The zinc is completely covered in
Experiment 1 and experiment 5 are compared. Write down the independent variable. (1)
13.2 Define reaction rate. (2)

CONCENTRATION VOLUME REACTION

STATE OF TEMPERATURE
EXPERIMENT OF HCℓ (mol∙dm-3) OF TIME
DIVISION OF HCℓ OF HCℓ (°C) (min.)
HCℓ (cm3)
1 2,0 200 Powder 25 7
2 1,5 200 Granules 25 14
3 5,0 200 Powder 25 5
4 1,5 400 Granules 25 X
5 2,0 200 powder 35 4
13.3 Write down the value of x in experiment 4.(2)
13.4 The Maxwell-Boltzmann energy
distribution curves for particles in each of
experiments 1, 3 and 5 are shown
alongside.
Identify the graph (A or B or C)
that represents the following:
13.4.1 Experiment 3
Give a reason for the answer. (2)
13.4.2 Experiment 5
Give a reason for the answer. (2)
13.5 Experiment 6 is now conducted using a catalyst and the SAME reaction conditions as for
experiment 1.
 76
13.5.1 What is the function of the catalyst in this experiment? (1)
13.5.2 How will the heat of reaction in experiment 6 compare to that in experiment 1?
Choose from: GREATER THAN, EQUAL TO or LESS THAN. (1)
13.6 Calculate the average rate of the reaction (in mol·min-1) with respect to zinc for experiment 2 if
1,5 g of zinc is used in all reactions. The reaction time is the time it takes the reaction to be
completed.

QUESTION 14
Learners use the reaction of a sodium thiosulphate solution with dilute hydrochloric acid to
investigate several factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction. The balanced equation for the
reaction is:
Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HCℓ(aq) → 2NaCℓ(aq) + SO2(g) + S(s) + H2O(ℓ)
14.1 Define reaction rate. (2)
Three investigations (I, II and III) are carried out.
14.2 INVESTIGATION I
The results obtained in INVESTIGATION I are
shown in the graph on the left.

For this investigation, write down the:

14.2.1 Dependent variable (1)

14.2.2 Conclusion that can be drawn from the results (2)

14.3 INVESTIGATION II
The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curves, A and B, represent the number of particles against
kinetic energy for the reaction at two different temperatures.

14.3.1 What does line P represent? (1)

14.3.2 Which curve (A or B) was obtained at the higher temperature? (1)
14.3.3 Explain, in terms of the collision theory, how an increase in temperature influences the rate
of a reaction. (4)
 77
QUESTION 15

The calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in antacid tablets reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCℓ) according to the
following balanced equation:
CaCO3(s) + 2HCℓ(aq) → CaCℓ2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(ℓ) ΔH < 0
15.1 Is the above reaction EXOTHERMIC or ENDOTHERMIC? Give a reason for the answer. (2)
15.2 An antacid tablet of mass 2 g is placed in HCℓ(aq). After 30s the mass of the tablet was found
to be 0,25 g.
15.3 Calculate the average rate (in g/s) of the above reaction. (3)
The antacid tablet contains 40% calcium carbonate. Another antacid tablet of mass 2g is allowed to react
completely with HCℓ(aq).
15.4 Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide, CO2(g) that will be collected at STP. Assume that all the
CO2(g) produced is from the calcium carbonate. (5)
The reaction rate of similar antacid tablets with excess HCℓ(aq) of concentration 0,1 mol∙dm-3 at DIFFERENT
TEMPERATURES is measured. The graph below was obtained.
Use the information in the graph to answer the following questions.

15.5 Write down ONE controlled variable for this investigation. (1)
15.6 Write down a conclusion that can be made from the graph. (2)
15.7 Use the collision theory to fully explain the answer to QUESTION 15.5. (3)
15.8 Redraw the graph above in the ANSWER BOOK. On the same set of axes, sketch the curve that will
be obtained if HCℓ(aq) of concentration 0,2 mol∙dm-3 is now used. Label this curve Y. (2)
[18]
QUESTION 16

The reaction of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and EXCESS dilute hydrochloric acid (HCℓ) is used to investigate
one of the factors that affects reaction rate. The balanced equation for the reaction is:
CaCO3(s) + 2HCℓ(aq) → CaCℓ2(aq) + H2O(ℓ) + CO2(g)
The same mass of CaCO3 is used in all the experiments and the temperature of the hydrochloric
acid in all experiments is 40°C.
The reaction conditions for each experiment are summarised in the table below.

VOLUME OF CONCENTRATION STATE OF

EXPERIMENT HCℓ(aq) OF HCℓ(aq) DIVISION OF
CaCO3
(cm3) (mol.dm-3)

A 500 0,1 granules

B 500 0,1 lumps

C 500 0,1 powder

16.1 For this investigation write down the:

 78
16.1.1 Dependent variable (1)
16.1.2 Independent variable (1)

The carbon dioxide gas, CO2(g), produced during EXPERIMENT A, is collected in a gas syringe. The
volume of gas collected is measured every 20s and the results obtained are shown in the graph

16.2 What can be deduced

from the graph regarding
the RATE OF THE
REACTION during the
time interval:
16.2.1 20 s to 40 s (1)
16.2.2 60 s to 120 s (1)
16.3 Calculate the average rate
-1
(in cm3∙s ) at which CO2
(g) is produced in the
experiment. (3)

16.1 How will the volume of CO2(g) produced in experiment B compare to that produced in
experiment A? Choose from GREATER THAN, SMALLER THAN or EQUAL TO
16.4 A graph is now drawn for experiment C on the same set of axes. How will the gradient of this
graph compare to the gradient of the graph for experiment A? Choose from GREATER
THAN, SMALLER THAN or EQUAL TO. Use the collision theory to fully explain the answer.
(4)
-1
16.5 Assume that the molar gas volume at 40°C is 25,7 dm3∙mol . Calculate the mass of CaCO3(s)
used in experiment A. (4)
 79

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
Terms & Definitions

Closed system A type of thermodynamic system where mass is conserved within the boundaries
of the system, but energy is allowed to freely enter or exit the system
Concentration The amount of substance in a given volume.

Chemical The state when the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse
equilibrium reaction.
(Dynamic OR
equilibrium) The state when the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant.
Endothermic A reaction in which heat or energy is absorbed. (The temperature of the
reaction surroundings i.e. the reaction vessel and contents decreases.)
Equilibrium Equilibrium constant is the ratio of the equilibrium concentrations of the products
constant raised to the power of their stoichiometric coefficients to the equilibrium
concentrations of the reactants raised to the power of their stoichiometric
coefficients.
Exothermic A reaction in which heat or energy is released. (The temperature of the
reaction surroundings i.e. the reaction vessel and contents increases.)
Le Chatelier’s When the equilibrium in a closed system is disturbed, the system will re-instate
principle the equilibrium by favouring the reaction that cancels the disturbance.
Reversible A chemical reaction where the reactants form products that, in turn, react to give
reaction the reactants back.

FACTORS INFLUENCING CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

Temperature An increase in temperature favours the endothermic reaction. A

decrease in temperature favours the exothermic reaction.

(The RATE of both endothermic and exothermic reactions INCREASES WITH AN

INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE, but the rate of the endothermic reaction will be
faster than that of the exothermic reaction until equilibrium is reached.)
Concentration An increase in concentration of any of the reactants OR a decrease in
concentration of any of the products favours the forward reaction. A
decreases in concentration of any of the reactants OR an increase in
concentration of any of the products favours the reverse reaction.
Pressure (for An increase in pressure favours the reaction that produces the least amount
gases only) (number of moles) of gas.
A decrease in pressure favours the reaction that produces the larger amount
(number of moles) of gas.

EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT (KC)

• For the reaction aA(g) + bB(g) → cC(g) + dD(g),

[𝐶]𝑐 [𝐷]𝑑
𝐾𝑐 =
[𝐴]𝑎 [𝐵]𝑏

• Only gases (g) and solutions (aq) appear in the Kc expression – no solids (s) and pure liquids (ℓ)
• The equilibrium constant does not have a unit.
• Large Kc values: Reactions in which the concentration of products are high in comparison to that
of reactants.
 80
• Small Kc values: Reactions in which the concentration of products are low in comparison to that of
reactants.
• Only temperature can change the Kc value. Therefore the Kc value for a reaction is given at a specific
temperature.

Disturbances

• Temperature: An increase in temperature will favour the endothermic reaction which absorbs the
energy applied to counteract the change. A decrease in temperature will favour the exothermic
reaction which releases energy to counteract the change.
• Concentration : An increase in the concentration of a substance favours the reaction that uses up
that particular substance. A decrease in the concentration favours the reaction that forms more of the
substance.
• Pressure: An increase in in pressure favours the reaction that forms the least gas molecules. A
decrease in pressure favours the reaction that forms more gas molecules.
• Kc : Only temperature can affect the value of Kc.
Answering equilibrium shift questions according to Le Chatelier.

1. Identify the disturbance.

2. State or define Le Chatelier’s principle.
3. Describe the system response.
4. State the favoured reaction.
5. Discuss the results.
 81

QUESTION 1

A certain amount of nitrogen dioxide gas (NO2) is sealed in a gas syringe at 25 °C. When
equilibrium is reached, the volume occupied by the reaction mixture in the gas syringe is 80
cm3. The balanced chemical equation for the reaction taking place is:

2NO2(g) ⇌ N2O4(g) ∆H < 0

dark brown colourless

1.1 Define the term chemical equilibrium. (2)

1.2 At equilibrium the concentration of the NO2(g) is 0,2 mol·dm-3. The equilibrium
constant for the reaction is 171 at 25 °C.

Calculate the initial number of moles of NO2(g) placed in the gas syringe. (8)

1.3 The diagram below shows the reaction mixture in the gas syringe after equilibrium is
established.

80 cm3

The pressure is now increased by decreasing the volume of the gas syringe at
constant temperature as illustrated in the diagram below.

1.3.1 IMMEDIATELY after increasing the pressure, the colour of the reaction
mixture in the gas syringe appears darker than before. Give a reason for
this observation. (1)

After a while a new equilibrium is established as illustrated below. The colour of the
reaction mixture in the gas syringe now appears lighter than the initial colour.

1.3.2 Use Le Chatelier's principle to explain the colour change observed in the
gas syringe. (3)

1.4 The temperature of the reaction mixture in the gas syringe is now increased and a
new equilibrium is established. How will each of the following be affected?

1.4.1 Colour of the reaction mixture

Write down only DARKER, LIGHTER or REMAINS THE SAME. (1)

1.4.2 Value of the equilibrium constant (Kc)

Write down only INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME. (1)
[16]
 82

QUESTION 2

Pure hydrogen iodide, sealed in a 2 dm3 container at 721 K, decomposes according to the
following balanced equation:

2HI(g) ⇌ H2(g) + I2(g) ∆H = + 26 kJ∙mol-1

The graph below shows how reaction rate changes with time for this reversible reaction.

Reaction rate

0 5 12 15 17 20
Time (minutes)
2.1 Write down the meaning of the term reversible reaction. (1)

2.2 How does the concentration of the reactant change between the 12th and the 15th
minute? Write down only INCREASES, DECREASES or NO CHANGE. (1)

2.3 The rates of both the forward and the reverse reactions suddenly change at
t = 15 minutes.

2.3.1 Give a reason for the sudden change in reaction rate. (1)

2.3.2 Fully explain how you arrived at the answer to QUESTION 2.3.1. (3)

The equilibrium constant (Kc) for the forward reaction is 0,02 at 721 K.

2.4 At equilibrium it is found that 0,04 mol HI(g) is present in the container. Calculate the
concentration of H2(g) at equilibrium. (6)

2.5 Calculate the equilibrium constant for the reverse reaction. (1)

2.6 The temperature is now increased to 800 K. How will the value of the equilibrium
constant (Kc) for the forward reaction change? Write down only INCREASES,
DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME. (1)
[14]
 83

QUESTION 3

Initially excess NH4HS(s) is placed in a 5 dm3 container at 218 °C. The container is sealed and
the reaction is allowed to reach equilibrium according to the following balanced equation:

NH4HS(s) ⇌ NH3(g) + H2S(g) ∆H > 0

3.1 State Le Chatelier's principle. (2)

3.2 What effect will each of the following changes have on the amount of NH3(g) at
equilibrium? Write down only INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME.

3.2.1 More NH4HS(s) is added (1)

3.2.2 The temperature is increased (1)

3.3 The equilibrium constant for this reaction at 218 °C is 1,2 x 10-4.
Calculate the minimum mass of NH4HS(s) that must be sealed in the container to
obtain equilibrium. (6)

The pressure in the container is now increased by decreasing the volume of the container at
constant temperature.

3.4 How will this change affect the number of moles of H2S(g) produced? Fully explain
the answer. (3)
[13]

QUESTION 4

An unknown gas, X2(g), is sealed in a container and allowed to form X3(g) at 300 °C. The
reaction reaches equilibrium according to the following balanced equation:

3X2(g) ⇌ 2X3(g)

4.1 How will the rate of formation of X3(g) compare to the rate of formation of X2(g) at
equilibrium? Write down only HIGHER THAN, LOWER THAN or EQUAL TO. (1)
The reaction mixture is analysed at regular time intervals. The results obtained are shown in
the table below.

TIME [ X2 ] [ X3 ]
(s) (mol∙dm-3) (mol∙dm-3)
0 0,4 0
2 0,22 0,120
4 0,08 0,213
6 0,06 0,226
8 0,06 0,226
10 0,06 0,226

4.2 Calculate the equilibrium constant, Kc for this reaction at 300 °C. (4)
4.3 More X3(g) is now added to the container.
4.3.1 How will this change affect the amount of X2(g)? Write down
INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME. (1)

4.3.2 Use Le Chatelier's principle to explain the answer to QUESTION 4.3.1. (2)
 84

The curves on the set of axes below (not drawn to scale) was obtained from the results in the
table on page 10.

Concentration (mol∙dm-3)
t1 Time (s)
4.4 How does the rate of the forward reaction compare to that of the reverse reaction at
t1? Write down only HIGHER THAN, LOWER THAN or EQUAL TO. (1)

The reaction is now repeated at a temperature of 400 °C. The curves indicated by the dotted
lines below were obtained at this temperature.
Concentration (mol∙dm-3)

300 °C
400 °C

Time (s)
4.5 Is the forward reaction EXOTHERMIC or ENDOTHERMIC? Fully explain how you
arrived at the answer. (4)

The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curve below represents the number of particles against
kinetic energy at 300 °C.
Number of particles

300 °C

Kinetic energy

4.6 Redraw this curve in the ANSWER BOOK. On the same set of axes, sketch the
curve that will be obtained at 400 °C. Clearly label the curves as 300 °C and 400 °C
respectively. (2)
[15]
 85

QUESTION 5

Initially, 2,2 g of pure CO2(g) is sealed in an empty 5 dm3 container at 900 °C.

5.1 Calculate the initial concentration of CO2(g). (4)

5.2 Give a reason why equilibrium will not be established. (1)

CaCO3(s) is now added to the 2,2 g CO2(g) in the container and after a while equilibrium is
established at 900 °C according to the following balanced equation:
CaCO3(s) ⇌ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
The equilibrium constant for this reaction at 900 °C is 0,0108.
5.3 Give a reason why this reaction will only reach equilibrium in a SEALED container. (1)

5.4 Calculate the minimum mass of CaCO3(s) that must be added to the container to
achieve equilibrium. (7)

5.5 How will EACH of the following changes affect the amount of CO2(g)? Write
down only INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME.

5.5.1 More CaCO3(s) is added at 900 °C (1)

5.5.2 The pressure is increased (1)

5.6 It is found that the equilibrium constant (Kc) for this reaction is 2,6 x 10-6 at 727 °C. Is
the reaction EXOTHERMIC or ENDOTHERMIC? Fully explain how you arrived at the
answer. (4)
[19]
QUESTION 6

Carbon dioxide reacts with carbon in a closed system to produce carbon monoxide, CO(g),
according to the following balanced equation:
CO2(g) + C(s) ⇌ 2CO(g) ΔH > 0
6.1 What does the double arrow indicate in the equation above? (1)

6.2 Is the above reaction an EXOTHERMIC reaction or an ENDOTHERMIC reaction?

Give a reason for the answer. (2)

Initially an unknown amount of carbon dioxide is exposed to hot carbon at 800 °C in a sealed
2 dm3 container. The equilibrium constant, Kc, for the reaction at this temperature is 14.
At equilibrium it is found that 168,00 g carbon monoxide is present.
6.3 How will the equilibrium concentration of the product compare to that of the reactants?
Choose from LARGER THAN, SMALLER THAN or EQUAL TO.
(2)
Give a reason for the answer. (No calculation is required.)
6.4 Calculate the initial amount (in moles) of CO2(g) present. (9)
6.5 State how EACH of the following will affect the yield of CO(g) at equilibrium. Choose
from INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME.

6.5.1 More carbon is added at constant temperature. (1)

6.5.2 The pressure is increased. (1)
6.5.3 The temperature is increased. (1)
[17]
 86

QUESTION 7

Hydrogen gas, H2(g), reacts with sulphur powder, S(s), according to the following balanced
equation:
H2(g) + S(s) ⇌ H2S(g) ∆H < 0

The system reaches equilibrium at 90 °C.

7.1 Define the term chemical equilibrium. (2)

7.2 How will EACH of the following changes affect the number of moles of H2S(g) at
equilibrium? Choose from INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME.

7.2.1 The addition of more sulphur. (1)

7.2.2 An increase in temperature. Use Le Chatelier's principle to

explain the answer. (4)

7.3 The sketch graph below was obtained for the equilibrium mixture.
Reaction rate (mol∙s-1)

t1 Time (s)

A catalyst is added to the equilibrium mixture at time t1.

Redraw the graph above in your ANSWER BOOK. On the same set of axes, complete
the graph showing the effect of the catalyst on the reaction rates. (2)

Initially 0,16 mol H2(g) and excess S(s) are sealed in a 2 dm3 container and the system is allowed
to reach equilibrium at 90 °C.

An exact amount of Pb(NO3)2 solution is now added to the container so that ALL the H2S(g) present
in the container at EQUILIBRIUM is converted to PbS(s) according to the following balanced
equation:

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2S(g) → PbS(s) + 2HNO3(aq)

The mass of the PbS precipitate is 2,39 g.

7.4 Calculate the equilibrium constant Kc for the reaction H2(g) + S(s) ⇌ H2S(g) at
90 °C. (9)
 87
QUESTION 8
8.1 Consider the balanced equation for a reversible reaction:
N2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2NO(g)
8.1.1 What is meant by the term reversible reaction? (1)
The sketch graph alongside shows the relationship between the
value of the equilibrium constant (Kc) for this reaction and
temperature.
8.1.2 Is the reaction ENDOTHERMIC or EXOTHERMIC? (1)
8.1.3 Fully explain the answer to QUESTION 8.1.2. (3)
How will EACH of the following changes affect the amount of NO(g) at
equilibrium? Choose from INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS
THE SAME.
8.1.4 More N2(g) is added. (1)
8.1.5 The pressure is increased by decreasing the volume. (1)
8.2 Initially 336 g titanium (Ti) and 426 g chlorine gas (Cℓ2) are mixed in a sealed 2 dm3
container at a certain temperature. The reaction reaches equilibrium according to the
following balanced equation:
Ti(s) + 2Cℓ2(g) ⇌ TiCℓ4(s)
At equilibrium it is found that 288 g titanium is left in the container.
8.2.1 Calculate the equilibrium constant (Kc) for the reaction at this temperature. (8)
8.2.2 More titanium is now added to the equilibrium mixture. How will this change affect the yield
of TiCℓ4(s)? Choose from INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME. (1)
[16]
QUESTION 9
3
Hydrogen and iodine are sealed in a 2 dm container. The reaction is allowed to reach
equilibrium at 700 K according to the following balanced equation:
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
9.1 Give a reason why changes in pressure will have no effect on the equilibrium position. (1)
9.2 At equilibrium, 0,028 mol H2(g) and 0,017 mol I2(g) are present in the container.
Calculate the initial mass of I2(g), in grams, that was sealed in the container, if Kc for the reaction is
55,3 at 700 K. (9)
The reaction rate versus time graph below represents different changes made to the equilibrium mixture.

Forward reaction
Reverse reaction
Reaction
rate

0 2 4 6 8 10 Time (minutes)
9.3 What do the parallel lines in the first two minutes indicate? (1)
9.4 State TWO possible changes that could be made to the reaction conditions at t = 2 minutes. (2)
9.5 The temperature of the equilibrium mixture was changed at t = 4 minutes.
9.5.1 Is the forward reaction EXOTHERMIC or ENDOTHERMIC? Fully explain the answer. (3)
How will this change influence the Kc value? Choose from INCREASES, DECREASES or
REMAINS THE SAME. (1)
9.6 What change was made to the equilibrium mixture at t = 8 minutes? (1)
 88
QUESTION 10
Carbonyl bromide, COBr2, decomposes into carbon monoxide and bromine according to the
following balanced equation:
COBr2(g) ⇌ CO(g) + Br2(g) ΔH > 0
Initially COBr2(g) is sealed in a 2 dm3 container and heated to 73 °C. The reaction is allowed to reach
equilibrium at this temperature. The equilibrium constant for the reaction at this temperature is 0,19.
10.1 Define chemical equilibrium. (2)
At equilibrium it is found that 1,12 g CO(g) is present in the container.
10.2 Calculate the equilibrium concentration of the COBr2(g). (7)
10.3 Calculate the percentage of COBr2(g) that decomposed at 73 °C. (4)
10.4 Which ONE of the following CORRECTLY describes the Kc value when equilibrium is
reached at a lower temperature?
Kc < 0,19 Kc > 0,19 Kc = 0,19
(1)
10.5 The pressure of the system is now decreased by increasing the volume of the container at 73 °C
and the system is allowed to reach equilibrium. How will the number of moles of COBr2(g) be affected?
Choose from INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME. Explain the answer. (3)
[17]
QUESTION 11
11.1 A reversible gaseous reaction is allowed to reach
equilibrium in a closed container at different temperatures and
pressures. The graph shows the percentage yield for this
reaction at 30 kPa as the temperature is increased.
Use the information in the graph above to answer the following
questions
11.1.1 State Le Chatelier's principle. (2)
11.1.2 The heat of reaction (ΔH) for the forward reaction is
POSITIVE. Use Le Chatelier's principle to explain this
statement. (3)
The graph below show the percentage yield for this reaction as pressure changes at constant temperature.

11.1.3 Explain the effect of an increase in pressure on the

equilibrium position of a reaction. (2)
11.1.4 Which ONE of the following equations (I, II or
III) represents the equilibrium above?
I: 2A(g) + 3B(g) ⇌ 3C(g)
II: A(g) + B(g) ⇌ 3C(g)
III: A(g) + B(g) ⇌ 2C(g) (2)

11.2 A mixture of 0,2 moles of hydrogen chloride (HCℓ) and 0,11 moles of oxygen gas (O2) is
sealed in a 200 cm3 flask at a certain temperature. The reaction reaches equilibrium
according to the balanced equation:
4HCℓ(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2Cℓ2(g) + 2H2O(g)
It is found that 1,825 g of hydrogen chloride is present at equilibrium. Calculate the equilibrium
constant, Kc, for this reaction at this temperature. (9)
 89

QUESTION 12

The equation below represents a

hypothetical reaction that
reaches equilibrium in a closed
container after 2 minutes at room
temperature. The letters x, y and
z represent the number of moles
in the balanced equation.

xA(aq) + yB(aq) ⇌ zC(aq)

The graph shows the change in
the number of moles of
reactants and products versus
time during the reaction.

12.1 Define a dynamic

equilibrium. (2)
12.2 Use the information in
the graph and write
down the value of:
12.2.1 x (1)
12.2.2 y (1)
12.2.2 z (1)

12.3 Calculate the equilibrium constant, Kc, for this hypothetical reaction at room temperature if the
volume of the closed container is 3 dm3. (7)
12.4 At t = 4 minutes, the temperature of the system was increased to 60 °C. Is the REVERSE
reaction EXOTHERMIC or ENDOTHERMIC? Explain how you arrived at the answer. (3)
[15]
QUESTION 13

Dinitrogen tetraoxide, N2O4(g), decomposes to nitrogen dioxide, NO2(g), in a sealed syringe of volume 2
dm3.The mixture reaches equilibrium at 325 °C according to the following balanced equation:

N2O4(g) ⇌ 2NO2(g)
Colourless brown

When equilibrium is reached, it is observed that the colour of the gas in the syringe is brown.
13.1 State Le Chatelier’s principle. (2)
13.2 The syringe is now dipped into a beaker of ice water. After a while the brown colour disappears.
Is the forward reaction EXOTHERMIC or ENDOTHERMIC? Explain the answer using Le
Chatelier's principle. (3)
13.3 The volume of the syringe is now decreased while the temperature is kept constant. How
will EACH of the following be affected? Choose from: INCREASES, DECREASES or
REMAINS THE SAME.
13.3.1 The number of moles of N2O4(g) (1)
13.3.2 The value of the equilibrium constant (1)
13.3.2 The rate of the forward and reverse reactions (1)
3
13.4 Initially X moles of N2O4(g) were placed in the syringe of volume 2 dm . When equilibrium was
reached, it was found that 20% of the N2O4(g) had decomposed. If the equilibrium constant, Kc, for
the reaction is 0,16 at 325 °C, calculate the value of X. (8)
[16]
 90
QUESTION 14

The balanced equation below represents the reaction used in the Haber process to produce ammonia.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) ΔH < 0

In industry the product is removed as quickly as it forms.

14.1 Write down the meaning of the double arrow used in the equation above. (1)
14.2 Give ONE reason why ammonia is removed from the reaction vessel as quickly as it forms. (1)
The graph below shows the percentage yield of ammonia at different temperatures and pressures.

14.3 Write down the percentage yield of ammonia at a temperature of 450 °C and a pressure of
200 atmospheres. (1)
14.4 Refer to Le Chatelier's principle to explain EACH of the following deductions made from the graph:
14.4.1 For a given pressure, the yield of ammonia at 500 °C is much lower than that at 350 °C. (3)
14.4.2 For a given temperature, the yield of ammonia at 350 atmospheres is much higher than that
at 150 atmospheres. (2)
14.5 A technician prepares NH3(g) by reacting 6 moles of H2(g) and 6 moles of N2(g).
14.5.1 Calculate the maximum number of moles of NH3(g) that can be obtained in this reaction.(2)
14.5.2 The above reaction now takes place in a 500 cm3 container at a temperature of 350 °C and a
pressure of 150 atmospheres. The system is allowed to reach equilibrium. Use the graph
above and calculate the equilibrium constant, Kc, for this reaction under these conditions.(7)
[17]
QUESTION 15
Initially 60,8 g pure carbon dioxide, CO2(g), is reacted with carbon, C(s), in a sealed container of
volume 3 dm3. The reaction reaches equilibrium at temperature T according to the following
balanced equation:
C(s) + CO2(g) ⇌ 2CO(g)
15.1 Define the term chemical equilibrium. (2)
15.2 At equilibrium it is found that the concentration of the carbon dioxide is 0,054 mol∙dm .
-3

Calculate the:
15.2.1 Equilibrium constant, Kc, for this reaction at temperature T (7)
15.2.2 Minimum mass of C(s) that must be present in the container to obtain this equilibrium (3)
15.3 How will EACH of the following changes affect the AMOUNT of CO(g) at equilibrium?
 91

Choose from INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME.

15.3.1 More carbon is added to the container (1)
15.3.2 The pressure is increased by reducing the volume of the container at constant temperature.
Use Le Chatelier's principle to explain the answer. (3)

15.4 The table below shows the mole percentages of CO2(g) and CO(g) in the container at different
temperatures.

TEMPERATURE (°C) % CO2(g) % CO(g)

827 6,23 93,77
950 1,32 98,68
1 050 0,37 99,63
1 200 0,06 99,94
15.4.1 Is the reaction EXOTHERMIC or ENDOTHERMIC? Refer to the data in the table and
explain the answer. (3)
15.4.2 Use the information in the table to determine temperature T. Show clearly how you arrived
at the answer. (3)
[22]
QUESTION 16
The dissociation of iodine molecules to iodine atoms (I) is a reversible reaction taking place in a
sealed container at 727°C. The balanced equation for the reaction is:
I2(g) ⇌ 2I(g)
Kc for the reaction at 727°C is 3,76 x 10-3.
16.1 Write down the meaning of the term reversible reaction. (1)
16.2 At equilibrium the pressure of the system is increased by decreasing the volume of the
container at constant temperature. How will EACH of the following be affected? Choose
from INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME.
16.2.1 The value of the equilibrium constant (1)
16.2.2 The number of I 2 molecules (1)
16.3 Explain the answer to QUESTION 16.2.2 by referring to Le Chatelier's principle. (2)
16.4 At 227°C, the Kc value for the reaction above is 5,6 x 10-12. Is the forward reaction
ENDOTHERMIC or EXOTHERMIC? Fully explain the answer. (4)
16.5 A certain mass of iodine molecules (I2) is sealed in a 12,3 dm3 flask at a temperature of 727°C
(Kc = 3,76 x 10-3). When equilibrium is reached, the concentration of the iodine atoms is found to
be 4,79 x 10-3mol∙dm-3. Calculate the INITIAL MASS of the iodine molecules in the flask. (9)
 92

ACIDS AND BASES

• Write down neutralisation reactions of common laboratory acids and bases.
Examples: HCℓ(aq) + NaOH(aq)/KOH(aq) → NaCℓ(aq)/KCℓ(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
HCℓ(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → NaCℓ(aq) + H2O(ℓ) + CO2(g)
HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ)
(COOH)2(aq) + NaOH(aq) → (COO)2Na2(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
NOTE: The above are examples of equations that learners will be expected to write from given
information. However, any other neutralisation reaction can be given in a question paper and used
to assess, e.g. stoichiometry calculations. (DBE 2017 EXAMINATION GUIDELINES)

• Salt Hydrolysis

ACID STRENGTH
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Strong
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) Strong
Nitric acid (HNO3) Strong
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) Weak
Acetic acid (CH3COOH) Weak
Carbonic acid (H2CO3) Weak
Oxalic acid (COOH)2 Weak

• Hydrolysis of the salt of a weak acid and a strong base result in an alkaline solution, i.e. the
pH > 7. Examples of such salts are sodium ethanoate, sodium oxalate and sodium carbonate.
Example
Na2CO3(s) → 2Na+(aq) + CO32-(aq) ) (in water)
CO32-(aq) + H2O(l) → HCO3-(aq) + OH-(aq)

• Hydrolysis of the salt of a strong acid and a weak base result in an acidic solution, i.e. the
pH < 7. An example of such a salt is ammonium chloride.
Example:
NH4Cl(s) → NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq) (in water)
NH4+(aq) + H2O → NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)

• The salt of a strong acid and a strong base does not undergo hydrolysis and the solution of
the salt will be neutral, i.e. pH = 7.
Example:
HCl(g) + NaOH(l) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
NaCl(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) (in water)

The auto ionization of water

(𝑯𝟑 𝑶+ )(𝑶𝑯− ) (𝑯𝟑 𝑶+ )(𝑨+ ) (𝑩𝑯+ )(𝑶𝑯− )

Kw = (𝑯𝟐 𝑶)𝟐
= 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 Ka = (𝑯𝑨)
Kb = (𝑩)

pH = −𝐥𝐨𝐠⁡(𝑯𝟑 𝑶+ ) 𝒑𝑶𝑯 = −𝐥𝐨𝐠⁡(𝑶𝑯− ) pH + pOH = 14

 93

QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1

1.1 Nitric acid (HNO3), an important acid used in industry, is a strong acid.

1.1.1 Give a reason why nitric acid is classified as a strong acid. (1)
1.1.2 Write down the NAME or FORMULA of the conjugate base of nitric acid. (1)
1.1.3 Calculate the pH of a 0,3 mol∙dm-3 nitric acid solution. (3)

1.2 A laboratory technician wants to determine the percentage purity of magnesium oxide.
He dissolves a 4,5 g sample of the magnesium oxide in 100 cm3 hydrochloric acid of
concentration 2 mol∙dm-3.
1.2.1 Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid added to the
magnesium oxide. (3)

He then uses the apparatus below to titrate the EXCESS hydrochloric acid in the
above solution against a sodium hydroxide solution.

Retort stand Q

Sodium hydroxide solution

Erlenmeyer flask
Hydrochloric acid

1.2.2 Write down the name of apparatus Q in the above diagram. (1)
1.2.3 The following indicators are available for the titration:

INDICATOR pH RANGE
A 3,1 – 4,4
B 6,0 – 7,6
C 8,3 – 10,0
Which ONE of the above indicators (A, B or C) is most suitable to
indicate the exact endpoint in this titration? Give a reason for the answer. (3)
1.2.4 During the titration, the technician uses distilled water to wash any sodium
hydroxide spilled against the sides of the Erlenmeyer flask into the
solution. Give a reason why the addition of distilled water to the
Erlenmeyer flask will not influence the results. (1)

1.2.5 At the endpoint of the titration he finds that 21 cm3 of a 0,2 mol dm-3
sodium hydroxide solution has neutralised the EXCESS hydrochloric acid.
Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid in excess. (3)
1.2.6 The balanced equation for the reaction between hydrochloric acid and
magnesium oxide is: MgO(s) + 2HCℓ(aq) → MgCℓ2(aq) + H2O(ℓ)

Calculate the percentage purity of the magnesium oxide. Assume that only (5)
the magnesium oxide in the 4,5 g sample reacted with the acid. [21]
 90

QUESTION 2

2.1 Sulphuric acid is a diprotic acid.

2.1.1 Define an acid in terms of the Lowry-Brønsted theory. (2)

2.1.2 Give a reason why sulphuric acid is referred to as a diprotic acid. (1)

2.2 The hydrogen carbonate ion can act as both an acid and a base. It reacts with water
according to the following balanced equation:
HCO3− (aq) + H2O(ℓ) ⇌ H2CO3(aq) + OH-(aq)

2.2.1 Write down ONE word for the underlined phrase. (1)

2.2.2 HCO3− (aq) acts as base in the above reaction. Write down the formula of
the conjugate acid of HCO3− (aq).
(1)

2.3 A learner accidentally spills some sulphuric acid of concentration 6 mol∙dm-3 from a
flask on the laboratory bench. Her teacher tells her to neutralise the spilled acid by
sprinkling sodium hydrogen carbonate powder onto it. The reaction that takes place is:
(Assume that the H2SO4 ionises completely.)
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaHCO3(s) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ) + 2CO2(g)
The fizzing, due to the formation of carbon dioxide, stops after the learner has added
27 g sodium hydrogen carbonate to the spilled acid.

2.3.1 Calculate the volume of sulphuric acid that spilled. Assume that all the
sodium hydrogen carbonate reacts with all the acid. (6)

The learner now dilutes some of the 6 mol∙dm-3 sulphuric acid solution in the flask to
0,1 mol∙dm-3.

2.3.2 Calculate the volume of the 6 mol∙dm-3 sulphuric acid solution needed to
prepare 1 dm3 of the dilute acid. (2)

During a titration 25 cm3 of the 0,1 mol∙dm-3 sulphuric acid solution is added to an
Erlenmeyer flask and titrated with a 0,1 mol∙dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution.

2.3.3 The learner uses bromothymol blue as indicator. What is the purpose of
this indicator? (1)

2.3.4 Calculate the pH of the solution in the flask after the addition of 30 cm3 of
sodium hydroxide. The endpoint of the titration is not yet reached at this
point. (8)
[22]
 91

QUESTION 3

Anhydrous oxalic acid is an example of an acid that can donate two protons and thus ionises in
two steps as represented by the equations below:

I: (COOH)2(aq) + H2O(ℓ) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + H(COO)−2 (aq)

II: H(COO)2− (aq) + H2O(ℓ) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + (COO)22− (aq)

3.1 Write down:

3.1.1 ONE word for the underlined phrase in the above sentence (1)

3.1.2 The FORMULA of each of the TWO bases in reaction II (2)

3.1.3 The FORMULA of the substance that acts as ampholyte in reactions I

and II. Give a reason for the answer. (2)

3.2 Give a reason why oxalic acid is a weak acid. (1)

3.3 A standard solution of (COOH)2 of concentration 0,20 mol∙dm-3 is prepared by

dissolving a certain amount of (COOH)2 in water in a 250 cm3 volumetric flask.

Calculate the mass of (COOH)2 needed to prepare the standard solution. (4)

3.4 During a titration 25 cm3 of the standard solution of (COOH)2 prepared in QUESTION
3.3 is neutralised by a sodium hydroxide solution from a burette.
The balanced equation for the reaction is:
(COOH)2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ↔(COONa)2(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ)

The diagrams below show the burette readings before the titration commenced and
at the endpoint respectively.
Before the titration At the endpoint

cm3 cm3

38

Level of Level of
NaOH(aq) NaOH(aq)
39

3.4.1 Use the burette readings and calculate the concentration of the sodium
hydroxide solution. (5)

3.4.2 Write down a balanced equation that explains why the solution has a pH
greater than 7 at the endpoint. (3)
[18]
 92

QUESTION 4

4.1 Ammonium chloride crystals, NH4Cℓ(s), dissolve in water to form ammonium and
chloride ions. The ammonium ions react with water according to the balanced equation
below:
NH4+ (aq) + H2O(ℓ) ⇌ NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)

4.1.1 Write down the name of the process described by the underlined
sentence. (1)

4.1.2 Is ammonium chloride ACIDIC or BASIC in aqueous solution? Give a

reason for the answer. (2)

4.2 A certain fertiliser consists of 92% ammonium chloride. A sample of mass x g of this
fertiliser is dissolved in 100 cm3 of a 0,10 mol∙dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution,
NaOH(aq). The NaOH is in excess. The balanced equation for the reaction is:
NH4Cℓ(s) + NaOH(aq) ⇌ NH3(g) + H2O(ℓ) + NaCℓ(aq)

4.2.1 Calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide in which the sample
is dissolved. (3)

During a titration, 25 cm3 of the excess sodium hydroxide solution is titrated with a 0,11
mol∙dm-3 hydrochloric acid solution, HCℓ(aq). At the endpoint it is found that 14,55 cm3
of the hydrochloric acid was used to neutralise the sodium hydroxide solution
according to the following balanced equation:
HCℓ(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⇌ NaCℓ(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
4.2.2 Calculate the mass x (in grams) of the fertiliser sample used. (8)

4.3 Calculate the pH of a 0,5 moldm -3 sodium hydroxide solution at 25 °C. (4)
[18]

QUESTION 5
5.1 Define an acid in terms of the Lowry-Brønsted theory. (2)

5.2 Carbonated water is an aqueous solution of carbonic acid, H2CO3.

H2CO3(aq) ionises in two steps when it dissolves in water.

5.2.1 Write down the FORMULA of the conjugate base of H2CO3(aq). (1)
5.2.2 Write down a balanced equation for the first step in the ionisation of
carbonic acid. (3)
5.2.3 The pH of a carbonic acid solution at 25 °C is 3,4. Calculate the
hydroxide ion concentration in the solution. (5)
5.3 X is a monoprotic acid.
5.3.1 State the meaning of the term monoprotic. (1)

5.3.2 A sample of acid X is titrated with a standard sodium hydroxide solution

using a suitable indicator. At the endpoint it is found that 25 cm3 of acid X
is neutralised by 27,5 cm3 of the sodium hydroxide solution of
concentration 0,1 mol∙dm-3. Calculate the concentration of acid X. (5)
5.3.3 The concentration of H3O+ ions in the sample of acid X is 2,4 x
10-4 mol∙dm-3. Is acid X a WEAK or a STRONG acid? Explain the answer
by referring to the answer in QUESTION 5.3.2. (3)
[20]
 93

QUESTION 6

6.1 Hydrogen carbonate ions react with water according to the following balanced
equation:
HCO3− (aq) + H2O(ℓ) ⇌ H2CO3(aq) + OH− (aq)

6.1.1 Define an acid according to the Lowry-Brønsted theory. (2)

6.1.2 Write down the FORMULAE of the two acids in the equation above. (2)

6.1.3 Write down the formula of a substance in the reaction above that can act
as an ampholyte. (1)

6.2 During an experiment 0,50 dm3 of a 0,10 mol∙dm-3 HCℓ solution is added to 0,80 dm3 of
a NaHCO3 solution of concentration 0,25 mol∙dm-3. The balanced equation for the
reaction is:
NaHCO3(aq) + HCℓ(aq) → NaCℓ(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(ℓ)

Calculate the:

6.2.1 Concentration of the hydroxide ions in the solution on completion of the

reaction (8)

6.2.2 pH of the solution on completion of the reaction (4)

[17]

QUESTION 7

7.1 A learner dissolves ammonium chloride (NH4Cℓ) crystals in water and measures the
pH of the solution.

7.1.1 Define the term hydrolysis of a salt. (2)

7.1.2 Will the pH of the solution be GREATER THAN, SMALLER THAN or

EQUAL TO 7? Write a relevant equation to support your answer. (3)

7.2 A sulphuric acid solution is prepared by dissolving 7,35 g of H2SO4(ℓ) in 500 cm3 of
water.

7.2.1 Calculate the number of moles of H2SO4 present in this solution. (2)

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) pellets are added to the 500 cm3 H2SO4 solution.
The balanced equation for the reaction is:

H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(s) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ)

After completion of the reaction, the pH of the solution was found to be 1,3. Assume
complete ionisation of H2SO4.

7.2.2 Calculate the mass of NaOH added to the H2SO4 solution. Assume that
the volume of the solution does not change. (9)
 94

QUESTION 8
8.1 Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) is an acid that ionises incompletely in water according to the
following balanced equation:
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(ℓ) → CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
8.1.1 Write down the term used for the underlined phrase above. (1)
8.1.2 An ethanoic acid solution has a pH of 4 at 25°C. Calculate the concentration of the
hydronium ions, H3O+(aq) in the solution. (3)
3
8.2 A standard solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) is prepared in a 250 cm volumetric flask.
-3
During a titration, 12,5 cm3 of this solution neutralises 25 cm3 of a 0,16 mol∙dm ethanoic
acid solution. The balanced equation for the reaction is:
CH3COOH(aq) + KOH(aq) → CH3COOK(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
8.2.1 Define a base according to the Arrhenius theory. (2)
8.2.2 Calculate the mass of potassium hydroxide used to prepare the solution above in the
250 cm3 volumetric flask. (7)
8.2.3 Will the pH of the solution in the conical flask at the end point be GREATER THAN 7,
SMALLER THAN 7 or EQUAL TO 7? (1)
8.2.4 Explain the answer to QUESTION 8.2.3 with the aid of a balanced chemical equation. (3)
[17]
QUESTION 9

The Ka values for two weak acids, oxalic acid and carbonic acid, are as follows:
NAME FORMULA Ka
Oxalic acid (COOH)2 5,6 x 10-2
Carbonic acid H2CO3 4,3 x 10-7
9.1 Define the term weak acid. (2)
9.2 Which acid, OXALIC ACID or CARBONIC ACID, is stronger? Give a reason for the answer. (2)
9.3 Oxalic acid ionises in water according to the following balanced equation:
(COOH)3(s) + 2H2O(ℓ) ⇌ (COO)2− 2
(aq) + 2H3O+(aq)
Write down the FORMULAE of the TWO bases in this equation. (2)
9.4 Learners prepare 2 dm3 of a sodium hydroxide solution of concentration 0,1 mol∙dm-3. Calculate
the pH of the solution. (4)
9.5 During a titration of the sodium hydroxide solution in QUESTION 9.4 with dilute oxalic
acid, the learners find that 25,1 cm3 of the NaOH(aq) neutralises exactly 14,2 cm3 of the
(COOH)2(aq). The balanced equation for the reaction is as follows:
2NaOH(aq) + (COOH)2(aq) → (COO)2Na2(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ)
9.5.1 Calculate the concentration of the oxalic acid solution. (5)
The following indicators are available for the titration:
INDICATOR pH RANGE
A 3,1–4,4
B 6,0–7,6
C 8,3–10,0
9.5.2 Which ONE of the indicators above is most suitable for this titration? Give a reason for
the answer. (2)
9.6 Oxalic acid ionises in water according to the following balanced equation:
(COOH)2(s) + 2H2O(ℓ) ⇌ (COO) 2− (aq) + 2H3O+(aq)
2
Write down the FORMULAE of the TWO bases in this equation. (2)
3 -3
9.7 Learners prepare 2 dm of a sodium hydroxide solution of concentration 0,1 mol∙dm . Calculate
the pH of the solution. (4)
9.8 During a titration of the sodium hydroxide solution in QUESTION 9.4 with dilute oxalic acid,
3 3
the learners find that 25,1 cm of the NaOH(aq) neutralises exactly 14,2 cm of the (COOH)2(aq).
 95

The balanced equation for the reaction is as follows:

2NaOH(aq) + (COOH)2(aq) → (COO)2Na2(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ)
9.8.1 Calculate the concentration of the oxalic acid solution. (5)
The following indicators are available for the titration:
INDICATOR pH RANGE
A 3,1–4,4
B 6,0–7,6
C 8,3–10,0
9.8.2 Which ONE of the indicators above is most suitable for this titration? Give a reason for the
answer. (2)
[17]
QUESTION 10

10.1 Ammonia ionises in water to form a basic solution according to the following balanced equation:
NH3(aq) + H2O(ℓ) ⇌ NH+4(aq) + OH-(aq)

10.1.1 Is ammonia a WEAK or a STRONG base? Give a reason for the answer. (2)
10.1.2 Write down the conjugate acid of NH3(g). (1)
10.1.3 Identify ONE substance in this reaction that can behave as an ampholyte in some reactions.(1)
10.2 A learner adds distilled water to a soil sample and then filters the mixture. The pH of the filtered liquid
is then measured. He then gradually adds an ammonia solution, NH3(aq), to this liquid and
measuresthe pH of the solution at regular intervals. The graph alongside shows the results obtained.

10.2.1 Is the soil sample ACIDIC or

BASIC? Refer to the graph
above and give a reason for
the answer. (2)
10.2.2 Calculate the
concentration of the
hydroxide ions (OH-) in the
reaction mixture after the
addition of 4 cm3 of NH3(aq).
(4)

10.3 A laboratory technician wants to determine the concentration of a hydrochloric acid (HCℓ)
3 3 3
sample. He adds 5 cm of the HCℓ sample to 495 cm of distilled water to give 500 cm of
dilute hydrochloric acid, HCℓ(aq). During a reaction 50 cm3 of this dilute hydrochloric acid solution,

HCℓ(aq), reacts completely with 0,29 g of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3(s).

10.3 The balanced equation for the reaction is:

Na2CO3(s) + 2HCℓ(aq) → 2NaCℓ(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(ℓ)
Calculate the concentration of the hydrochloric acid sample. (7)
[17]
 96

QUESTION 11
11.1 The balanced equation below represents the first step in the ionisation of sulphuric acid
(H2SO4) in water:
H2SO4(ℓ) + H2O(ℓ) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + HSO−(aq)
4

11.1.1 Write down the FORMULAE of the TWO bases in the equation above. (2)
11.1.2 Is sulphuric acid a STRONG or a WEAK acid? Give a reason for the answer. (2)
11.2 Learners use the reaction of a 0,15 mol∙dm-3 sulphuric acid solution with a sodium hydroxide
solution in two different experiments. The balanced equation for the reaction is:
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
11.2.1 They use 24 cm3 of H2SO4(aq) in a titration to neutralise 26 cm3 of NaOH(aq).
Calculate the concentration of the NaOH(aq). (5)
11.2.2 In another experiment, 30 cm3 of the H2SO4(aq) is added to 20 cm3 of a 0,28 mol∙dm-3 NaOH
solution in a beaker. Calculate the pH of the final solution. (8)

QUESTION 12

The reaction between a sulphuric acid (H2SO4) solution and a sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution is
investigated using the apparatus illustrated below.

Retort stand Q

Sulphuric acid solution

Erlenmeyer flask
NaOH(aq)

3 -3
During the titration a learner adds 25 cm of NaOH(aq) of concentration 0,1 mol·dm to an Erlenmeyer flask
and titrates this solution with H2SO4 (aq) of concentration 0,1 mol·dm-3. The balanced equation for the
reaction that takes place is:
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ)
12.1 Determine the volume of H2SO4(aq) which must be added to neutralise the NaOH(aq) in the
Erlenmeyer flask completely. (4)
12.2 If the learner passes the endpoint by adding 5 cm of the same H2SO4(aq) in excess, calculate the
3

pH of the solution in the flask. (7)

[17]
QUESTION 13

13.1 Sulphuric acid is a strong acid present in acid rain. It ionises in two steps as follows:
I: H2SO4(ℓ) + H2O(ℓ) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + HSO 4- (aq)
II: (HSO4)−(aq) + H2O(ℓ) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + (SO4) 2−(aq)

13.1.1 Define an acid in terms of the Lowry-Brønsted theory. (2)

13.1.2 Write down the FORMULA of the conjugate base of H3O+(aq). (1)
13.1.3 Write down the FORMULA of the substance that acts as an ampholyte in the ionisation
of sulphuric acid. (2)
13.2 Acid rain does not cause damage to lakes that have rocks containing limestone (CaCO3).
 97

Hydrolysis of CaCO3 results in the formation of ions, which neutralise the acid.
13.2.1 Define hydrolysis of a salt. (2)
13.2.2 Explain, with the aid of the relevant HYDROLYSIS reaction, how limestone can neutralise
the acid. (3)
13.3 The water in a certain lake has a pH of 5.
13.3.1 Calculate the concentration of the hydronium ions in the water. (3)
The volume of water in the lake is 4 x 10 dm . Lime, CaO, is added to the water to neutralise the
9 3

acid according to the following reaction:

CaO + 2H3O+ ⇌ Ca2+ + 3H2O
3
13.3.2 If the final amount of hydronium ions is 1,26 x 10 moles, calculate the mass of lime that
was added to the lake. (7)
[20]
QUESTION 14

14.1 Define a base in terms of the Arrhenius theory. (2)

14.2 Explain how a weak base differs from a strong base. (2)
14.3 Write down the balanced equation for the hydrolysis of NaHCO3. (3)
14.4 A learner wishes to identify element X in the hydrogen carbonate, XHCO3. To do this she
dissolves 0,4 g of XHCO3 in 100 cm3 of water. She then titrates all of this solution with a 0,2
mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid (HCℓ) solution. Methyl orange is used as the indicator during
the titration.
14.4.1 Calculate the pH of the hydrochloric acid solution. (3)
14.4.2 Give a reason why methyl orange is a suitable indicator in this titration. (1)
At the endpoint she finds that 20 cm3 of the acid neutralised ALL the hydrogen carbonate solution.The
balanced equation for the reaction is:
XHCO3(aq) + HCℓ(aq) → XCℓ(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(ℓ)
14.4.3 Identify element X by means of a calculation. (6)
[17]

QUESTION 15
A hydrogen bromide solution, HBr(aq), reacts with water according to the following balanced
chemical equation: HBr(aq) + H2O(ℓ) ⇌ Br-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
The Ka value of HBr(aq) at 25 °C is 1 x 109.
15.1 Is hydrogen bromide a STRONG ACID or a WEAK ACID? Give a reason for the answer. (2)
15.2 Write down the FORMULAE of the TWO bases in the above reaction. (2)
15.3 HBr(aq) reacts with Zn(OH)2(s) according to the following balanced equation:
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2HBr(aq) → ZnBr2(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ)
An unknown quantity of Zn(OH)2(s) is reacted with 90 cm3 of HBr(aq) in a flask. (Assume that the volume of
the solution does not change during the reaction.) The EXCESS HBr(aq) is then neutralised by 16,5 cm3 of
NaOH(aq) of concentration 0,5 mol·dm-3. The balanced equation for the reaction is:
HBr(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaBr(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
15.3.1 Calculate the pH of the HBr solution remaining in the flask AFTER the reaction with
Zn(OH)2(s). (7)
15.3.2 Calculate the mass of Zn(OH)2(s) INITIALLY present in the flask if the initial concentration of
HBr(aq) was 0,45 mol∙dm-3. (6)
[17]
 98

QUESTION 16

16.1 Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) is an ingredient of household vinegar.

16.1.1 Is ethanoic acid a WEAK acid or a STRONG acid? Give a reason for the answer.
(2)
16.1.2 An ethanoic acid solution has a pH of 3,85 at 25°C. Calculate the concentration
of the hydronium ions, H3O+(aq), in the solution. (3)
Sodium ethanoate, CH3COONa(aq), forms when ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydroxide.
16.1.3 Will the pH of a sodium ethanoate solution be GREATER THAN 7, LESS THAN 7
or EQUAL TO 7? (1)
16.1.4 Explain the answer to QUESTION 16.1.3 with the aid of a balanced chemical
equation. (3)
16.2 Household vinegar contains 4,52% ethanoic acid, CH3COOH by volume. A 1,2 g impure
sample of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is added to 25 cm3 household vinegar. On
completion of the reaction, the EXCESS ethanoic acid in the household vinegar is
neutralised by 14,5 cm3 of a sodium hydroxide solution of concentration 1 mol∙dm-3. The
balanced equation for the reaction is:
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
16.2.1 Calculate the number of moles of the unreacted ethanoic acid. (3)
16.2.2 Calcium carbonate reacts with ethanoic acid according to the following balanced
equation:
CaCO3(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → (CH3COO)2Ca(aq) + H2O + CO2(g)
3
Calculate the percentage calcium carbonate in the impure sample if 1 cm of household
vinegar has a mass of 1 g. (8)
 99

GALVANIC CELLS

TYPE OF ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL in which

Galvanic cell chemical energy is converted to electrical energy.
OR
Voltaic cell Spontaneous redox reaction takes place.
The reaction is exothermic i.e. energy is released.

e−
V
+ −
Cu salt bridge Zn
Cathode − ions Anode
Reduction Oxidation
+ ions
Cu2+ + 2e → Cu Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-
Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq)

Cell reaction: Cu2+ + Zn → Zn2+ + Cu

Cell notation: Zn | Zn2+ || Cu2+ | Cu
Reducing agent | oxidised species || oxidising agent | reduced species
Cell potential: Ecellθ = Ecathodeθ - Eanodeθ = 0,34 – (- 0,76) = 1,1 V

When two half-reactions are combined in the cell reaction of a galvanic cell:
• The half-reaction with the SMALLER REDUCTION POTENTIAL is always the
OXIDATION and takes place at the ANODE.
• The half-reaction with the LARGER REDUCTION POTENTIAL is always the
REDUCTION and takes place at the CATHODE.

Section of the TABLE OF STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS (4B)

Weakest oxidising
agent for section Strongest
shown. reducing agent
for section
shown.

Weakest
reducing
agent for
section
Strongest oxidising agent shown.
for section shown.
100
101
 102

ELECTROLYTIC CELLS

An electrolytic cell is the TYPE OF ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL

Electrolysis in which electrical energy is converted to chemical energy.
PROCESS in which electrical Basic components:
energy is converted to • Two electrodes
chemical energy
• An electrolyte – SOLUTION or MELTED substance that conducts
electricity through the movement of ions.
• A source of DIRECT electric current

Electrolysis of a concentrated copper(II) chloride solution

Using ACTIVE electrodes Using INERT electrodes

Decomposition of CuCℓ2(aq)
1. Both electrodes made of copper (Cu) 1. Both electrodes made of carbon (C)
2. Electrolyte: Cu2+ solution 2. Electrolyte: Cu2+ solution
e−
e−
+
+ Anode Cathode
Anode Cathode
Carbon Cu2+ Carbon
Copper Copper
Cu 2+ electrode electrode
electrode electrode Cℓˉ
−
Cℓ CuCℓ2(aq)
CuCℓ2(aq)

Oxidation: 2Cℓ− → Cℓ2 + 2eˉ Reduction: Cu2+ + 2eˉ → Cu

Oxidation: Cu → Cu2+ + 2eˉ Reduction: Cu2+ + 2eˉ → Cu
Cell reaction: Cu(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + Cu(s) Cell reaction: 2Cℓ−(aq) + Cu2+(aq) → Cℓ2(g) + Cu(s)

The positive Cu2+ ions move to cathode (− electrode) and gains electrons: The positive Cu2+ ions move to cathode (− electrode)
Cu2+ + 2eˉ → Cu (reduction) and gains electrons: Cu2+ + 2eˉ → Cu (reduction)
The negative Cℓ− ions move to the anode (+ electrode), an active Cu electrode. The negative Cℓ− ions move to the anode (+ electrode),
Cu is a stronger reducing agent than Cℓ− and therefore Cu will be oxidised to Cu2+: an inactive carbon electrode, and loses electrons:
Cu → Cu2+ + 2eˉ (oxidation) 2Cℓ− → Cℓ2 + 2eˉ (oxidation)
103
104
 105
QUESTION 1

A standard electrochemical cell is set up using a standard hydrogen half-cell and a standard
X|X2+ half-cell as shown below. A voltmeter connected across the cell, initially registers 0,31 V.

1.1 Besides concentration write down TWO conditions needed for the hydrogen half-cell
to function under standard conditions. (2)

1.2 Give TWO reasons, besides being a solid, why platinum is suitable to be used as
electrode in the above cell. (2)

1.3 Write down the:

1.3.1 NAME of component Q (1)

1.3.2 Standard reduction potential of the X|X2+ half-cell (1)

1.3.3 Half-reaction that takes place at the cathode of this cell (2)

1.4 The hydrogen half-cell is now replaced by a M|M2+ half-cell. The cell notation of this
cell is:
M(s) | M2+(aq) || X2+(aq) | X(s)

The initial reading on the voltmeter is now 2,05 V.

1.4.1 Identify metal M. Show how you arrived at the answer. (5)

1.4.2 Is the cell reaction EXOTHERMIC or ENDOTHERMIC? (1)

1.5 The reading on the voltmeter becomes zero after using this cell for several hours.
Give a reason for this reading by referring to the cell reaction. (1)
[15]

V
+

Hydrogen gas Q _

Platinum
1 mol·dm-3 H+(aq) X2+ (aq)

m
 106
QUESTION 2

A learner conducts two experiments to investigate the reaction between copper (Cu) and a
silver nitrate solution, AgNO3(aq).

EXPERIMENT 1

The learner adds a small amount of copper (Cu) powder to a test tube containing silver nitrate
solution, AgNO3(aq). The solution changes from colourless to blue after a while.

Before addition of Cu(s) After addition of Cu(s)

Colourless AgNO3(aq) Blue Cu(NO3)2(aq)

2.1 Define the term oxidising agent. (2)

2.2 Explain why the solution turns blue by referring to the relative strength of oxidising
agents. (4)

EXPERIMENT 2

The learner now sets up a galvanic cell as shown below. The cell functions under standard
conditions.

Cu(s) Ag(s)

Cu2+(aq) Ag+(aq)

2.3 Write down the energy conversion that takes place in this cell. (1)

2.4 In which direction (A or B) will ANIONS move in the salt bridge? (1)

2.5 Calculate the emf of the above cell under standard conditions. (4)

2.6 Write down the balanced equation for the net cell reaction that takes place in this
cell. (3)

2.7 How will the addition of 100 cm3 of a 1 mol dm-3 silver nitrate solution to the silver half-
cell influence the initial emf of this cell? Write down only INCREASES, DECREASES
or REMAINS THE SAME. (1)
[16]
 107
QUESTION 3

Learners set up an electrochemical cell, shown in the simplified diagram below, using
magnesium and lead as electrodes. Nitrate solutions are used as electrolytes in both half-cells.
V

String dipped in
KNO3(aq)
+
Electrode P Electrode Q

Electrolyte Electrolyte

Half call A Half cell B

3.1 What type of reaction (NEUTRALISATION, REDOX or PRECIPITATION) takes place

in this cell? (1)

3.2 Which electrode, P or Q, is magnesium? Give a reason for the answer. (2)

3.3 Write down the:

3.3.1 Standard conditions under which this cell functions (2)

3.3.2 Cell notation for this cell (3)
3.3.3 NAME or FORMULA of the oxidising agent in the cell (1)

3.4 Calculate the initial emf of the cell above under standard conditions. (4)
3.5 How will the voltmeter reading change if the:
(Write down only INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME.)

3.5.1 Size of electrode P is increased (1)

3.5.2 Initial concentration of the electrolyte in half-cell B is increased (1)
[15]
 109
QUESTION 4

Learners are given the following two unknown half-cells:

Half-cell 1: Q2+ (aq) | Q(s)

Half-cell 2: Pt | R2(g) | R-(aq)

During an investigation to identify the two half-cells, the learners connect each half-cell
alternately to a Cd2+(aq) | Cd(s) half-cell under standard conditions. For each
combination of two half-cells, they write down the net cell reaction and measure the cell
potential. The results obtained for the two half-cell combinations are given in the table below.

COMBINATION NET CELL REACTION CELL POTENTIAL

I Q2+(aq) + Cd(s) → Cd2+(aq) + Q(s) 0,13 V
II R2(g) + Cd(s) → Cd2+(aq) + 2R-(aq) 1,76 V

4.1 Write down THREE conditions needed for these cells to function as standard cells. (3)
4.2 For Combination I, identify:
4.2.1 The anode of the cell (1)
4.2.2 Q by using a calculation (5)
4.3 For Combination II, write down the:
4.3.1 Oxidation half-reaction (2)
4.3.2 NAME or FORMULA of the metal used in the cathode compartment (1)
4.4 Arrange the following species in order of INCREASING oxidising ability:
Q2+ ; R2 ; Cd2+
Explain fully how you arrived at the answer. A calculation is NOT required. (4)
[16]

QUESTION 5

An electrochemical cell consisting of half-cells A and B is assembled under standard

conditions as shown below.

Half-cell A Pt, Cℓ2 (101,3 kPa) | Cℓ- (1 mol∙dm-3)

Half-cell B Mg2+ (1 mol∙dm-3) | Mg(s)

5.1 At which half-cell, A or B, are electrons released into the external circuit? (1)
5.2 Write down the:
5.2.1 Reduction half-reaction that takes place in this cell (2)
5.2.2 NAME or FORMULA of the substance whose oxidation number
DECREASES (1)

5.3 Calculate the initial cell potential of this cell when it is in operation. (4)
5.4 Write down an observation that will be made in half-cell B as the cell operates. Give
a reason for the answer. (2)
[10]
 110
QUESTION 6

Magnesium (Mg) reacts with a dilute hydrochloric acid solution, HCℓ(aq), according to the
following balanced equation:

Mg(s) + 2HCℓ(aq) → MgCℓ2(aq) + H2(g)

6.1 Give a reason why the reaction above is a redox reaction. (1)

6.2 Write down the FORMULA of the oxidising agent in the reaction above. (1)

It is found that silver does not react with the hydrochloric acid solution.

6.3 Refer to the relative strengths of reducing agents to explain this observation. (3)

The reaction of magnesium with hydrochloric acid is used in an electrochemical cell, as shown
in the diagram below. The cell functions under standard conditions.

hydrogen gas Q
Mg

platinum
1 mol·dm-3 H+(aq) Mg2+(aq)

half-cell A half-cell B

6.4 What is the function of platinum in the cell above? (1)

6.5 Write down the:

6.5.1 Energy conversion that takes place in this cell (1)
6.5.2 Function of Q (1)
6.5.3 Half-reaction that takes place at the cathode (2)
6.5.4 Cell notation of this cell (3)

6.6 Calculate the initial emf of this cell. (4)

6.7 How will the addition of concentrated acid to half-cell A influence the answer to
QUESTION 6.6? Choose from INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE
SAME. (1)
[18]
QUESTION 7

7.1 A nickel (Ni) rod is placed in a beaker containing a silver nitrate solution, AgNO3(aq)
and a reaction takes place.
 111

Nickel (Ni) rod

AgNO3(aq)

Write down the:

7.1.1 NAME or FORMULA of the electrolyte (1)

7.1.2 Oxidation half-reaction that takes place (2)

7.1.3 Balanced equation for the net (overall) redox reaction that takes place (3)

7.2 A galvanic cell is now set up using a nickel half-cell and a silver half-cell.

Ag Ni

Ag+(aq) Ni2+(aq)
7.2.1 Which electrode (Ni or Ag) must be connected to the negative terminal of
the voltmeter? Give a reason for the answer. (2)

7.2.2 Write down the cell notation for the galvanic cell above. (3)

7.2.3 Calculate the initial reading on the voltmeter if the cell functions under
standard conditions. (4)

7.2.4 How will the voltmeter reading in QUESTION 7.2.3 be affected if the
concentration of the silver ions is increased? Choose from INCREASES,
DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME. (1)
[16]
 112

ELECTROLYTIC CELLS AND OTHER CELLS

QUESTION 1

The simplified diagrams below represent two electrochemical cells, A and B.

A concentrated copper(II) chloride solution is used as electrolyte in both cells.

ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL A ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL B

P Q T
Carbon Carbon

Copper Copper

Concentrated CuCℓ2(aq) Concentrated CuCℓ2(aq)

1.1 Are A and B ELECTROLYTIC or GALVANIC cells? (1)

1.2 Which of the electrodes (P, Q, R or T) will show a mass increase? Write down a half-
reaction to motivate the answer. (4)

1.3 Write down the NAME or FORMULA of the product formed at:

1.3.1 Electrode P (1)

1.3.2 Electrode R (1)

1.4 Fully explain the answer to QUESTION 1.3.2 by referring to the relative strengths of
the reducing agents involved. (3)
[10]
QUESTION 2

The apparatus below is used to demonstrate the electrolysis of a concentrated sodium chloride
solution. Both electrodes are made of carbon. A few drops of universal indicator are added to
the electrolyte. The equation for the net cell reaction is:
2NaCℓ(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ) → Cℓ2(g) + H2(g) + 2NaOH(aq)
Power
source

Electrode Y Electrode X

NaCℓ(aq) and universal

indicator
 113

Initially the solution has a green colour. Universal indicator becomes red in acidic solutions and
purple in alkaline solutions.

2.1 Define the term electrolyte. (2)

When the power source is switched on, the colour of the electrolyte around electrode Y
changes from green to purple.

2.2 Write down the:

2.2.1 Half-reaction that takes place at electrode Y (2)

2.2.2 NAME or FORMULA of the gas released at electrode X (1)

2.3 Refer to the Table of Standard Reduction Potentials to explain why hydrogen gas,
and not sodium, is formed at the cathode of this cell. (2)
[7]

QUESTION 3

The diagram below shows a simplified electrolytic cell that can be used to electroplate a plastic
ring with nickel. Prior to electroplating the ring is covered with a graphite layer.
Battery

Plastic ring coated Nickel electrode

with graphite
NiSO4(aq)

3.1 Define the term electrolyte. (2)

3.2 Give ONE reason why the plastic ring must be coated with graphite prior to electroplating.

3.3 Write down the:

3.3.1 Half-reaction that occurs at the plastic ring (2)

3.3.2 NAME or FORMULA of the reducing agent in the cell.
Give a reason for the answer. (2)
3.4 Which electrode, the RING or NICKEL, is the cathode? Give a reason for the
answer. (2)
3.5 The nickel electrode is now replaced with a carbon rod.
(2)
How will the concentration of the electrolyte change during electroplating? Write down only
INCREASES, DECREASES or NO CHANGE. Give a reason for the answer.
[11]
 114
QUESTION 4

The simplified diagram below represents an electrochemical cell used for the purification of
copper.
DC source

Electrode A
Electrode B
(impure copper)

Electrolyte

4.1 Define the term electrolysis. (2)

4.2 Give a reason why a direct-current (DC) source is used in this experiment. (1)

4.3 Write down the half-reaction which takes place at electrode A. (2)

4.4 Due to small amounts of zinc impurities in the impure copper, the electrolyte
becomes contaminated with Zn2+ ions.
Refer to the attached Table of Standard Reduction Potentials to explain why the Zn2+
ions will not influence the purity of the copper obtained during this process. (3)

4.5 After the purification of the impure copper was completed, it was found that
2,85 x 10-2 moles of copper were formed.

The initial mass of electrode B was 2,0 g. Calculate the percentage of copper that
was initially present in electrode B. (4)
[12]
QUESTION 5

The electrochemical cell below is set up to demonstrate the purification of copper.

Copper(II) chloride
solution

4.1 Define the term electrolysis. (2)

4.2 Give a reason why a direct-current (DC) source is used in this experiment. (1)

4.3 Write down the half-reaction which takes place at electrode A. (2)

4.4 Due to small amounts of zinc impurities in the impure copper, the electrolyte
becomes contaminated with Zn2+ ions.
Refer to the attached Table of Standard Reduction Potentials to explain why the Zn2+
 115
ions will not influence the purity of the copper obtained during this process. (3)

4.5 After the purification of the impure copper was completed, it was found that
2,85 x 10-2 moles of copper were formed.

The initial mass of electrode B was 2,0 g. Calculate the percentage of copper that
was initially present in electrode B. (4)
[12]
QUESTION 5

The electrochemical cell below is set up to demonstrate the purification of copper.

Copper(II) chloride
solution

5.1 Write down the type of electrochemical cell illustrated above. (1)

The graphs below show the change in mass of the electrodes whilst the cell is in operation.

P
Mass (g)

Time (min.)

5.2 Define a reducing agent in terms of electron transfer. (2)

5.3 Which graph represents the change in mass of electrode A? (1)

5.4 Write down the half-reaction that takes place at electrode A. (2)

5.5 Electrodes A and B are now replaced by graphite electrodes. It is observed that
chlorine gas (Cℓ2) is released at one of the electrodes.

At which electrode (A or B) is chlorine gas formed? Fully explain how it is formed. (3)
[9]
QUESTION 6
The diagram below shows an electrochemical cell used to purify copper. A solution that
conducts electricity is used in the cell.
 116

A B

6.1 Write down:

6.1.1 ONE word for the underlined phrase above the diagram (1)

6.1.2 The type of electrochemical cell illustrated above (1)

6.2 In which direction (from A to B or from B to A) will electrons flow in the external
circuit? (1)
6.3 Which electrode (A or B) is the:
6.3.1 Cathode (1)
6.3.2 Impure copper (1)
6.4 How will the mass of electrode A change as the reaction proceeds? Choose from
INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME. Give a reason for the answer. (2)
[7]

QUESTION 7
In the electrochemical cell below, carbon electrodes are used during the electrolysis of a
concentrated sodium chloride solution.
The balanced equation for the net (overall) cell reaction is:

2H2O(ℓ) + 2Cℓ ─(aq) → Cℓ2( g) +) H2(g) + 2OH─(aq

)

Gas X Gas Y

Electrode P Electrode Q
Concentrated NaCℓ(aq)

7.1 Is the reaction EXOTHERMIC or ENDOTHERMIC? (1)

7.2 Is electrode P the ANODE or the CATHODE? Give a reason for the answer. (2)
7.3 Write down the:
7.3.1 NAME or FORMULA of gas X (1)
7.3.2 NAME or FORMULA of gas Y (1)
7.3.3 Reduction half-reaction (2)
7.4 Is the solution in the cell ACIDIC or ALKALINE (BASIC) after completion of the
reaction? Give a reason for the answer. (2)
 117
QUESTION 8

The simplified diagram below shows an electrolytic cell used in the industrial extraction of aluminium (Aℓ)
from aluminium oxide at temperatures as high as 1 000 °C. Electrode X is a carbon rod.

Electrode X

Carbon-lined iron
Molten Aℓ2O3 dissolved
in cryolite
Molten Aℓ

The cell reaction that takes place is as follows:

2Aℓ2O3(ℓ) → 4Aℓ(ℓ) + 3O2(g)

8.1 Write down the name of the ore used as source of aluminium oxide. (1)

8.2 Which half-reaction (OXIDATION or REDUCTION) takes place at electrode X? (1)

8.3 What is the function of the cryolite? (1)

8.4 Write down the reduction half-reaction. (2)

8.5 Write down a balanced equation that shows why the carbon rod, X, must be replaced regularly. (3)

QUESTION 9

The simplified diagram of a membrane cell used in the chlor-alkali industry is shown below. Gas A, gas B
and compound C are the three major products formed during this process. X and Y represent the two
electrodes.

Gas A Gas B
Membrane

Water Brine

X Y

Compound C Used salt solution

Power supply
 118
9.1 Write down the function of the membrane in this cell. (1)

9.2 Which electrode, X or Y, is connected to the positive terminal of the power supply? Briefly
explain how you arrived at the answer. (2)

9.3 Write down the NAME or FORMULA of:

9.3.1 Gas A (1)

9.3.2 Gas B (1)

9.3.3 Compound C (1)

9.4 Write down the balanced net (overall) cell reaction taking place in this cell. (3)

9.5 The chlor-alkali industry is sometimes blamed for contributing to the greenhouse effect.
Briefly explain how the above cell contributes to the greenhouse effect.

QUESTION 10

Ayanda and Alison are given the task of setting up a galvanic cell (under standard solutions) between copper
(Cu) and lead (Pb). They are provided with copper and lead electrodes, beakers containing suitable
electrolytes, a salt bridge, a voltmeter and connecting wires.

10.1 Draw a diagram of the cell that they should set up and clearly label the following:

• Cathode (Indicate whether copper or lead.)

• Electrolyte in the anode half-cell (Give a suitable chemical formula or name.)
• Direction of electron flow (Use a labelled arrow.) (6)

10.2 Write down the cell notation for this cell showing standard conditions. (4)

10.3 Calculate the emf of this cell under standard conditions. (2)

10.4 Ayanda and Alison fill their salt bridge with a concentrated aqueous solution of potassium
iodide, KI(aq).

10.4.1 State TWO functions of the salt bridge. (2)

10.4.2 With reference to the electrochemical processes occurring in the lead half-cell, explain
why iodide ions (I –aq) move from the salt bridge into this half-cell. (3)

A precipitate of insoluble lead II iodide now forms in the lead half-cell.

10.4.3 How will this affect the emf of the cell? (Answer: INCREASES,DECREASES or NO
CHANGE.) (1)

10.5 Ayanda and Alison replace their electrodes with new, larger electrodes that have a greater surface
area. State how this will affect each of the following: (Answer INCREASES, DECREASES or NO
EFFECT.)

10.5.1 The ability of the cell to deliver current (1)

10.5.2 The emf of the cell (1)

 119
QUESTION 11

Impure aluminium (bauxite) ore is imported into South Africa from Australia and contains approximately
65% aluminium oxide. The extraction of aluminium is done through an electrolytic technique which
involves a three step process:

1. Extraction of the aluminium oxide from the mineral bauxite.

2. Mixing the molten aluminium oxide with a substance called cryolite.
3. Electrolysing the molten aluminium oxide/cryolite mixture to extract aluminium metal.

South Africa has four aluminium smelters situated in the coastal cities of Port Elizabeth and Richards
Bay. The smelters contain giant electrolytic cells where carbon electrodes (anodes) are placed directly
into the cell while carbon lining the steel casing of the cell is made the cathode.

11.1 What alternate name is given to the aluminium oxide present in the bauxite? (1)
11.2 What is the importance of mixing the aluminium oxide with cryolite and how would this be
beneficial to the environment? (3)
11.3 Write down an equation for the half reaction taking place at the cathode. (2)
11.4 Carbon dioxide is one of the waste products produced by this process. How is carbon dioxide
formed during this process? (2)
11.5 To produce aluminium, a considerable amount of electrical energy is needed. The average
electricity consumed to produce 1 tonne (1 000 kg) of aluminium metal is 17 000 kilowatt-
hour (kWh).
11.5.1 Calculate the energy needed to produce 1 tonne of aluminium metal. Express your
answer in megajoules (MJ). (1 kWh = 3 600 000 J 1 MJ = 1 000 000 J).
11.5.2 The overall reaction taking place in the cell is represented by the equation:
2Aℓ2O3 + 3C ↔ 4Aℓ + 3CO2
The mass of carbon consumed in the carbon anodes to produce one tonne of aluminium metal is 225 kg.
(a) Determine how many moles of carbon are consumed. (3)
(b) Using the overall reaction, calculate the mass of Al produced. Express your answer
in tonnes. (4)

11.6 State two advantages of having the aluminium smelters situated at the coast. (2)
[20]
 120
QUESTION 12

The Nickel-Cadmium cell (Ni-Cd) is an example of the small and lightweight secondary cells that were
widely used at one stage in portable equipment such as laptop computers and cellular phones. They were
extremely durable and could have a lifespan of several years, far outliving the corresponding primary cell
equivalents. A schematic drawing of the cell is shown below:

The half reactions for the nickel-cadmium cell are:

2NiO(OH) + 2H2O + 2e- 2Ni(OH)2 + 2OH- E = + 0,52V

Cd(OH)2 + 2 e- Cd + 2OH- E = – 0,81V

The cell delivers a potential difference of 1,25 V (not under standard conditions).
12.1 What is the difference between a primary and a secondary cell? (2)
12.2 Using the half reactions above, identify which substance will act as the anode and which will act
as the cathode. Explain your choice. (4)
12.3 Write down the overall reaction for the cell when it is discharging. (2)
12.4 The Ni-Cd cell is a galvanic (voltaic) cell. How is this type of cell different to an electrolytic cell? (2)
12.5 A Ni-Cd cell which has an emf of 1,25 V can store a total amount of energy of 256 250 J when fully
charged. It takes an average of 28 hours to discharge completely when in use before having to be
recharged.
12.5.1 Define 'cell capacity'. (2)
12.5.2 Calculate the average current it is able to deliver whilst discharging. (4)
12.6 Besides the obvious benefits of nickel-cadmium cells mentioned earlier, there are several
disadvantages associated with these cells being used as batteries. Suggest TWO possible
disadvantages that could be associated with these cells. (2)
QUESTION 13
The diagram below shows a diaphragm cell which is used in the chlor-alkali industry. Saturated sodium
chloride solution flows into the anode compartment filling up both the anode and cathode compartments
simultaneously. The cathode compartment, however, is kept at three-quarters that of the volume of the
anode compartment. Chlorine gas is produced at the anode while the two compartments are separated by
a diaphragm.
 121

13.1 What alternative name is given to the saturated sodium chloride solution? (1)
13.2 What material is most commonly used as the diaphragm in this cell? (1)
13.3 Describe the energy conversion that takes place in this cell. (2)
13.4 Write down equations to represent the following reactions for this cell:
13.4.1 anode half reaction (2)
13.4.2 cathode half reaction (2)
13.4.3 nett cell reaction (2)
13.5 Explain the significance of having the cathode compartment only three-quarters
filled with water in this cell. (3)
+
13.6 Sodium ions (Na ) are found in the cathode compartment of the cell. With reference to the
Table of Standard Electrode Potentials, explain why sodium metal does not form at the cathode.(2)
13.7 The diaphragm cell has slowly been phased out of the chlor-alkali industry and has been replaced
with the more modern membrane cell which has a fluoro polymer membrane which separates the
two compartments.
13.7.1 What is the difference in the functioning of the fluoro polymer membrane when compared to
the diaphragm cell? (2)
13.7.2 Environmentally, the membrane cell is preferred to the diaphragm cell. Give TWO reasons
as to why this is so. (4)
13.8 The following data was obtained from a study comparing the efficiency of the diaphragm and
membrane cells within the chlor-alkali industry.

Diaphragm cell Membrane cell

Purity of NaOH produced (%) 15 35

Amount of energy consumed by cell per

1 000 tons of Cℓ2 produced (kWh) 31,75 29,33

Amount of water used per cell per

1 000 tons of Cℓ2 produced (litres) 4 200 1 550

Using the data above, draw a conclusion as to which cell would be more cost effective for the chlor-alkali
industry. Explain your answer. (3)

13.9 A chemical engineer wishes to produce 11 000 dm3 of chlorine gas at STP by running the diaphragm
cell for a total of 17,5 hours. Calculate the average current that needs to be delivered to this cell in
order to produce this volume of gas in the allotted time. (6)
(The charge required to transfer one mole of electrons (Faraday) = 96 500 C•mol–1, Avogadro
constant = 6,02 × 1023 mol–1 )
 122
QUESTION 14
The electrolysis of brine is the basis of the chlor-alkali process, a major industrial process producing
hydrogen, chlorine and sodium hydroxide.

14.1 What is meant by the term 'brine'? (2)

14.2 Explain how the ion permeable membrane functions in this cell. (3)
14.3 Sodium cations (Na+) are found in the cathodic compartment of the membrane cell, yet they do not
undergo reduction to form sodium metal, instead hydrogen gas is produced. Using half reactions,
explain why this occurs. (3)
14.4 Chlorine and sodium hydroxide are two of the major products formed in this cell. Give ONE possible
use of each of these products in modern society and state how this use would impact on one's
daily life. (4)

QUESTION 15
Gas Gas
anode

Saturated sodium Depleted sodium

chloride solution chloride out
in

Hg into cell cathode Mercury/Sodium

amalgam out
The diagram illustrates the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution using the mercury cathode cell.
 123
15.1 Give 2 possible reasons why mercury is used as the cathode for this cell. (2)
15.2 Write down the chemical equation for the half-reaction that occurs at the cathode of this cell. (2)
15.3.1 What happens to the amalgam once it has left the electrolysis chamber? (1)
15.3.2 What chemical reaction occurs in your answer to Question 5.3.1? (No equation required) (1)
15.3.3 State what products are formed during the reaction mentioned in Question 15.3.2. (2)
15.4 Write down the equation for the half-reaction that occurs at the anode of the mercury cathode cell. (2)
The anodes are often made from titanium.
15.5 Suggest a reason for the anodes being made of titanium rather than iron. (2)
The European Chlorine industry is expected to convert all mercury production of chlorine to membrane
technology by 2020. The table provides information about the different methods used to produce chlorine.
NaOH is sold at a strength of 50%.
Mercury Diaphragm Membrane
Cell voltage (V) 3,9 – 4,2 2,9 – 3,5 3,0 – 3,6
NaOH strength (wt%) 50 12 33 – 35
Energy consumption (kWh per megatonne of
3360 (10) 2820 (1,7) 2650 (5)
Cℓ2) at a current density of (kA/m2)
Steam consumption (kWh per megatonne of
0 610 180
Cℓ2) for concentration to 50% NaOH

15.6 From the table identify 2 advantages of running the mercury cathode cell over the diaphragm cell.
15.7 From the table identify one advantage of running the mercury cathode cell over the membrane cell.
15.8 Using the data provided, comment on whether it makes sense for the mercury cathode cell to be
phased out by 2020 in Europe. (3)

QUESTION 16
Aluminium is produced in modern times through the Hall-Héroult process, whereby a molten aluminium oxide
electrolyte is electrolysed between graphite electrodes. A simplified diagram of the cell used in the Hall-
Héroult process is shown below.

Graphite
ANODES

Steel
container
lined with
graphite
(CATHODE) Aluminium oxide
and Cryolite

Aℓ(ℓ)

Although the production of aluminium is expensive, it is worth the cost. Aluminium is light, so it is useful in
the manufacture of aircrafts and cars. It protects itself from corrosion by producing a layer of aluminium
oxide on its surface, which is very tough and therefore difficult to remove.
 124
16.1 From the information given above, write down ONE physical property of aluminium that makes it a
useful metal.
16.2 From the information given above, write down ONE chemical property of aluminium that makes it a
useful metal. (1)
16.3 Identify the positive electrode in the above cell. State only ANODE or CATHODE. (1)
16.4 Write down the ionic equation for the half-reaction that occurs at the cathode. (2)
16.5 Explain briefly how the use of cryolite to decrease the melting point of the electrolyte is:
16.5.1 economically beneficial. (2)
16.5.2 environmentally harmful. (2)
16.6 Explain why the carbon anodes need regular replacing. Give a relevant chemical reaction equation to
support your answer. (4)
16.7 One of the reasons aluminium is so difficult to electrolyse is that aluminium oxide has a very high
melting point. With reference to the forces holding its particles together, explain why aluminium
oxide has such a high melting point. (4)

16.8 Aluminium can also be produced on a small scale by the reduction of aluminium chloride by
sodium metal, shown in the UNBALANCED chemical equation below.
AℓCℓ3 + Na → Aℓ + NaCℓ
16.8.1 Balance the above equation. (2)
16.8.2 A chemical engineer wants to test what mass of sodium metal is needed to react completely
in order to make 7,56 mol of pure aluminium metal, using this reaction. Calculate the mass of
sodium metal needed to do this. (3)

QUESTION 17

17.1 Jabulani and Jane conduct a series of small-scale experiments in the laboratory to determine the
relationship between the current that passes through a saturated CuCℓ2(aq) solution and the
volume of chlorine gas collected at STP. Each experiment is conducted over the same period of
time using the same volume of the same saturated CuCℓ2(aq) solution. They use the apparatus
as shown in the diagram below.

Chlorine gas
collected at
STP

Saturated CuCℓ2 (aq)

solution

Graphite cathode Graphite anode

17.1.1 Name the solute that is used to make the saturated CuCℓ2(aq) solution. (1)
17.1.2 Name the solvent that is used to make the saturated CuCℓ2(aq) solution. (1)
17.1.3 Name the specific type of forces of attraction between the solute and solvent particles in
the aqueous solution of copper(II)chloride (CuCℓ2). (2)
17.1.4 Write down an equation to show the half-reaction taking place at the
 125
(a) anode (2)
(b) cathode (2)
The results of the experiments conducted by Jabulani and Jane are tabulated below.

Current passed through the Volume of chlorine gas collected

saturated CuCℓ2(aq) solution (A) at STP (cm3)

Experiment 1 0,2 14,0

Experiment 2 0,5 34,8
Experiment 3 0,8 58,0
Experiment 4 1,2 82,8
Experiment 5 1,5 102,0
Experiment 6 2,0 139,3

17.1.5 Plot a best fit line graph on the graph paper provided on your ANSWER SHEET to show
the relationship between the current passed through the saturated CuCℓ2(aq) solution and
the volume of chlorine gas collected at STP. (7)
17.1.6 State a suitable conclusion for this experiment. (2)
17.1.7 Calculate the gradient of your graph, including suitable units in your answer. (3)
17.1.8 Calculate the volume of chlorine gas collected at STP if a current of 25 A is passed through
the same volume of the same saturated CuCℓ2(aq) solution used in the experiments for the
same period of time. (2)
17.1.9 The volume of chlorine gas collected at STP when a current of 2,0 A was passed through
the saturated CuCℓ2(aq) solution was 139,3 cm3 as shown in the table.
(a) Calculate the number of moles of chlorine in 139,3 cm3 of chlorine gas at STP. Round
off your answer to 4 decimal places. (2)
(b) Calculate the time taken to collect 139,3 cm3 of chlorine gas at STP. (5)

17.2 Chlorine gas is produced on a large scale in industry by the electrolysis of a saturated solution of
sodium chloride. The diagram below shows the membrane cell used in the chlor-alkali process.

( 2( )

[<www.fullmarks.org.za>]
17.2.1 Write down an equation for the half-reaction taking place at the cathode. (2)
17.2.2 Explain why sodium is not produced at the cathode. (2)
17.2.3 Give ONE reason why it is necessary to separate the products of the reactions taking
place at the electrodes. (2)
 126
FERTILISERS
QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1

1.1 The flow diagram below shows the processes involved in the industrial preparation of
fertiliser Q.
Haber Ostwald
Reactants Product A Main product B
process process

Fertiliser Q

Write down the:

1.1.1 NAMES or FORMULAE of the reactants used in the Haber process (2)
1.1.2 Balanced equation for the formation of fertiliser Q (3)

1.2 The diagram below shows a bag of NPK fertiliser.

3–1–5

20 kg

Calculate the mass of nitrogen in the bag. (4)

[9]

QUESTION 2

Reactions A, B, C and D in the flow diagram below represent the manufacturing of Fertiliser X.

SO2(g)

B C D
SO3(g) H2S2O7(ℓ) H2SO4(ℓ) Fertiliser X

O2(g)

2.1 Write down the name of the industrial preparation of sulphuric acid. (1)
2.2 Write down the:
2.2.1 NAME or FORMULA of the catalyst used in reaction A (1)
2.2.2 Balanced equation for reaction C (3)
2.3 Ammonia is one of the reactants used in reaction D to make Fertiliser X.
Write down:
2.3.1 A balanced equation for reaction D (3)
2.3.2 The NAME of Fertiliser X (1)
 127

2.4 Two 50 kg bags, containing fertilisers P and Q respectively, are labelled as follows:
Fertiliser P: 5 : 2 : 3 (25)
Fertiliser Q: 1 : 3 : 4 (20)
2.4.1 What do the numbers (25) and (20) on the labels represent? (1)
2.4.2 Using calculations, determine which fertiliser (P or Q) contains the
greater mass of potassium. (4)
[14]

QUESTION 3

The industrial process for the preparation of sulphuric acid involves a series of stages.

The second stage in this process involves the conversion of sulphur dioxide into sulphur
trioxide in a converter as illustrated below. In the converter the gases are passed over
vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) placed in layers as shown below.

Sulphur dioxide V2O5

and air layer 1
V2O5
layer 2
V2O5
layer 3
Converter V2O5
layer 4

Gas outlet
3.1 Write down the:
3.1.1 Balanced equation for the reaction taking place in the converter (3)
3.1.2 Function of the vanadium pentoxide (1)
The table below shows data obtained during the second stage.

PERCENTAGE OF
VANADIUM TEMPERATURE OF TEMPERATURE OF
REACTANT
PENTOXIDE GAS BEFORE THE GAS AFTER THE
CONVERTED TO
LAYER REACTION (°C) REACTION (°C)
PRODUCT
1 450 600 66
2 450 518 85
3 450 475 93
4 450 460 99,5

3.2 Is the reaction in the second stage EXOTHERMIC or ENDOTHERMIC? Refer to the
data in the table to give a reason for the answer. (2)
3.3 After the conversion at each layer the gases are cooled down to 450 °C. Fully
explain why the gases must be cooled to this temperature. (3)
3.4 During the third stage sulphur trioxide is dissolved in sulphuric acid rather than in
water to produce oleum.
3.4.1 Write down the FORMULA of oleum. (1)
3.4.2 Give a reason why sulphur trioxide is not dissolved in water. (1)
3.5 Sulphuric acid reacts with ammonia to form a fertiliser. Write down a balanced
equation for this reaction. (3)
[14]
 128

QUESTION 4

Ammonia is an important fertiliser. Large amounts are prepared from hydrogen and nitrogen in
industry.

4.1 For the industrial preparation of ammonia, write down:

4.1.1 The name of the process used (1)
4.1.2 A balanced equation for the reaction that occurs (3)
4.1.3 The source of nitrogen (1)

4.2 The yield of ammonia changes with temperature and pressure during its industrial
preparation. The graphs below show how the percentage of ammonia in the reaction
mixture that leaves the reaction vessel varies under different conditions.

GRAPHS OF THE PERCENTAGE OF AMMONIA IN THE

REACTION MIXTURE VERSUS PRESSURE

300 °C
Percentage

400 °C

500 °C

Pressure (atmosphere)

4.2.1 Use the appropriate graph to estimate the percentage of ammonia

present in the reaction mixture at 240 atmosphere and 400 °C. (1)

4.2.2 State TWO advantages of using high pressure in the preparation of

ammonia. (2)

4.2.3 The advantage of using a low temperature is the large percentage of

ammonia formed. What is the disadvantage of using a low temperature? (1)

4.3 Ammonia is also used in the preparation of other fertilisers such as ammonium
nitrate. Calculate the mass of nitrogen in a 50 kg bag of pure ammonium nitrate
fertiliser. (3)
[12]

QUESTION 5

Ammonium nitrate is an important fertiliser. It is produced by reacting nitric acid with ammonia.
Both nitric acid and ammonia are prepared on a large scale in industry.
5.1 Write down the name of the industrial preparation of nitric acid. (1)

5.2 The catalytic oxidation of ammonia is one of the steps in the process named in
QUESTION 5.1. Write down the NAMES or FORMULAE of the TWO products
formed in this step. (2)
5.3 Write down a balanced equation for the preparation of ammonium nitrate. (3)
 129

5.4 Calculate the mass, in kilogram, of ammonium nitrate that can be made from
6,8 x 104 kg of ammonia and excess nitric acid.
(One mole of ammonia produces one mole of ammonium nitrate.) (3)

5.5 Ammonium nitrate is often mixed with potassium chloride and ammonium phosphate.
Give a reason why it is mixed with these compounds. (1)
[10]

QUESTION 6

A chemical company produces ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4, starting from the raw
materials P, Q and R, as shown in the flow diagram below.

P Q

SO2(g)

nitrogen hydrogen
SO3(g)

reaction 1
process 1
oleum

compound X compound Y

(NH4)2SO4

6.1 Write down the NAME of raw material:

6.1.1 P (1)
6.1.2 Q (1)
6.1.3 R (1)

6.2 Write down the:

6.2.1 NAME of process 1 (1)
6.2.2 NAME of compound X (1)
6.2.3 FORMULA of compound Y (1)
6.2.4 Balanced equation for reaction 1 (3)

6.3 The company compares the nitrogen content of ammonium sulphate with that of
ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3.
6.3.1 Determine, by performing the necessary calculations, which ONE of the
two fertilisers has the higher percentage of nitrogen per mass. (4)
6.3.2 Write down the name of the process that should be included in the flow
diagram above if the company wants to prepare ammonium nitrate instead
of ammonium sulphate. (1)
[14]
 130

QUESTION 7

7.1 The flow diagram below shows the processes involved in the industrial preparation of
fertiliser Q.

Process Y
N2(g) + H2(g) Gas P SO2(g) + O2(g)
V2O5

H2SO4(ℓ)

Process X Compound B

H2O(ℓ)

Compound A Compound C

Fertiliser Q

Write down the:

7.1.1 Name of process X (1)

7.1.2 Name of process Y (1)

7.1.3 NAME or FORMULA of gas P (1)

7.1.4 Balanced equation for the formation of compound B (3)

7.1.5 Balanced equation for the formation of fertiliser Q (4)

7.2 The diagram below shows a bag of NPK fertiliser of which the NPK ratio is unknown.
It is found that the mass of nitrogen in the bag is 4,11 kg and the mass of
phosphorus is 0,51 kg.

x – y – z (36)

20 kg

Calculate the NPK ratio of the fertiliser. (4)

[14]
 131

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Department of Basic Education, National Senior Certificate Physical Sciences Question Papers,
2014 – 2016, Pretoria

Scientist Image by WikimediaImages from Pixabay