Factors Influencing Human Cognitive

Abilities
Human cognitive abilities encompass a wide array of mental processes that enable individuals
to acquire knowledge, solve problems, and interact with the world around them. These abilities
include fundamental functions such as memory, attention, and language, as well as higher-level
executive functions like reasoning, planning, and decision-making. Social abilities, which govern
how individuals understand and navigate social situations, are also considered integral to
overall cognitive function 1. The development and expression of these cognitive capacities are
not determined by a single factor but rather emerge from a complex and dynamic interplay of
various influences throughout the lifespan 1. From the intricate blueprint provided by genetics to
the continuous shaping by environmental exposures, lifestyle choices, health status, and the
ever-evolving landscape of technology, a multitude of elements contribute to the unique
cognitive profile of each individual 2. Understanding the diverse factors that influence cognitive
abilities requires considering not only the individual components of cognition but also the
intricate ways in which these factors interact and evolve across different stages of life.

The Foundational Role of Genetics and Heredity

Genetics lays a significant foundation for human cognitive abilities. Studies have indicated that
approximately half of the variation observed in general cognitive function among individuals can
be attributed to genetic factors 1. Some research even suggests that the heritability of general
intelligence can be as high as 80% in adults 6. This genetic influence extends to specific
cognitive abilities as well, with areas like verbal and spatial reasoning showing considerable
heritable components 38. Interestingly, the degree to which genes influence cognition appears to
change over the course of life. While genetic factors may account for less than 25% of the
variation in cognitive abilities during infancy, their influence tends to increase substantially with
age, potentially reaching 50-80% in adulthood 4. This increasing influence likely reflects a
process where initial genetic predispositions shape an individual's interactions with their
environment, leading them to seek out experiences that further cultivate those abilities.

It is important to note that cognitive function is not determined by a few select genes but rather
by the complex interplay of many genes, each contributing a small effect 2. This polygenic
nature of cognition makes the identification of specific genes involved a challenging endeavor.
However, scientists have made progress in identifying some genes associated with cognitive
function, with the APOE gene being one notable example, particularly linked to cognitive
function in older adults 2. Genes like COMT, PRODH, and DRD have also been implicated in
executive functions, which are crucial for planning and decision-making 1. Despite these
advancements, a discrepancy exists between the high heritability estimates from twin studies
(comparing identical and fraternal twins) and the lower percentage of variance explained by
genome-wide association studies (GWAS) that examine the DNA of unrelated individuals 42.
This "mystery of missing heritability" suggests that current research methods might not be fully
capturing the genetic architecture of cognitive abilities, and rarer genetic variants shared within
families could potentially account for a significant portion of this unexplained heritability 42.
The Shaping Power of Upbringing and Early
Experiences
The environment, particularly the experiences during upbringing and early childhood, exerts a
profound influence on the development of cognitive abilities. Early childhood represents a
critical period during which the brain undergoes rapid development, making it particularly
sensitive to both positive and negative experiences 43. Positive experiences, such as nurturing
care and stimulating interactions, contribute to the building of healthy brain architecture, while
adverse experiences like trauma and abuse can have detrimental effects on this development 43.
The quality of parenting plays a crucial role in shaping a child's cognitive trajectory. Positive
parenting, characterized by sensitivity, warmth, acceptance, and cognitive responsiveness, has
been shown to enhance children's cognitive development and language skills 44.

The broader family environment also significantly impacts cognitive function. Growing up in a
happy and supportive family is associated with higher levels of cognitive functioning in
adulthood 45. Factors such as responsive parenting, open communication, and emotional
support within the family promote mental stimulation, which is vital for cognitive growth 45.
Conversely, a lack of parental care and support can negatively affect a child's brain
development 45. The benefits of positive early experiences can extend far into adulthood,
influencing cognitive function even decades later, potentially through the development of
psychosocial assets like self-mastery 45. Furthermore, participation in early childhood programs
can yield substantial benefits for children's cognitive development. These programs have been
shown to produce significant short-term improvements in IQ scores and considerable long-term
effects on academic achievement and social adjustment 46. The mechanisms through which
upbringing influences cognitive development are multifaceted. Exposure to positive emotions,
opportunities for learning and social interaction, the development of psychosocial assets like
emotional regulation and resilience, and the cultivation of a sense of self-control all contribute to
shaping cognitive abilities 45. Additionally, early positive experiences can indirectly influence
cognitive health by correlating with higher educational attainment and better physical health in
adulthood, both of which are important resources for lifelong cognitive well-being 45.

Education as a Cornerstone of Cognitive Development

Education stands as a fundamental pillar in the development and maintenance of cognitive
abilities throughout the lifespan. A robust body of research indicates a positive correlation
between higher levels of educational attainment and better performance on a wide range of
cognitive measures across adulthood 47. Moreover, the number of years of formal education an
individual completes is associated with a lower risk of developing dementia in later life 49.
Education likely exerts its positive influence through several mechanisms. It provides individuals
with essential skills, knowledge, and a sustained interest in pursuing intellectual challenges
across their lives 47. Educational experiences can cultivate the knowledge, skills, and abilities
necessary for continued engagement in intellectually demanding activities, such as reading and
learning new subjects, well into later adulthood 50.

Studies employing rigorous methodologies have suggested that schooling has a direct, causal
effect on cognitive performance. For instance, research has shown that higher levels of
education are linked to better scores on cognitive tests, with the benefits being particularly
pronounced for individuals who have attained a college education 48. While education is often
considered a key contributor to cognitive reserve, which is the brain's ability to withstand
age-related changes, some research proposes a nuanced perspective. It suggests that
education might primarily contribute to establishing a higher baseline of cognitive function in
early adulthood, which is then maintained into older age, rather than significantly slowing the
rate of cognitive decline itself 49. The importance of learning extends beyond formal schooling.
Engaging in adult education classes and other forms of lifelong learning has been associated
with greater retention of fluid intelligence, which encompasses reasoning and problem-solving
abilities, and a reduced risk of dementia 51. Furthermore, research suggests that learning
multiple new skills simultaneously within a social environment may enhance the durability of
cognitive gains from later-life education 51.

The Socioeconomic Landscape of Cognition

Socioeconomic status (SES) represents a powerful environmental factor that significantly
shapes cognitive development and outcomes across the lifespan. Research consistently
demonstrates that children from families with higher SES tend to exhibit better cognitive
outcomes compared to their counterparts from lower SES backgrounds 52. These differences in
cognitive functioning can emerge as early as infancy and persist into adolescence 52. The
influence of SES on cognition is likely mediated through various factors. Children from higher
SES backgrounds often benefit from greater cognitive stimulation in the home, including a richer
availability of books and more frequent and complex parental communication 54. They also tend
to have access to higher quality schools and better nutrition, while being less exposed to
environmental toxins and chronic stress, all of which can impact brain development 52.

The effects of childhood SES can have long-lasting consequences for cognitive health,
extending into later adulthood. Individuals who grew up in socioeconomically disadvantaged
homes may experience a more precipitous decline in cognitive function as they age 45.
Moreover, there is a notable interaction between an individual's genetic predispositions and their
socioeconomic context in shaping cognitive abilities. Genetic influences on cognition appear to
be maximized in more advantaged socioeconomic environments, where children have greater
opportunities to engage in activities that align with their genetic inclinations 8. Conversely, in
low-SES contexts, the heritability of cognition tends to be suppressed, suggesting that
environmental limitations can hinder the realization of genetic potential 8. Specific components
of SES, such as parental education, have been identified as strong predictors of an individual's
cognitive levels in later life 52. Higher household income during childhood has also been
associated with better neurocognitive development in early childhood and adolescence,
potentially having long-term effects 52. Poverty and low SES are considered key contributory
factors to impaired brain development, affecting crucial areas such as language skills,
educational attainment, and increasing the risk of psychiatric illness 55. The chronic stress often
associated with low SES can also impair neurogenesis, the growth of new neurons, and
consequently, learning abilities 55.

Lifestyle as a Modulator of Cognitive Performance

Lifestyle choices play a critical role in influencing cognitive abilities throughout life. These
choices encompass various aspects, including nutrition, physical activity, sleep habits, and
stress management.

Nutrition and Diet

The food we consume has a profound impact on our brain health and cognitive function.
Research suggests that healthy dietary patterns, rich in vegetables, fruits, whole grains, nuts,
and coffee, are associated with a reduced risk of cognitive impairment 56. Conversely, the
consumption of refined cereals and grains has been linked to worse cognitive function and
decline, while unrefined cereals and whole grains are associated with better cognitive outcomes
58
. The importance of nutrition begins even before birth, as the maternal diet during pregnancy
influences fetal brain development and may affect the baby's susceptibility to mental health and
behavioral disorders later in life 59. Omega-3 fatty acids, found in fish, nuts, and seeds, are
particularly crucial for a baby's brain development 59. Diet continues to play a vital role in brain
development and cognitive function during early childhood and adolescence 59. Poor nutrition
during these formative years can harm brain development and potentially lead to poor academic
performance 59. Maintaining healthy eating habits across the entire lifespan is key to preserving
cognitive function as we age 57. Dietary patterns such as the Mediterranean diet, the DASH diet,
and the MIND diet, which emphasize fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and healthy fats, have
been shown to have beneficial effects on cognitive health 57. The mechanisms through which
diet impacts the brain are complex and involve modifying neurotransmitter activity, restructuring
neural networks, influencing brain energy metabolism, and affecting levels of inflammation and
oxidative stress 59. Antioxidants and anti-inflammatory compounds found in many healthy foods
may help reduce age-related cognitive decline 57. Interestingly, a balanced diet that includes a
variety of food groups appears to offer the most overall benefit for brain health compared to
more restrictive diets 66.

Physical Activity and Exercise

Regular physical activity is not only beneficial for physical health but also plays a crucial role in
maintaining and enhancing cognitive abilities. Exercise has been shown to improve thinking,
learning, problem-solving skills, and memory, as well as reduce feelings of anxiety and
depression 67. Furthermore, consistent physical activity can lower the risk of cognitive decline
and dementia 67. At a neurobiological level, exercise has been found to increase brain volume in
regions associated with executive processing, improve cognition in individuals with disabilities,
and promote the growth of new connections between neurons 69. It also increases oxygen flow
and the formation of new blood vessels in brain areas important for cognitive tasks 69. Exercise
stimulates the release of neurotrophins, such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF),
which support the survival and growth of brain cells 69. Studies have shown that endurance
exercise can protect against age-related cognitive decline, particularly in the areas of executive
planning and working memory 69. Physical activity can also mitigate the memory and cognitive
decline associated with normal aging and conditions like Alzheimer's disease 68. For optimal
cognitive benefits, health guidelines recommend at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity or
75 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic exercise per week, along with muscle-strengthening
activities 67. Multi-component exercise programs that include aerobic, resistance, and balance
training have demonstrated superior effectiveness in improving overall cognitive function and
executive abilities in older adults with mild cognitive impairment 72. Research suggests that an
optimal dose of aerobic exercise for enhancing cognitive function in individuals with Alzheimer's
disease may be around 660 METs-min/week 73.

Sleep's Vital Role

Adequate and quality sleep is essential for effective cognitive functioning. Sleep plays a critical
role in the consolidation of memories, the process by which newly learned information is
stabilized in the brain 75. Different stages of sleep appear to be important for different types of
memory; slow-wave sleep (SWS) is particularly involved in consolidating factual memories,
while rapid eye movement (REM) sleep helps in processing procedural memories, such as skills
and tasks 75. Insufficient or poor-quality sleep can negatively impact memory consolidation, as
well as attention, concentration, decision-making, and problem-solving abilities 76. Chronic sleep
deprivation has been linked to an increased risk of cognitive decline and dementia 76. Beyond
memory, quality sleep directly influences learning and overall cognitive performance, enabling
individuals to focus better and absorb new information more effectively 77. During sleep, the
brain also engages in a crucial detoxification process through the glymphatic system, which
clears out waste products and toxins that accumulate during wakefulness, contributing to
optimal brain health 77. REM sleep, in addition to its role in memory, is also involved in dreaming,
emotional processing, brain development, and preparing the brain for wakefulness 81. It may
even play a role in learning physical skills 81.

The Impact of Stress and the Benefits of Stress Management

Mental stress, particularly when chronic or excessive, can have a detrimental impact on
cognitive abilities. Elevated stress levels have been associated with worsened cognitive
function, affecting memory, concentration, and the ability to learn new information 84. Long-term
exposure to stress has been linked to poorer overall cognitive function, accelerated cognitive
decline, and an increased risk of developing dementia 86. At a neurobiological level, chronic
stress can lead to structural changes in key brain regions such as the hippocampus and
prefrontal cortex, which are critical for memory and executive functions. It can also cause
alterations in the levels of neurotransmitters like cortisol 85. Stress has been shown to negatively
impact working memory, potentially leading to difficulties in academic performance and other
tasks requiring short-term information processing 87. Fortunately, various stress management
techniques can be effective in mitigating the negative effects of stress on both mental health and
cognitive function. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and structured stress management
programs have demonstrated success in reducing mental stress and enhancing overall
well-being and cognitive performance 85. Other techniques such as mindfulness meditation,
deep breathing exercises, yoga, and practicing positive self-talk have also been shown to be
effective in reducing stress levels 89. Furthermore, research suggests that stress can undermine
the protective benefits of cognitive reserve, the brain's ability to cope with damage or aging,
highlighting the importance of managing stress to safeguard cognitive health 91.

Cognitive Trajectories Across the Lifespan

Cognitive abilities evolve and change throughout the human lifespan, with distinct patterns of
development and aging.

Childhood and Adolescence

Cognitive development during childhood (approximately ages 6 to 12) is characterized by a shift
towards concrete thinking, where children learn to manipulate information about objects and
events in logical ways 14. This includes understanding concepts like addition, subtraction,
ordering, and transformation 14. Adolescence (from about ages 12 to 18) marks the beginning of
more complex cognitive processes known as formal logical operations 14. During this stage,
teenagers develop the capacity for abstract thinking, enabling them to consider possibilities and
form their own ideas and questions 14. They also become capable of considering multiple
viewpoints, engaging in debates, and reflecting on their own thinking processes 14. Adolescence
is a time of significant improvements in executive functions, which are essential for planning and
self-control, as well as working memory, the efficiency of information processing, social
cognition, and the ability to recognize emotions 19. Key cognitive milestones in childhood include
the development of language, the ability to think abstractly, the emergence of logical reasoning,
and the growth of problem-solving skills 15. The environment plays a crucial role in fostering
cognitive development during adolescence. Encouraging independent thinking, valuing
teenagers' ideas, and engaging them in discussions about various topics can support healthy
cognitive growth 21. The adolescent brain continues to mature, particularly the frontal cortex,
which is responsible for executive functions. This late development of the frontal cortex can
sometimes explain why teenagers may exhibit lapses in judgment and engage in more
risk-taking behaviors 20.

Early and Middle Adulthood

Early adulthood (roughly from the late teens to the mid-twenties) is a period of continued
cognitive refinement 24. During this time, individuals typically take on more responsibilities,
pursue career development, and attain the capacity for abstract thought 24. Self-awareness
increases, and decision-making skills are honed 24. The brain, particularly the prefrontal cortex,
continues to mature until around the age of 25, leading to improvements in processing speed
and higher-order cognitive functions like planning and problem-solving 25. Some models of
cognitive development propose a stage beyond formal operations in adulthood, known as
postformal thought, which is characterized by practicality, realism, and an understanding of
complexities and different perspectives 26. Middle adulthood (approximately from ages 40 to 65)
is often perceived as a period of cognitive decline, but research suggests a more nuanced
picture 10. While some cognitive skills, such as memorization and perceptual speed, may start to
decline, other abilities, including verbal abilities, spatial reasoning, simple math skills, and
abstract reasoning, often improve during middle age 10. Individuals in middle adulthood also
tend to rely more on their accumulated experience and develop expertise in specific areas 31.
The brain continues to demonstrate plasticity, rewiring itself based on experiences and
remaining capable of learning and adapting 29. Lifestyle factors and engagement in mentally
stimulating activities play a crucial role in maintaining cognitive health and potentially mitigating
age-related decline during middle adulthood 31.

Late Adulthood and Aging

Cognitive abilities in late adulthood and aging (typically after age 65) often undergo some
changes 9. Common age-related changes can include slower word finding, increased difficulty
with multitasking, and a mild decrease in the ability to sustain attention 9. Structural changes in
the brain, such as decreased volume in the hippocampus, frontal, and temporal lobes, are also
common with aging 10. However, not all cognitive abilities decline with age. In fact, vocabulary,
reading comprehension, and verbal reasoning often remain stable or even improve in older
adults 9. It is important to distinguish between normal age-related cognitive changes and the
more significant declines seen in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia 10. Normal aging
involves subtle changes that generally do not interfere with daily tasks, while MCI and dementia
involve more severe impairments that can significantly impact an individual's ability to function
independently 10. Some individuals, known as "super-agers," defy the typical pattern of cognitive
decline and maintain memory performance comparable to that of much younger adults,
highlighting the potential for preserving cognitive function in old age 9. Several factors can
influence the rate and extent of cognitive decline in older adulthood, including age itself, genetic
predispositions (such as the APOE e4 gene), various medical conditions (like diabetes,
hypertension, high cholesterol, obesity, and depression), lifestyle factors (including smoking,
lack of physical exercise, low educational attainment, and limited mental and social stimulation),
and underlying brain changes (such as the formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary
tangles) 9. Strategies that may help improve or maintain cognitive abilities in older adults include
engaging in social and leisure activities, participating in brain training games, maintaining
physical activity, following a healthy diet, and effectively managing any existing health conditions
11
.

The Intertwined Relationship Between Health and

Cognition
Cognitive abilities are closely linked to overall health, with both mental and physical health
conditions capable of significantly influencing cognitive function.

Mental Health Conditions

Mental health conditions, such as anxiety and depression, have a notable impact on cognitive
abilities. Anxiety disorders can impair various cognitive functions, including attention, working
memory, decision-making, problem-solving, and emotional regulation 93. Generalized anxiety
disorder (GAD), in particular, has been associated with impairments in attention, executive
functioning, cognitive flexibility, and processing speed 96. Similarly, depression can lead to a
range of cognitive deficits, including executive dysfunction (difficulties with planning and
decision-making), impaired learning and memory, reduced attention and concentration, and
slower processing speed 99. Common cognitive deficits seen in depression include difficulties
with attention, concentration, response inhibition, verbal memory, information processing,
executive functioning, and working memory 105. Interestingly, the relationship between
depression and cognitive impairment appears to be bidirectional, with cognitive impairment
potentially being both a symptom of and a predictor for depression 105. These cognitive
difficulties associated with mental illness can have a significant impact on an individual's daily
life, affecting their academic performance, work productivity, and social functioning 99.
Recognizing and addressing these cognitive deficits in individuals with mental health conditions
is crucial for accurate diagnosis, effective treatment planning, and ultimately, improved
functional outcomes 99.

Physical Health Conditions

Physical health conditions, such as diabetes, can also significantly affect cognitive function.
Diabetes mellitus, encompassing both type 1 and type 2, has been associated with mild to
moderate reductions in cognitive abilities, including information processing speed, psychomotor
efficiency, memory, attention, and executive function 92. Furthermore, type 2 diabetes has been
shown to increase the risk of developing dementia 113. The mechanisms through which diabetes
impacts cognitive function are likely multifaceted. Insulin resistance, elevated glucose levels
potentially leading to shrinkage of the hippocampus (a brain region crucial for memory), damage
to blood vessels in the brain, and other diabetes-related complications may all play a role 114.
Both episodes of high blood sugar (hyperglycemia) and low blood sugar (hypoglycemia) can be
detrimental to brain health and cognitive processes 111. The cognitive impairments associated
with diabetes can also create a challenging cycle by hindering an individual's ability to effectively
manage their diabetes self-care, such as monitoring blood glucose levels and adhering to
dietary recommendations 115. This can potentially lead to further complications and exacerbate
both physical and cognitive health issues.

Cognitive Reserve as a Buffer

Cognitive reserve refers to the brain's capacity to tolerate age-related changes or the effects of
disease without exhibiting clinical symptoms of cognitive decline 49. It represents a form of
resilience, allowing some individuals to maintain cognitive function despite underlying brain
pathology. Several factors are believed to contribute to cognitive reserve, including lifetime
experiences such as education, occupational attainment, engagement in social activities, and
participation in cognitively stimulating pursuits 117. Higher levels of cognitive reserve have been
associated with better cognitive performance in older adults and a reduced risk of developing
mild cognitive impairment or dementia 117. However, the relationship between cognitive reserve
and the progression of dementia appears to be complex. Some research suggests that while
higher reserve may initially delay the onset of noticeable cognitive decline, it might also be
linked to a more accelerated decline once dementia is diagnosed 119. This could be because
individuals with higher reserve may be better able to compensate for brain changes in the early
stages, but once the underlying pathology reaches a certain threshold, the decline may be more
rapid. External factors, such as stress and chronic pain, can potentially erode cognitive reserve,
emphasizing the importance of managing these conditions to protect cognitive health 91.

Navigating the Digital Age: Technology's Influence on

Cognition
The increasing prevalence of digital technology in modern life has raised questions about its
impact on human cognitive abilities. Research suggests a complex and potentially dualistic
relationship between technology use and cognition 120. Excessive or unregulated screen time
has been linked to several potential harmful effects, including heightened symptoms of
attention-deficit, impaired emotional and social intelligence, technology addiction, social
isolation, impaired brain development, and disrupted sleep patterns 120. The constant
multitasking and rapid information processing often associated with technology use may
contribute to decreased attention spans and cognitive overload 120. Furthermore, relying heavily
on digital devices for information retrieval could potentially impair memory function and lead to
an increased dependence on external aids 120. The mere presence of a smartphone, even when
not in use, has been shown to reduce available cognitive capacity, making it more challenging to
focus on tasks requiring attention and decision-making 124.

However, technology is not solely detrimental to cognition. Certain computer programs and
video games have been found to potentially improve memory, multitasking skills, fluid
intelligence, and other cognitive abilities 121. Educational applications can also offer opportunities
to foster problem-solving skills and logical reasoning 123. The impact of technology on cognitive
development may be particularly significant in children and adolescents, whose brains are still
undergoing rapid maturation 121. Therefore, striking a balance in technology use and ensuring
mindful engagement with digital devices is crucial for mitigating potential risks and harnessing
any potential cognitive benefits.

The Social Brain: The Importance of Social Interaction

Social interaction is a fundamental aspect of human life and plays a significant role in cognitive
health 125. Engaging with others engages various cognitive resources and has been associated
with better overall cognitive functioning 125. Research suggests that maintaining strong social
connections can help protect against cognitive decline and reduce the risk of developing
dementia in older age 127. The benefits of social interaction for cognition likely arise through
several mechanisms, including cognitive stimulation from conversations and shared activities,
the provision of emotional support which can buffer against stress, and the promotion of a sense
of purpose and belonging 127. Conversely, social isolation and loneliness can have detrimental
effects on brain health, potentially increasing the risk of cognitive decline, as well as depression
and anxiety 127. Interventions that incorporate social interaction components have shown
promise in improving executive function, a key cognitive domain, in older adults without
dementia 128. Interestingly, in-person social interaction appears to have a more positive effect on
global cognition compared to online interactions, suggesting that the richness and complexity of
face-to-face communication may be particularly beneficial for the brain 128. Furthermore, various
cognitive abilities, such as perception, attention, learning, memory, and inhibitory control, are
essential for forming and maintaining social relationships, highlighting the interconnectedness of
social and cognitive functions 131.

Conclusion
The cognitive abilities of a human being are shaped by a complex and interconnected web of
factors that span the entirety of life. Genetics provides a foundational blueprint, but the
environment, particularly during upbringing and through educational experiences, plays a crucial
role in sculpting cognitive trajectories. Socioeconomic status exerts a pervasive influence,
highlighting the impact of opportunity and resources on cognitive development. Lifestyle
choices, encompassing nutrition, physical activity, sleep, and stress management, act as
powerful modulators of cognitive performance at all ages. The aging process brings about
natural changes in cognition, but the extent of these changes is influenced by a multitude of
factors, including health conditions and an individual's cognitive reserve. The advent of digital
technology presents both opportunities and challenges for cognitive function, requiring mindful
engagement to maximize benefits and mitigate risks. Finally, the importance of social interaction
underscores the inherently social nature of human cognition and the benefits of strong social
connections for maintaining brain health. Understanding this multifaceted interplay of factors is
crucial for developing effective strategies to promote cognitive well-being and address cognitive
decline across the lifespan. Future research should continue to explore the specific mechanisms
underlying the influence of each factor, investigate the complex interactions between them, and
develop personalized interventions tailored to individual profiles to support optimal cognitive
health throughout life.

Table 1: Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

| Stage | Age Range | Key Characteristics ||---|---|---|

| Sensorimotor | Birth to 2 years | Infants learn about the world through their senses and actions.
Object permanence develops towards the end of this stage. |
| Preoperational | 2 to 7 years | Children begin to use symbols (like words and images) to
represent the world. Thinking is egocentric and lacks logical reasoning. |
| Concrete Operational | 7 to 11 years | Children develop logical thinking about concrete events
and can understand conservation. Thinking is still tied to physical reality. |
| Formal Operational | 12 years and up | Adolescents can think abstractly and hypothetically.
They can use deductive reasoning and consider multiple possibilities. |
Table 2: Comparison of Cognitive Changes in Older Adulthood

Feature Normal Mild Cognitive Dementia

Age-Related Impairment
Change (MCI)

Thinking Speed Slower Noticeably Significantly

slower slower

Attention Mild decrease Difficulty focusing Severe difficulty

focusing

Multitasking More challenging Increasingly Often impossible

difficult

Memory Occasional More frequent Significant

forgetfulness forgetfulness of memory loss
recent events impacting daily
 life

Daily Tasks Can still perform May have some Difficulty with
independently difficulty with many everyday
complex tasks tasks (e.g.,
dressing, eating)

Impact on Life Subtle impact Noticeable Significant

impact, but impact on
generally independence
independent and quality of life

Table 3: Cognitive Deficits Associated with Mental Health Conditions

Condition Common Cognitive Deficits

Anxiety Disorders Difficulty with attention, impaired

working memory, problems with
decision-making, reduced cognitive
flexibility, slower processing speed

Depressive Disorders Reduced attention and concentration,

impaired learning and memory,
executive dysfunction (planning,
problem-solving), slower processing
speed, difficulties with verbal fluency

Table 4: Cognitive Domains Affected by Diabetes Mellitus

Cognitive Domain Potential Effects Potential Mechanisms

Information Processing Slowed Vascular damage,

Speed impaired glucose
metabolism
 Psychomotor Efficiency Worsened Vascular damage, nerve
damage

Memory Impaired (both Hippocampal atrophy

short-term and (Type 2), vascular
long-term) damage, insulin
resistance

Attention Deficits in sustained and Vascular damage,

divided attention neurotransmitter
imbalances

Executive Function Impaired planning, Vascular damage,

decision-making, reduced brain volume
problem-solving

Works cited

1. The Impact of Genetics on Cognition: Insights into Cognitive Disorders and Single Nucleotide
Polymorphisms - PubMed Central, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10889941/
2. Do genes influence thinking skills? | Age UK, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.ageuk.org.uk/information-advice/health-wellbeing/mind-body/staying-sharp/thinking-
skills-change-with-age/genes-and-thinking-skills/
3. Genetics and Learning: How the Genes Influence Educational Attainment - Frontiers,
accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01622/full
4. Is Our Maximum IQ Determined by Our Genetics? - Consensus: AI Search Engine for
Research, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://consensus.app/home/blog/is-our-maximum-iq-determined-by-our-genetics/
5. Is Variation in Intelligence Influenced by Genes? - Consensus: AI Search Engine for
Research, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://consensus.app/home/blog/is-variation-in-intelligence-influenced-by-genes/
6. Heritability of IQ - Wikipedia, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability_of_IQ
7. Cognitive Health and Older Adults | National Institute on Aging, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/brain-health/cognitive-health-and-older-adults
8. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Cognition Across ..., accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4006996/
9. How the Aging Brain Affects Thinking | National Institute on Aging, accessed on March 14,
2025, https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/brain-health/how-aging-brain-affects-thinking
10. Healthy Aging - Memory and Aging Center - University of California, San Francisco,
accessed on March 14, 2025, https://memory.ucsf.edu/symptoms/healthy-aging
11. Improving Cognitive Abilities in the Elderly - News-Medical, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.news-medical.net/health/Improving-Cognitive-Abilities-in-the-Elderly.aspx
12. The Impact of Age on Cognition - PMC - PubMed Central, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4906299/
13. Age-associated cognitive decline | British Medical Bulletin | Oxford Academic, accessed on
March 14, 2025, https://academic.oup.com/bmb/article/92/1/135/332828
14. Cognitive Development in Children | Advice for Parents, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/health/c/cognitive-development
15. Cognitive Development in Childhood: Milestones & Stages - Counselling in Melbourne,
accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.counsellinginmelbourne.com.au/cognitive-development-in-childhood/
16. Cognitive Developmental Milestones - Verywell Mind, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.verywellmind.com/cognitive-developmental-milestones-2795109
17. The Importance of Cognitive Development and How Early Childhood Teachers Can Help,
accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://post.edu/blog/importance-of-cognitive-development-early-childhood/
18. FWhat Is Cognitive Development | Help Me Grow MN, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://helpmegrowmn.org/HMG/HelpfulRes/Articles/WhatCognitiveDev/index.html
19. pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6135107/#:~:text=The%20physical%20developments
%20of%20adolescence,social%20cognition%2C%20and%20emotion%20recognition.
20. Adolescent Development - Cleveland Clinic, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/7060-adolescent-development
21. Cognitive Development in Adolescence - Center for Parent and Teen Communication,
accessed on March 14, 2025, https://parentandteen.com/adolescent-cognitive-development/
22. Cognitive Development in Adolescence - Stanford Medicine Children's Health, accessed on
March 14, 2025,
https://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/topic/default?id=cognitive-development-in-adolescence-90-
P01594
23. Cognitive Development during Adolescence | Lifespan Development - Lumen Learning,
accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/chapter/cognitive-development-duri
ng-adolescence/
24. openstax.org, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://openstax.org/books/lifespan-development/pages/11-4-cognitive-development-in-early-ad
ulthood#:~:text=Some%20of%20the%20cognitive%20tasks,%2C%20honing%20decision%2Dm
aking%20skills%2C
25. 11.4 Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood - OpenStax, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://openstax.org/books/lifespan-development/pages/11-4-cognitive-development-in-early-ad
ulthood
26. Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood | Lifespan Development - Lumen Learning,
accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/chapter/cognitive-development-in-e
arly-adulthood/
27. Emerging Adulthood & Cognition – Human Development, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/humandevelopment/chapter/emerging-adulthood/
28. www.apa.org, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.apa.org/monitor/2011/04/mind-midlife#:~:text=While%20memorization%20skills%20
and%20perceptual,pilots%20and%20air%2Dtraffic%20controllers.
29. The mind at midlife - American Psychological Association, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.apa.org/monitor/2011/04/mind-midlife
30. Middle age: A critical turning point for brain health and cognition - News-Medical, accessed
on March 14, 2025,
https://www.news-medical.net/news/20240320/Middle-age-A-critical-turning-point-for-brain-healt
h-and-cognition.aspx
31. 9.5: Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood - Social Sci LibreTexts, accessed on March
14, 2025,
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Rio_Hondo/Lifespan_Development_(Pilati)/09%3A_Middl
e_Adulthood/9.05%3A_Cognitive_Development_in_Middle_Adulthood
32. Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood - Iowa State University Digital Press, accessed
on March 14, 2025,
https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/individualfamilydevelopment/chapter/cognitive-development-in-mi
ddle-adulthood/
33. www.webmd.com, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.webmd.com/healthy-aging/what-to-know-about-cognitive-decline-in-older-adults#:~:t
ext=Your%20brain%2C%20like%20the%20rest,performance%20may%20suggest%20cognitive
%20impairment.
34. What to Know About Cognitive Decline in Older Adults - WebMD, accessed on March 14,
2025,
https://www.webmd.com/healthy-aging/what-to-know-about-cognitive-decline-in-older-adults
35. Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood - PSY 180 - Psychology of Aging - Textbook,
accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://guides.hostos.cuny.edu/Psychology_of_Aging/cognitive_development
36. pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10889941/#:~:text=Numerous%20studies%20in%20th
e%20literature,to%20genetic%20factors%20%5B3%5D.
37. en.wikipedia.org, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability_of_IQ#:~:text=Early%20twin%20studies%20of%20adult,
for%20late%20teens%20and%20adults.
38. www.bennington.edu, accessed on March 14, 2025, https://www.bennington.edu/doc/24891
39. The new genetics of intelligence - PMC - PubMed Central, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5985927/
40. Genetics and intelligence differences: five special findings - PMC - PubMed Central,
accessed on March 14, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4270739/
41. www.ageuk.org.uk, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.ageuk.org.uk/information-advice/health-wellbeing/mind-body/staying-sharp/thinking-
skills-change-with-age/genes-and-thinking-skills/#:~:text=As%20individuals%2C%20we%20vary
%20widely,few%20genes%20but%20by%20many.
42. How much of intelligence and personality is inherited? | Institute of ..., accessed on March
14, 2025,
https://institute-genetics-cancer.ed.ac.uk/news-and-events/news-2017/how-much-intelligence-p
ersonality-inherited
43. Understanding child brain development | NSPCC Learning, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://learning.nspcc.org.uk/child-health-development/childhood-trauma-brain-development
44. Positive Parenting and Children's Cognitive Development | Psychology Today, accessed on
March 14, 2025,
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/going-beyond-intelligence/202302/positive-parenting-
and-childrens-cognitive-development
45. Are Positive Childhood Experiences Linked to Better Cognitive ..., accessed on March 14,
2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7906946/
46. Long-Term Effects of Early Childhood Programs on Cognitive and ..., accessed on March
14, 2025,
https://nieer.org/research-library/long-term-effects-early-childhood-programs-cognitive-school-ou
tcomes
47. The Role of Education and Intellectual Activity on Cognition - PMC, accessed on March 14,
2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3423895/
48. Research Brief: Does Schooling Improve Cognitive Abilities at Older Ages?, accessed on
March 14, 2025,
https://ldi.upenn.edu/our-work/research-updates/does-schooling-improve-cognitive-abilities-at-ol
der-ages/
49. Education and Cognitive Functioning Across the Life Span - PMC, accessed on March 14,
2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7425377/
50. The Role of Education and Intellectual Activity on Cognition - ResearchGate, accessed on
March 14, 2025,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230749551_The_Role_of_Education_and_Intellectual
_Activity_on_Cognition
51. Can education boost cognition at any age? - Alzheimer's Drug Discovery Foundation,
accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.alzdiscovery.org/cognitive-vitality/blog/can-education-boost-cognition-at-any-age
52. Childhood Socioeconomic Status and Later Life Cognition ..., accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6478570/
53. Socioeconomic status and structural brain development - Frontiers, accessed on March 14,
2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnins.2014.00276/full
54. Socioeconomic status and the brain: mechanistic insights from human and animal research,
accessed on March 14, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2950073/
55. Poverty and low socioeconomic status affect cognitive development, mental health,
accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.news-medical.net/news/20240415/Poverty-and-low-socioeconomic-status-affect-co
gnitive-development-mental-health.aspx
56. pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6993093/#:~:text=Consuming%20a%20diet%20high%
20in,the%20risk%20of%20cognitive%20impairment.
57. Dementia: Healthy eating habits may lower risk of cognitive decline - MedicalNewsToday,
accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/healthy-eating-habits-may-prevent-cognitive-decline
58. Nutrition and cognitive health: A life course approach - PMC, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10083484/
59. Food for thought: How diet affects the brain over a lifetime ..., accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.heart.org/en/news/2024/09/27/food-for-thought-how-diet-affects-the-brain-over-a-life
time
60. The Role of Dietary and Lifestyle Factors in Maintaining Cognitive Health - PMC, accessed
on March 14, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6993093/
61. The Impacts of Dietary Intervention on Brain Metabolism and Neurological Disorders: A
Narrative Review - MDPI, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.mdpi.com/2674-0311/3/3/23
62. The impact of dietary macronutrient intake on cognitive function and the brain - PubMed,
accessed on March 14, 2025, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34139473/
63. Diet and Mental Health: Untangling Complex Mechanisms - Newsletter - Brain Energy,
accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://newsletter.brainenergy.com/the-role-of-diet-in-mental-health-a-complex-web-of-mechanis
ms/
64. Nutritional Impact on Metabolic Homeostasis and Brain Health - Frontiers, accessed on
March 14, 2025,
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnins.2021.767405/pdf
65. (PDF) Nutritional influences on cognitive function: Mechanisms of susceptibility, accessed
on March 14, 2025,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23668376_Nutritional_influences_on_cognitive_functio
n_Mechanisms_of_susceptibility
66. A 'balanced' diet is better than a vegetarian one in supporting brain health, accessed on
March 14, 2025,
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/a-balanced-diet-is-better-than-a-vegetarian-one-in-s
upporting-brain-health
67. Physical Activity Boosts Brain Health - CDC, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.cdc.gov/physical-activity/features/boost-brain-health.html
68. Brain function effects of exercise interventions for cognitive decline: a systematic review and
meta-analysis - Frontiers, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnins.2023.1127065/full
69. Full article: Exercise is brain food: The effects of physical activity on cognitive function,
accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17518420801997007
70. Neurobiological effects of physical exercise - Wikipedia, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise
71. The Influence of Exercise on Cognitive Abilities - PMC - PubMed Central, accessed on
March 14, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3951958/
72. Optimal dose and type of exercise to improve cognitive function in patients with mild
cognitive impairment: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of RCTs - Frontiers,
accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1436499/full
73. Effective dosage and mode of exercise for enhancing cognitive function in Alzheimer's
disease and dementia: a systematic review and Bayesian Model-Based Network Meta-analysis
of RCTs, accessed on March 14, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11143595/
74. (PDF) Effective dosage and mode of exercise for enhancing cognitive function in
Alzheimer's disease and dementia: a systematic review and Bayesian Model-Based Network
Meta-analysis of RCTs - ResearchGate, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/381096004_Effective_dosage_and_mode_of_exercise
_for_enhancing_cognitive_function_in_Alzheimer's_disease_and_dementia_a_systematic_revie
w_and_Bayesian_Model-Based_Network_Meta-analysis_of_RCTs
75. thedaily.case.edu, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://thedaily.case.edu/from-zzzs-to-memories-how-sleep-habits-shape-cognitive-function/#:~:t
ext=Sleep%20has%20a%20significant%20impact,we%20learn%20during%20the%20day.
76. From Zzzs to memories: How sleep habits shape cognitive function, accessed on March 14,
2025,
https://thedaily.case.edu/from-zzzs-to-memories-how-sleep-habits-shape-cognitive-function/
77. The Role of Sleep on Brain Function - Thrive Online - Western University, accessed on
March 14, 2025, https://uwo.ca/se/thrive/blog/2024/the-role-of-sleep-on-brain-function.html
78. Sleep's Crucial Role in Preserving Memory < Yale School of Medicine, accessed on March
14, 2025, https://medicine.yale.edu/news-article/sleeps-crucial-role-in-preserving-memory/
79. Sleep for cognitive enhancement - Frontiers, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/systems-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00046/ful
l
80. How Lack of Sleep Impacts Cognitive Performance and Focus, accessed on March 14,
2025, https://www.sleepfoundation.org/sleep-deprivation/lack-of-sleep-and-cognitive-impairment
81. Strengthen your brain by resting it - American Psychological Association, accessed on
March 14, 2025, https://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug04/strengthen
82. REM Sleep: What It Is and Why It's Important - Sleep Foundation, accessed on March 14,
2025, https://www.sleepfoundation.org/stages-of-sleep/rem-sleep
83. importance of rapid eye movement sleep and its implications for Alzheimer's disease -
Oxford Academic, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://academic.oup.com/sleep/article/47/7/zsae117/7675098
84. Stress Can Affect Your Ability to Think Clearly, Study Finds - Healthline, accessed on March
14, 2025,
https://www.healthline.com/health-news/why-it-may-be-harder-to-make-good-decisions-when-yo
ur-stressed
85. Mental Stress and Cognitive Deficits Management - PMC, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11047847/
86. The Effects of Stress on Cognitive Aging, Physiology and Emotion (ESCAPE) Project -
PMC, accessed on March 14, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4490700/
87. Full article: Stress, working memory, and academic performance: a neuroscience
perspective - Taylor and Francis, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10253890.2024.2364333
88. 5 Cognitive Symptoms of Stress - Psych Central, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://psychcentral.com/stress/the-impact-of-stress
89. Stress Management Techniques - Mind Body Optimization, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://mindbodyo.com/stress-management-techniques/
90. Stress Management Techniques: Ways to Reduce Stress - AIHCP, accessed on March 14,
2025, https://aihcp.net/2024/11/06/stress-management-techniques-ways-to-reduce-stress/
91. Stress can affect your cognitive reserve: What that means for ..., accessed on March 14,
2025,
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/stress-can-affect-your-cognitive-reserve-what-that-
means-for-dementia-risk
92. Mild cognitive impairment - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic, accessed on March 14,
2025,
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mild-cognitive-impairment/symptoms-causes/sy
c-20354578
93. pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10486954/#:~:text=The%20research%20conducted%
20revealed%20that,and%20decision%20making%20(executive%20functions)
94. Neuropsychology of Generalized Anxiety Disorder in Clinical Setting, accessed on March
14, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10486954/
95. How Does Anxiety Affect Cognitive Function? | Tahiro, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://tahiro.com/blogs/education/can-anxiety-cause-cognitive-impairment
96. Cognitive Deficits in Generalized Anxiety Disorder - Published - Eman Research, accessed
on March 14, 2025,
https://publishing.emanresearch.org/CurrentIssuePDF/EmanPublisher_1_5793angiotherapy-811
10029.pdf
97. Strong Link Found Between Anxiety, Cognitive Impairment | Psychiatric News, accessed on
March 14, 2025, https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/pn.43.22.0020
98. The impact of anxiety upon cognition: perspectives from human threat of shock studies,
accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/human-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00203/full
99. Neuropsychologist explains the 'cognitive price' of mental health conditions, accessed on
March 14, 2025,
https://www.weforum.org/stories/2022/04/mental-health-cognitive-function-neuropsychology/
100. The Relationship Between Cognitive Health and Mental Health - HappyNeuron Pro,
accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.happyneuronpro.com/en/info/the-relationship-between-cognitive-health-and-mental-
health/
101. The link between mental health & cognitive function | Glean, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://glean.co/blog/science-mental-health
102. omh.ny.gov, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://omh.ny.gov/omhweb/resources/publications/cogdyshndbk.pdf
103. psychcentral.com, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://psychcentral.com/depression/the-cognitive-symptoms-of-depression#:~:text=Depression
%20affects%20more%20than%20just,concentration%2C%20and%20lower%20processing%20s
peed.
104. Cognitive Dysfunction in Major Depressive Disorder: Effects on, accessed on March 14,
2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4304584/
105. Understanding and Measuring the Cognitive Symptoms of Depression - Creyos, accessed
on March 14, 2025, https://creyos.com/blog/depression-and-the-brain
106. Cognitive Dysfunction in Major Depressive Disorder: Assessment, Impact, and
Management | Focus - Psychiatry Online, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.focus.20150043
107. Cognitive Remediation for Major Depressive Disorder - WebMD, accessed on March 14,
2025, https://www.webmd.com/depression/cognitive-remediation-major-depression
108. The Cognitive Symptoms of Depression | Psych Central, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://psychcentral.com/depression/the-cognitive-symptoms-of-depression
109. Mechanisms of Cognitive Impairment in Depression. May Probiotics Help? - Frontiers,
accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.904426/full
110. pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4837888/#:~:text=Overall%20studies%20show%20tha
t%20T1DM,with%20decline%20in%20cognitive%20performance.
111. Your Brain and Diabetes - CDC, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/diabetes-complications/effects-of-diabetes-brain.html
112. Cognitive Dysfunction and Diabetes Mellitus | Endocrine Reviews - Oxford Academic,
accessed on March 14, 2025, https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/29/4/494/2355063
113. Impact of diabetes on cognitive function and brain structure - PMC - PubMed Central,
accessed on March 14, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4837888/
114. Type 2 Diabetes May Accelerate Cognitive Decline, Research Shows | Henry Ford Health,
accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.henryford.com/blog/2022/08/type-2-diabetes-and-cognitive-decline
115. Management of Adults With Diabetes and Cognitive Problems, accessed on March 14,
2025,
https://diabetesjournals.org/spectrum/article/29/4/224/32739/Management-of-Adults-With-Diabet
es-and-Cognitive
116. Editorial: Cognitive reserve, cognitive functioning, and mental health in elderly people,
accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/human-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2022.1040675/f
ull
117. Defining Cognitive Reserve and Implications for Cognitive Aging - PMC, accessed on
March 14, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7812665/
118. Cognitive Reserve as a Protective Factor of Mental Health in Middle-Aged Adults Affected
by Chronic Pain - Frontiers, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.752623/full
119. Cognitive reserve and its impact on cognitive and functional abilities, physical activity and
quality of life following a diagnosis of dementia: longitudinal findings from the Improving the
experience of Dementia and Enhancing Active Life (IDEAL) study | Age and Ageing | Oxford
Academic, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://academic.oup.com/ageing/article/54/1/afae284/7944082
120. Digital Dementia: How Screens and Digital Devices Impact Memory, accessed on March
14, 2025,
https://www.neurocenternj.com/blog/digital-dementia-how-screens-and-digital-devices-impact-m
emory/
121. Brain health consequences of digital technology use - PMC, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7366948/
122. Striking digital balance: The Impact Technology has on a Child's Cognitive Development,
accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.celebree.com/striking-digital-balance-the-impact-technology-has-on-a-childs-cogniti
ve-development/
123. Digital Device Usage and Childhood Cognitive Development: Exploring Effects on
Cognitive Abilities - PMC, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11592547/
124. How Digital Technology Shapes Cognitive Function - Open Colleges, accessed on March
14, 2025,
https://www.opencolleges.edu.au/blogs/articles/how-digital-technology-shapes-cognitive-functio
n
125. academic.oup.com, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://academic.oup.com/innovateage/article/8/10/igae084/7808679#:~:text=The%20findings%
20suggest%20that%20enhancing,cognitive%20decline%20in%20community%20settings.
126. Pathways From Social Activities to Cognitive Functioning, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7325149/
127. The Impact of Social Connections on Brain Health: Nurturing Relationships for Cognitive
Well-being - Countryside Neurology, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://countrysideneurology.com/the-impact-of-social-connections-on-brain-health-nurturing-rel
ationships-for-cognitive-well-being/
128. Effects of Social Interaction Intervention on Cognitive Functions Among Older Adults
Without Dementia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | Innovation in Aging | Oxford
Academic, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://academic.oup.com/innovateage/article/8/10/igae084/7808679
129. (PDF) Mental Exercising Through Simple Socializing: Social Interaction Promotes General
Cognitive Functioning - ResearchGate, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5640069_Mental_Exercising_Through_Simple_Sociali
zing_Social_Interaction_Promotes_General_Cognitive_Functioning
130. Social Relationships and Cognitive Function in Older Adults (Chapter 9) - Society within
the Brain - Cambridge University Press & Assessment, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/society-within-the-brain/social-relationships-and-cognitive
-function-in-older-adults/016D58F8F69A346D981E7503F97CE3E9
131. How does cognition shape social relationships? | Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences - Journals, accessed on March 14, 2025,
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2017.0293