MODULE 1

• Definition of Science: Science is a systematic enterprise that organizes

knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the
universe, relying on observation, measurement, experimentation, and
logical reasoning.

• Key Concepts in Science:

o Scientific Method: A structured approach to research that includes:

▪ Observation: Identifying interesting phenomena.

▪ Question: Formulating questions based on observations.

▪ Hypothesis: Creating testable predictions.

▪ Experiment: Designing and conducting experiments to test

hypotheses.

▪ Analysis: Evaluating collected data.

▪ Conclusion: Drawing conclusions from the data.

o Theory and Law:

▪ Theory: A well-supported explanation of aspects of the

natural world based on evidence.

▪ Law: A statement that describes a consistent relationship

between phenomena.

• Research Reporting: The final research report should include an

introduction, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion, and references,
ensuring clarity and rigor in communicating findings.
By following these principles, researchers can contribute to the body of scientific
knowledge effectively.

MODULE 2

• Definition of the Research Process: The research process is a systematic

approach to investigating a specific topic or question, guiding researchers
from problem formulation to reporting findings.

• Steps in the Research Process:

1. Formulating a Research Problem: Clearly define the specific issue

or question to investigate, providing direction for the research.

2. Literature Review: Conduct a review of existing research to

identify gaps in knowledge, develop research questions, and
understand theoretical frameworks and methodologies used in
previous studies.

3. Identifying Key Concepts and Constructs: Define relevant

concepts and operationalize them into measurable constructs,
ensuring clarity in what is being studied.

4. Formulating Hypotheses: Develop testable statements predicting

relationships between variables, including both null and alternative
hypotheses to guide data analysis.

5. Research Design: Select an appropriate research design that

outlines methods and procedures for data collection and analysis,
tailored to the research question and objectives.
 6. Data Collection: Gather data using selected instruments such as
surveys, interviews, or observations, ensuring the methods align
with the research design.

7. Data Analysis: Analyze the collected data through cleaning, coding,

and applying statistical techniques relevant to the research design
and hypotheses.

8. Testing Hypotheses: Compare findings against the predictions

made in the hypotheses using statistical tests to determine
significance.

9. Reporting the Research: Write a comprehensive research report

that includes an introduction, methodology, results, discussion,
conclusion, and references, adhering to standard formats like APA or
MLA.

• Importance of the Research Process: Following these steps ensures

rigorous and meaningful research that contributes to knowledge and
understanding, allowing researchers to draw valid conclusions and
implications from their findings.

MODULE 3

• Definition of Research Design: Research design is a systematic plan that

outlines the methods and procedures for conducting research. It serves as
a blueprint guiding researchers through every stage, from problem
formulation to data analysis and interpretation.

• Components of Research Design:

 o Theoretical Framework: Provides a conceptual lens for the
research, outlining the theories or perspectives that guide the
investigation. It helps researchers interpret findings and understand
their significance in the context of existing literature.

o Methodology Section: Specifies the methods and procedures for

data collection and analysis, including:

▪ Research Approach: Can be quantitative, qualitative, or

mixed-methods.

▪ Data Collection Techniques: Methods such as surveys,

interviews, or experiments.

▪ Data Analysis Methods: Techniques like statistical analysis

or thematic analysis.

• Data Collection Instruments: Tools used to gather data, such as surveys

or questionnaires, which should be chosen based on the research objectives
and the nature of the phenomenon being studied.

• Generalization and Interpretation:

o Generalization: Researchers can draw conclusions about a broader

population based on their findings, contingent on the
representativeness of the sample.

o Interpretation: Involves making sense of the findings in relation to

research questions and existing literature, considering the
implications of the results.

• Reporting the Research: The final step involves writing a research report
that clearly communicates findings, methodology, and conclusions. The
report should follow a standard format, such as APA or MLA style, and
 include key components like introduction, methodology, results,
discussion, and conclusion.

• Significance of Research Design: A well-structured research design is

crucial for ensuring the validity and reliability of research findings,
allowing researchers to effectively address their research questions and
establish causal relationships. Understanding the strengths and limitations
of different approaches enables researchers to select the most appropriate
methodology for their specific research goals.

SAMPLING & TYPES

Definition of Sampling

Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of individuals or elements from a

larger population to represent the entire group. It is a fundamental technique in
research that allows researchers to make inferences about a population based on
the characteristics of the sample, making it practical and cost-effective.

Importance of Sampling

• Practicality: Studying entire populations can be impractical, time-

consuming, and expensive. Sampling allows researchers to collect data
from a smaller group while still obtaining meaningful insights about the
larger population.

• Representativeness: A well-selected sample can accurately reflect the

characteristics of the population, enabling researchers to generalize
findings.

• Cost-effectiveness: Sampling significantly reduces the costs associated

with data collection and analysis.
Types of Sampling

Sampling methods are broadly categorized into two main types: Probability
Sampling and Non-Probability Sampling.

1. Probability Sampling

Probability sampling methods involve random selection, ensuring that every

member of the population has a known probability of being included in the
sample. This increases the likelihood of obtaining a representative sample.
Common probability sampling techniques include:

• Simple Random Sampling: Every member of the population has an equal

chance of being selected. This method is straightforward and minimizes
bias.

• Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into subgroups (strata)

based on specific characteristics (e.g., age, gender), and then a random
sample is selected from each stratum. This ensures representation from all
subgroups.

• Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters (groups), and a

random sample of clusters is selected. All individuals within the chosen
clusters are then included in the sample, which is useful for geographically
dispersed populations.

• Systematic Sampling: Every nth element in the population is selected.

This method is easy to implement but requires a random starting point to
avoid bias.

2. Non-Probability Sampling

Non-probability sampling methods do not involve random selection, making it

difficult to ensure that the sample is representative of the population. However,
these methods can be useful in specific situations. Common non-probability
sampling techniques include:

• Convenience Sampling: Selecting individuals who are readily available

or easy to reach. This method is quick and cost-effective but may introduce
bias.

• Purposive Sampling: Selecting individuals based on specific

characteristics or knowledge relevant to the research. This method is useful
when researchers need particular insights or expertise.

• Quota Sampling: Selecting individuals to meet specific quotas for certain

characteristics (e.g., ensuring a certain number of participants from
different age groups). This method aims to ensure representation but may
not be random.

• Snowball Sampling: Using existing participants to recruit additional

participants. This method is particularly useful for hard-to-reach
populations or when studying sensitive topics