The GEY 201

LANDFORMS
surface of the earth is a collaboration of the various physical features. These natural
physical features on the earth’s surface are called landforms. Landforms are defined as
the natural physical features found on the surface of the earth created as a result of
various forces of nature such as wind, water, ice and movement of tectonic plates. Some
landforms are created in a matter of few hours, while others take millions of years to
appear.
Forces That Cause Landforms•••
Landforms are created and shaped by a variety of forces over an extensive period of time,
becoming distinctive and recognizable by their unique appearances. In general, landforms
are created by a combination of constructive and destructive forces. Constructive forces
build landforms up, while destructive forces wear them away.
Forces That Construct Landforms
The forces that build landforms up are called constructive forces. Constructive forces
include plate tectonics and deposition.
Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that helps explain how landforms are created on the
surface of the planet. This concept theorizes that the outer shell of the earth is made up of
several plates that fit together like puzzle pieces. These tectonic plates move and shift,
gliding over the mantle of the planet, which is a layer between the core and the crust. As the
tectonic plates collide and drift apart, they create mountains, trenches and volcanoes
through the folds and faults that occur in the rocky layers of the earth's surface.
Deposition is another constructive force. Through the laying down of sediment like soil,
sand and pebbles, deposition also helps build up landforms. Sediment can be carried by
water, ice, wind or gravity. Deltas are a type of landform usually created by deposition.
Forming where rivers meet calm bodies of water, deltas are made up of the sediment that is
deposited at the mouth of a river over a long period of time.
Forces That Destruct Landforms
While constructive forces build landforms up, destructive forces wear landforms away and
shape them at the same time. There are two main types of destructive forces: weathering
and erosion.
Weathering refers to the slow decomposition of rocks and minerals. There are two main
categories of weathering: physical and chemical. Physical weathering is when rocks are
broken into smaller pieces, and it is generally caused by the expansion and contraction
caused by the freezing and thawing of water in cracks and crevices of rocks. The second
type of weathering, chemical weathering, changes rocks through chemical reactions and
causes them to rust or dissolve.
The other main deconstructive force, erosion, refers to the geological process by which
small pieces of rocks are carried to new places to create landforms. After weathering breaks
rocks down, particles of soil and rocks are transported by wind, water and ice through the
process of erosion. Rivers, valleys and coastal cliffs are created through the deconstructive
force of erosion.
Creative force
Landforms that are created by erosion are called fluvial erosion landforms. As water passes
across land, it carries with it sediment and other forms of natural debris. Over time, the
accumulation of this sediment and debris create deposits, which eventually become
landforms. Examples of fluvial erosion landforms include sandbars, flood plains and levees.
Destructive power•••
The same creative force that builds landforms also destroys them. As water and wind pass
across land, they take away grains of soil and wear down rock. Years of this process
reduces the size of hills and mountains, and it cuts through ground to create valleys,
canyons and ditches.
Earth's Landforms
Earth’s landforms include four major types of geological features: mountains, hills,
plateaus and plains. Mountains are landforms that rise in elevation above the land around
them, and hills are smaller versions of mountains. Plateaus are flat expanses of land that
rise above the surrounding landscape, and plains are large areas of flat land at sea-level
elevation.
Beyond this major landforms list, there are dozens of other types of naturally created
geological features on the surface of our planet. These minor landforms can be divided into
five categories, which relate to the areas where they exist. The five categories of minor
landforms are desert, coastal, oceanic, mountain range and volcanic.
Examples of desert landforms include dry lakes, dunes and sand hills. Just as landforms are
created on dry land, they also occur in and around bodies of water. At the edges of oceans,
coastal landforms like beaches, barrier islands, capes, fjords and sea cliffs are found. Under
the water of the ocean, natural features such as coral reefs, inlets, sounds and mid-ocean
ridges are created by geological forces.
In mountainous areas, landforms like buttes, canyons, passes, summits and valleys can be
found within, between and around the ranges of mountains. And minor landforms also
occur around volcanic formations as a result of flowing lava, both on land and underwater.
Volcanic landforms include geysers, crater lakes, oceanic trenches, vents and volcanic
islands.
Causes of deformation

Stress and Strain

Stress is the force exerted per unit area, and strain is a material’s response to that
force. Strain is deformation caused by stress. Strain in rocks can be represented as a
change in rock volume, shape, and fracturing the rock. There are three types of stress:
tensional, compressional, and shear. Tensional stress involves pulling something apart in
opposite directions, stretching, and thinning the material. Compressional stress involves
things coming together and pushing on each other, thickening the
material. Shear stress involves transverse movement of the material moving past each
other, like a scissor. (9 Crustal Deformation and Earthquakes – An Introduction to
Geology, n.d.)

Deformation

The resulting strain can be elastic, ductile, or brittle when rocks are stressed,
called deformation. Elastic deformation is the strain that is reversible after the stress is
released. For example, when compressing a spring, it elastically returns to its original
shape after releasing it. Ductile deformation occurs when enough stress is applied to a
material that the changes are permanent, and the material can no longer revert to its
original shape. For example, if a spring is stretched too far, it can be permanently bent
out of shape. Note that concepts related to ductile deformation apply at the visible
(macro) scale, and deformation is more complicated at a microscopic scale. Research of
plastic deformation, which touches on the atomic scale, is beyond the scope of
introductory texts. The yield point is the strain at which elastic deformation is surpassed,
and permanent deformation is measurable. Brittle deformation is when the material
undergoes another critical point of no return. When sufficient stress to pass that point
occurs, it fails and fractures. (9 Crustal Deformation and Earthquakes – An Introduction
to Geology, n.d.)
Important factors that influence how a rock will undergo elastic, ductile, or brittle deformation are
the intensity of the applied stress, time, temperature, confining pressure, pore pressure, strain rate,
and rock strength. Pore pressure is the pressure exerted by fluids inside the open spaces (pores)
inside a rock or sediment. Strain rate is how quickly material is deformed. Rock strength measures
how readily a rock will respond to stress. Shale has low strength, and granite has high strength.

Removing heat, such as decreasing temperature, makes the material more rigid. Likewise, heating
materials make them more ductile. Heating glass makes it capable of bending and stretching. It is
easier to bend a piece of wood slowly without breaking it regarding strain response.

Sedimentary rocks are essential for deciphering the geologic history of a region because they follow
specific rules. First, sedimentary rocks are formed with the oldest layers on the bottom and the
youngest on top. Second, sediments are deposited horizontally, so sedimentary rock layers are
originally horizontal, as are some volcanic rocks, such as ash falls. Finally, sedimentary rock layers
that are not horizontal are deformed somehow – often looking like they are tiling into the earth.
Scientists can trace the deformation a rock has experienced by seeing how it differs from its original
horizontal, oldest-on-bottom position. This deformation produces geologic structures such as folds,
joints, and faults caused by stresses.

How Does Erosion Affect Landforms?

Creative force
Landforms that are created by erosion are called fluvial erosion landforms. As water passes
across land, it carries with it sediment and other forms of natural debris. Over time, the
accumulation of this sediment and debris create deposits, which eventually become
landforms. Examples of fluvial erosion landforms include sandbars, flood plains and levees.
Destructive power•••
The same creative force that builds landforms also destroys them. As water and wind pass
across land, they take away grains of soil and wear down rock. Years of this process
reduces the size of hills and mountains, and it cuts through ground to create valleys,
canyons and ditches.
Uses of Landforms•••
Landforms can be found throughout the world and can be used for a variety of practical and
recreational purposes. As landforms are natural features their use is often restricted by
heritage or Government organizations. Check with the relevant authorities before
harnessing a landform for personal or business use.
Mapping
Landform, or topographic, maps are an important tool for geographers and cartographers
(map makers). These maps use elevations and physical features as cartographic tools to
distinguish locations, particularly in rural settings with few towns or villages. Typically,
contour lines are used to distinguish the height and location of landforms which then form
the basis for navigation. These maps can be two or three dimensional and are drawn at a
variety of scales, typically 1:24,000. They can be used by backpackers and hikers to
navigate across the countryside as well as by property developers to avoid natural hazards
and determine the appropriate location for new settlements and dwellings. They can also be
used by fisherman and hunters to locate remote drainage areas.
Adventure Tourism
The size and geological formation of landforms, such as volcanoes and tors, make them a
popular adventure tourist destination. Hiking trips and adventure challenges are often based
around landforms, such as the Three Peaks Challenge in the United Kingdom, where you
have to trek to the top of three landforms. Rock climbing up, or abseiling down landforms
is another popular activity and, for the more adventurous, some tour companies offer
potholing and caving trips. For all of these activities it is best to start with beginner level
programs, before progressing to more complex and dangerous landforms.
Renewable Energy
Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source obtained from hot rocks deep
underground. Landforms, particularly volcanoes, are key sources of geothermal energy and
so landforms, and the areas surrounding them, are often harnessed for electricity and hot
water production. Another renewable energy source, wind power, can be harnessed using
farms built in elevated areas. Landforms are often in the ideal location for these wind farms
as they are in remote, windswept locations at high altitude. Renewable energy, unlike coal,
oil and gas, is made from resources that occur naturally and so will not run out or pollute
the atmosphere.
MOUNTAIN AND MOUNTAIN RANGES
Deformation of the crust
One of the most spectacular results of deformation acting within the crust of the earth is the
formation of mountain ranges.
We are going to discuss mountain and mountain ranges in the following headings
1. What is a mountain?
2. What do mountain look like?
3. Where are mountains found?
4. How are mountains formed and types?
5. What is a mountain range?
6. Uses of Mountains
7. Climate and mountains
WHAT IS A MOUNTAIN
According to the dictionary, a mountain is defined as that which is higher and steeper than a
hill. A mountain is a landform that rises high above the surrounding terrain in a limited area.
They are made from rocks and earth. Generally, mountains are higher than 600m, while those
less than 600m are called hills.
Mountains usually have steep sloping sides and sharp or slightly rounded ridges and peaks.
Mountains can be rocky and barren. Some have trees growing on their sides and very high
mountains have snow on their peaks. Some common features of mountains include the
following
1. The summit, or the top of a mountain
2. The slope or side of the mountain and
3. A very steep valley between young mountains known as gorge.
Mountain exists on every continent and even beneath our great oceans. Mountains cover one-
fifth of the earth’s land surface and occur in 75 percent of the world countries
HOW ARE MOUNTAINS FORMED?
Mountains are formed by slow but gigantic movements of the earth’s crust (the outer layer of
the earth). The Earth’s crust is made up of 6 huge slabs called plates which fit together like a
jigsaw puzzle. When two slabs of the earth’s crust smash into each other, the land can be
pushed upwards, forming mountains. Many of the greatest mountain ranges of the world have
formed because of enormous collision between continents.
Mountains form in different ways sometimes the crust has folded and buckled, sometimes it
breaks into huge blocks. In both cases great areas of land are lifted upward to form
mountains. Other mountains are formed by the earth’s crust rising into dome, by volcanic
activity when the crust cracks open.
TYPES OF MOUNTAINS
There are five basic kinds of mountains
1. Fold Mountains (Folded Mountains)
2. Fault-Block Mountains (Block Mountains)
3. Dome Mountains
4. Volcanic Mountains
5. Plateau Mountains
These different types of mountain names not only distinguish the physical characteristics of
the mountains but also how they were formed
Fold Mountains
These are the most common types of mountain. The world’s largest mountain ranges are Fold
Mountains. These ranges were formed over millions of years. Fold Mountains are formed
when two plates collide head on, and their edges crumbled, much the same as a piece of
paper folds when pushed together.
The upward folds are known as anticline and the downward folds are synclines. Examples of
Fold Mountains include
1. Himalayan mountains in Asia
2. The Alps in Europe
3. The Rockies in North America
4. The Andes in South America
5. The Urals in Russia
Fig 1: Types of Mountain

The Himalayas Mountains were formed when Indi crashed into Asia and pushed up the tallest
mountain range on the continents. In South America, the Andes Mountains were formed by
the collision of the South American continental plate and the oceanic Pacific plates.
Fault-Block Mountains
These mountains form when faults or cracks in the earth’s crust force some materials or
cracks in the earth’s crust force some materials or blocks of rock up and others down. Instead
of the earth folding over, the earth’s crust fractures (pull apart). It breaks up into blocks or
chunks. Sometimes these blocks of rock move up and down as they move apart and blocks of
rock end up being stacked on one another. Often fault Block Mountains have steep front side
and a sloping back side. Examples of fault Block Mountains include
1. The sierra Nevada Mountains in North America
2. The Harz Mountains in Germany.
Dome Mountains
Dome Mountains are the result of a great amount of melted rock (magma) pushing its way up
under the earth crust without actually erupting onto the surface; the magma pushes the
overlaying rock layers. At some points, the magma cools and forms hardened rock. The
uplifted area created by rising magma is called a dome because it looks like the top half of a
sphere (ball). The rock layers over the hardened magma are warped upward to form a dome.
But the rock layers of the surrounding area are flat.
As the dome is higher than its surroundings, erosion by wind and rain occur from the top.
This results in a circular mountain range. Domes that have been worn away in places form
many separate peaks called Dome Mountain
Volcanic Mountains
As the name suggests, volcanic mountains are formed by volcanoes. Volcanic mountains are
formed when molten rock (magma) deep within the earth, empts and piles upon the surface.
Magma is called lava when it breaks through the earth’s crust. When the lava cools, it builds
a cone of rocks. Rock and lava pile up layer on top layer.
Examples of volcanic mountains include
1. Mount St. Helens in North America
2. Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines
3. Mount Kea and Mount Loa in Hawaii
Plateau Mountains (Erosional)
Plateau Mountains are formed by internal activity. Instead, these mountains are formed of
erosion. Plateaus are large flat area that have been pushed above sea level by forces within
the Earth, or have been formed by layer of lava. Plateau Mountains are often found near
folded mountains. As years pass, streams and rivers erode valleys through the plateau,
leaving mountains standing between the valleys. The mountain in New Zealand is an example
of Plateau Mountain.
THE HIGHEST AND TALLEST MOUNTAINS
How are mountain measured?
Mountains are generally measured from sea level; however there are in fact three ways of
which a mountain can be measured.
1. From sea level
2. From base to peak
3. From the distance from the center of the earth to the peak of the mountain.
THE WORLD’S TALLEST MOUNTAIN
As mountains are generally measured from sea level, Mount Everest 29035ft (8850m) is
considered to be king. However there is a difference between the highest and tallest. The
peak of the highest mountain is the farthest away from the base of the mountain. The highest
mountain in the world is Mount Everest at 29035ft (8850m) above sea level.
The tallest mountain in the world is Mauna Kea measured from top to the base below sea
level. Mauna Kea beat Everest by 3336ft (over ¾ of a mile).
THE EIGHT THOUSANDERS
These are fourteen mountains on Earth that are higher than 8000m. They are all located in the
Himalayan and Karakoram mountain range in Asia.
s/n Mountain peak Range Location Feet meters
1. Everest Himalayas Nepal, Asia 29035 8850
2. K2 Karakoram Pakistan, Asia 28253 8612
3. Kanchenjunga Himalayas Nepal, Asia 28169 8586
4. Lhotse Himalayas Nepal, Asia 28169 8501
5. Makalu Himalayas Nepal, Asia 27920 8462
6. Chouyo Himalayas Nepal, Asia 26906 8201
7. Dhaulagiri Himalayas Nepal, Asia 26794 8167
8. Manaslu Himalayas Nepal, Asia 26758 8156
9. Nanga Parbat Himalayas Pakistan, Asia 26658 8125
10. Annapurna Himalayas Nepal, Asia 26545 8091
11. Gasherbrum 1 Karakoram Pakistan, Asia 26470 8068
12. Broad Peak Karakoram Pakistan, Asia 26400 8047
13. Gasherbrum 2 Karakoram Pakistan, Asia 26360 8035
14. Shisha Pangma Himalayas Tibet, Asia 26289 8013

THE HIGHEST MOUNTAINS IN EACH CONTINENT (SEVEN SUMMIT)

S/N Mountain peak Continent Heights
1. Mount Everest Asia 8850m
2. Mount Acconcagua South America 6959m
3. Mount Mckinley North America 6194m
4. Mount Kilimanjaro Africa 5895m
5. Mount Elbrus Europe 5642m
6. Vinson Massif Antartica 4897m
7. Mount Kosciuszko Australia 2228m

MOUNTAIN RANGE
Stress and Mountain Building
The sheer power and strength of two or more converging continental plates smash upwards
creates mountain ranges. Stresses from geologic uplift cause folds, reverse faults, and thrust
faults, which allow the crust to rise upwards. The subduction of the oceanic lithosphere at
convergent plate boundaries also builds mountain ranges. When tensional stresses pull crust
apart, it breaks into blocks that slide up and drop down normal faults. The result is alternating
mountains and valleys, known as a basin-and-range.
A mountain range is a group or chain of mountains that are close together. Mountain ranges
are usually separated from other mountain ranges by passes and rivers. The highest mountain
range in the world is the Himalayas, while the longest mountain range in the world is the
Andes Mountains.

WELL KNOWN MOUNTAIN RANGES

1. Himalayas
The Himalayas are the highest mountain range in the world. Over 30 peaks in the
Himalayas are over 24,000ft (7315m) high. The Himalayas is literally translated as
land of snow. The highest mountain peak is found in Himalayas. They form a 1500
mile broad crescent through Northeastern Pakistan, Northern India, Southern Tibet,
Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan. Himalayas is one of the youngest mountain ranges in the
world.
2. Alps
The Alps is a vast mountain system in south central Europe. About 13 million people
live in the Alps in over 6000 communities. The Alps are one of the largest and highest
mountain ranges in the world, covering some 192,000km2 of land area, stretching over
750 miles (1200km) from Austria and Slovenia in the east, through Italy, Switzerland,
Liechtenstein and Germany to France in the west. The Alps includes several hundred
peaks and glaciers, including numerous peaks over 12,000 feet with Mount Blanc
highest at 15771 feet.
3. Andes
The Andes are the second highest mountain range in the world with many peaks rising
over 20000 feet. The Andes Mountains are the longest mountain range in the world.
They stretch 4500 miles (7200km) from north to south, along the west coast of the
continent. They are located in South America, running north to south along the
western coast of the continent.
4. Rockies
The Rockies Mountains are a vast mountain system in western North America
extending north –south from Canada to New Mexico, a distance of about 3000 miles
(4800 km). The highest peak is Mount Elbert in Colorado which is 14400 feet (4401
m) above sea level.
5. Karakoram
The Karakoram is a great mountain range in Northeast Pakistan and Northern India
near the Chinese border; it extends 300 miles south easterwardly and includes many
of the world’s highest peaks and many of the world’s longest glaciers.

USES OF MOUNTAINS AND THE PEOPLE WHO LIVE ON THEM

Uses
 Climbers and tourists visit them for the scenery.
 Farmers graze their animals on them
  Water authorities make reservoirs and pump the water to towns and cities
 Forestry companies grow coniferous forests and harvest wood on them.
People living on Mountains
It has been estimated that 12% of the world’s 6.8 billion people live in mountain areas. That
means there is about three quarters of a billion (750,000,000) people living in mountain areas.
The Alps are the most densely populated mountain area in the world. Thirteen million people
live in the Alps. People as well as other animals and plants have adapted to living in the
mountains, the South American Urdu tribe have larger hearts and lungs to breathe the thin air
at high altitudes.
How do mountains affect the people who live near them?
Mountain can make travel difficult. Mountains can be very difficult to cross. They are often
rugged and filled with forest and wild animals, such as bears and wolves. They may not have
any natural passes; or easy places to cross the mountains. Mountains can also be hard to
climb or many have ice or snow or glaciers that make travelling dangerous.
All these means that crossing over Mountains to trade goods or to fight a war can be though
to do. Sometimes, people who live surrounded by mountains feel very isolated from the
world around them. It is just too difficult to cross over to other lands.
MOUNTAIN CLIMATE
The main differences in climate of mountains are temperature and moisture. The temperature
on mountains become colder the higher the altitude gets. Mountain tends to have much wetter
climate than the surrounding flat land.
WHAT IS THE WEATHER LIKE ON MOUNTAIN
Mountain weather conditions can change dramatically from one hour to the next, for example
in just a few minutes a thunder storm can roll in when the sky was perfectly clear, and in just
a few hours the temperatures can drop from extremely hot temperature to temperatures that
are below freezing.
Why do mountains receive more rainfall?
They receive more rainfall than low lying areas because the temperature on top of mountain
is lower than the temperature at sea level. Winds carry moist air over the land. When air
reaches the mountain, it rises because the mountains are in the way. As the air rises, it cools
and because cool air can carry more moisture than warm air, there is usually precipitation
(rain).
Is the climate on mountains the same at the bottom as the top?
No, the climate on a mountain varies depending on what attitude (how high) you are up a
mountain. At the foothills (near the bottom) there may be a tropical climate, whilst the peaks
(the very top of mountain) may be covered in ice. The uppermost level of mountains is often
bare rock and snow. Tibet and the Himalayas and other mountain range such as the Rocky
Mountains or the Andes are good examples.
Why does the temperature become colder the higher up a mountain?
Generally the climate or mountains get progressively colder with increased altitude. This
happens because as altitude increases, air becomes thinner and is less able to absorb and
retain heat. The cooler the temperature, the less evaporation there is, meaning that there is
more moisture in the air. Air pressure decreases with altitude. As a result of the reduced air
pressure, rising air expands and cools.

What effect does the climate have on mountains?

Because of the rapid changes in altitude and temperature along a mountain slope, multiple
ecological zones are stacked upon one another sometimes ranging from dense tropical jungles
to glacial ice within a few kilometers
What effect does mountain have on surrounding land?
Mountains can affect the climate of nearby lands. In some areas, mountains block rain so that
one side of a mountain range may be raining and the other side may be a desert
Rain shadow
Much of airborne moisture falls as rain on the windward side of mountains. This often means
that the land on the other side of the mountain (the leaward side) gets far less rain an effect
called a rain shadow which often produced a desert. The higher the mountain, the more
pronounced the rain shadow effects are the less likely rain will fall on the leaward side.
BASINS
A basin is a depression, or dip, in the Earth’s surface. Basins are shaped like bowls, with
sides higher than the bottom. They can be oval or circular in shape, similar to a sink or tub
you might have in your own bathroom. Some are filled with water. Others are empty.

Basins are formed by forces above the ground (like erosion) or below the ground
(like earthquakes). They can be created over thousands of years or almost overnight.

The major types of basins are river drainage basins, structural basins, and ocean basins.

A river drainage basin is an area drained by a river and all of its tributaries. A river basin is
made up of many different watersheds.

A watershed is a small version of a river basin. Every stream and tributary has its own
watershed, which drains to a larger stream or wetland. These streams, ponds, wetlands, and
lakes are part of a river basin. The Mississippi River basin in the U.S., for instance, is made
up of six major watersheds: the Missouri, Upper Mississippi, Ohio, Tennessee, Lower
Mississippi, and Arkansas-Red-White Rivers.

Every river is part of a network of watersheds that make up a river system’s entire drainage
basin. All the water in the drainage basin flows downhill toward bigger rivers. The Pease
River, in northern Texas, is part of the Arkansas-Red-White watershed. It is a tributary of the
Red River. The Red River is a major tributary of the Mississippi River, which flows into the
Gulf of Mexico.

The Amazon Basin, in northern South America, is the largest in the world. The Amazon
River and all of its tributaries drain an area more than 7 million square kilometers (about 3
million square miles).

Structural Basins

Structural basins are formed by tectonic activity. Tectonic activity is the movement of large
pieces of the Earth’s crust, called tectonic plates. Tectonic activity is responsible for
such phenomena as earthquakes and volcanoes. The natural processes of weathering and
erosion also contribute to forming structural basins.

Structural basins form as tectonic plates shift. Rocks and other material on the floor of the
basin are forced downward, while material on the sides of the basin are pushed up. This
process happens over thousands of years. If a basin is shaped like a bowl, a structural basin is
shaped like a series of smaller bowls, stacked inside each other. Structural basins are usually
found in dry regions.
Some structural basins are known as endorheic basins. Endorheic basins have internal
drainage systems. This means they don’t have enough water to drain to a stream, lake, or
ocean. The water that trickles into these types of basins evaporates or seeps into the ground.

When enough water collects in an endorheic basin, it can form a very salty lake, such as the
Dead Sea, between Israel and Jordan. While water evaporates into the atmosphere, minerals
remain. The remaining water becomes even saltier. The Dead Sea is one of the saltiest natural
body of water on Earth. Its shore, about 400 meters (1,300 feet) below sea level, is Earth’s
lowest dry point.

Death Valley, in the U.S. state of California, is another endorheic basin. At about 86 meters
(282 feet) below sea level, it is the lowest place in North America. The water draining into
Death Valley from its few streams does not exit the basin to a river or estuary. It evaporates
or seeps into the ground.

A lake basin is another type of structural basin. Lake basins often form in valleys blocked by
rocks or other debris left by a landslide, lava flow, or glacier. The debris acts as a dam,
trapping water and forming a lake. Hunza Lake in Pakistan was formed when an earthquake
triggered a massive landslide in 2010. The debris dammed the Hunza River, in addition to
killing 20 people and destroying the village of Attabad. The Hunza River continues to flow
into the lake basin, and many geologists and villagers worry the basin won’t be strong enough
to hold the water.

Lake basins may also be carved out by glaciers—huge masses of ice—as they move down
valleys or across the land. When the glaciers move, the basins they create remain. During the
last ice age, glaciers carved the basins of the Finger Lakes, in the U.S. state of New York.

Sedimentary basins are a type of structural basin that aren’t shaped like typical basins,
sometimes forming long troughs. Sedimentary basins have been filled with layers of rock
and organic material over millions of years. Material that fills up the basin is called sediment
fill.

Sedimentary basins are key sources of petroleum and other fossil fuels. Millions of years ago,
tiny sea creatures called diatoms lived and died in ocean basins. Eventually, these ancient
oceans dried up, leaving dry basins. The remains of the diatoms were at the bottom of these
basins. The remains were crushed under billions of tons of sediment fill, over millions of
years. In the right conditions, the pressure of the sediment fill turns the diatom remains into
petroleum.
The Niger Delta sedimentary basin, in the countries of Nigeria, Cameroon, and Equatorial
Guinea, is one of the most productive petroleum fields in Africa. In North America, the
Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin is one of the continent's largest suppliers of gas and
coal.
Ocean Basins

Ocean basins are the largest depressions on Earth. Edges of the continents, called continental
shelves, form the sides of ocean basins.

There are five major ocean basins, coordinating with the major oceans of the world: the
Pacific basin, the Atlantic basin, the Indian basin, the Arctic basin, and the Southern basin.
Many smaller basins are often considered oceanic basins, such as the North Aleutian Basin,
between the Pacific and Arctic Oceans.

Tectonic activity constantly changes ocean basins. Seafloor spreading and subduction are the
most important types of tectonic activity that shape ocean basins.

Seafloor spreading happens along the boundaries of tectonic plates that are moving apart
from each other. These areas are called mid-ocean ridges. The mid-ocean ridge is a giant
undersea mountain range that extend around the world. The ridge, which is made up of mosy
basalt, is more than 80000 kilometers (49700 miles) long and 1500 to 2500 kilometers wide
(931 to 1552 miles). It rises 2 to 3 kilometers (1.2 to 1.8) above the ocean floor. New seafloor
is created at the bottom, or rift, of a mid-ocean ridge. Ocean basins that have mid-ocean
ridges are expanding. The Atlantic basin, for instance, is expanding because of seafloor
spreading.

Subduction happens along the boundaries of tectonic plates that are crashing into each other.
In these subduction zones, the heavier plate moves underneath, or subducts, the lighter one.
Ocean basins that experience subduction, such as the Pacific basin, are shrinking.

Even though ocean basins make up more than 70 percent of the total land on Earth, scientists
know relatively little about them. Some oceanographers (and some astronomers!) say that we
know more about the surface of the moon than we do about the surface of the ocean floor.

It is very difficult to get information about landforms of the ocean basin, such as trenches and
mid-ocean ridges. These landforms are thousands of feet below the surface of the water. Few
instruments can endure the intense pressure, cold, and dark at the bottom of ocean basins.
Occasionally, researchers themselves explore ocean basins in special submarines
called submersibles.
OCEANIC CRUST
Composition and Layers of Oceanic Crust
The crust is the outermost layer of Earth above the mantle. The crust can be divided into two
types: continental crust and oceanic crust. The continental crust ranges from 25 to 70 km
thick and makes up a total of approximately 70 percent of Earth’s total crust volume, though
it only covers about 40 percent of the planet’s surface area. The oceanic crust is much
thinner, ranging from 5 to 10 km thick.

The continental crust has an average density of 2.7 g/cm3 and is composed primarily of felsic
rock. Felsic rock is rich in light elements such as silicon, aluminum, oxygen, sodium, and
potassium. The presence of these lighter elements is responsible for continental crust being
slightly less dense than oceanic crust, which has an average density of 2.9 g/cm3.

An ophiolite rock complex is located on the island of Cyprus. Ophiolites are areas where
oceanic crust has been thrust above the continental crust.

Oceanic crust is primarily composed of more dense rock, which forms distinct layers. As of
2014, geologists had not been able to successfully drill through the oceanic crust to the
mantle. The deepest that scientists have been able to drill is approximately two kilometers.
Much of what scientists know about the oceanic crust today has been discovered by
observation and inference. Ophiolites, for example, the above picture are portions of the
oceanic crust that have been uplifted and exposed above sea level, often above continental
crust. By observing ophiolites and data from existing drills and seismic information, scientists
can infer characteristics of the oceanic crust, in particular layering.