Lesson 1: Landform Forming Processes

Introduction Internal (geological ) forces/Endogenic

➔​ The world’s landforms are the
result of the interaction
forces
between internal (geologically
The energy emanating from within the
driven) and external
earth is the main force behind
(climatically driven) forces.
endogenic geomorphic processes.
➔​ The external forces are
known as exogenic forces and
★​ This energy is mostly generated
the internal forces are known
by radioactivity, rotational and
as endogenic forces.
tidal friction, and primordial
➔​ The actions of exogenic forces
heat from the origin of the
result in the wearing down
earth.
(degradation) of
★​ This energy due to geothermal
relief/elevations and filling up
gradients and heat flow from
(aggradation) of basins/
within induces diastrophism and
depressions, on the earth’s
volcanism in the lithosphere.
surface
★​ Due to variations in geothermal
➔​ The endogenic forces
gradients and heat flow from
continuously elevate or build
within, crustal thickness, and
up parts of the earth’s surface
strength, the action of
and hence the Exogenic
endogenic forces are not
processes fail to even out the
uniform and hence the
relief variations of the
tectonically controlled original
surface of the earth.
crustal surface is uneven.
➔​ So, variations remain as long as
the opposing actions of
Endogenic Processes
exogenic and endogenic forces
continue.
➔​ In general terms, the
endogenic forces are mainly
land-building forces and the
exogenic processes are mainly
land-wearing forces.
Lesson 1: Landform Forming Processes
Internal (geological ) forces/Endogenic Features of H orizontal Movements or
forces Orogenic Movements

★​ The Endogeneic Forces can be ❖​ These movements are caused

Further Broken Down into Two by the horizontal pressure that
Major Forms: acts on the surface of the
➔​ Slow movements: These are earth from side to side.
also referred to as Diastrophic ❖​ Orogenic movements or
(Diastrophism) forces. It horizontal movements is also
results in slow changes over referred to as mountain
time. building.
➔​ Sudden movements: As the ❖​ They can be categorized into
name suggests, these are the three major types of stress
visible motions, and include such as compressive stress,
significant landform changes tensional stress, and shear
like earthquakes and volcanic stress.
eruptions. ❖​ Orogenic motions create
tension in the strata’s
Endogenic Processes horizontal layer, which further
All processes that move, elevate, or leads to massive structural
build up portions of the earth’s crust deformation of the earth’s
come under diastrophism. surface.
Diastrophism involves two main
processes:
Types of Stress
1.​ Epeirogenic movements: It is
the process of warping or
upliftment of large parts of
the earth’s surface.
2.​ Orogenic movements: It is the
process of mountain building
that involves major folding,
and affects the long as well as
narrow belts of the surface.
Lesson 1: Landform Forming Processes
Forces of Compression Forces of Tension
➔​ Forces of compression are the ➔​ Forces of tension work
forces that push rock strata horizontally, but in opposite
against a hard plane from one directions.
side or from both sides. ➔​ Under the operation of intense
➔​ The compressional forces lead tensional forces, the rock
to the bending of rock layers stratum gets broken or
and thus lead to the formation fractured which results in the
of Fold Mountains. formation of cracks and
➔​ Most of the great mountain fractures in the crust.
chains of the world like the ➔​ The displacement of rock
Himalayas, the Rockies (N. upward or downward from
America), the Andes (S. their original position along
America), the Alps (Europe) such a fracture is termed as
etc are formed in this manner. faulting.
➔​ The line along which
displacement of the fractured
rock strata take place is called
as the fault line.
➔​ Faulting results in the
formation of well-known relief
features such as Rift Valleys
and Block Mountains.
➔​ A rift valley is formed by
sinking of rock strata lying
between two almost parallel
faults. (example: East African
Rift System)
➔​ Rift valleys with steep parallel
walls along the fault are called
as Graben and the uplifted
landmass with steep slopes on
both sides are called as Horst.
➔​ The very steep slope in a
continuous line along a fault is
termed as Escarpment.
Lesson 1: Landform Forming Processes
upliftment as well as the
subsidence of the continent.
★​ They cannot create variation in
the horizontal rock strata.

Sudden Forces

★​ These forces are the result of

long period changes occurring
inside the earth crust but the
cumulative effects on earth
surface are sudden.
★​ The affects sometimes lead to
destruction.
★​ They show sudden and quick
affects and can be seen in
minutes. Example: volcanic
eruption leads to volcanic
cones, fractures, lakes etc.

Features of Vertical Movements or

Epeirogenic Movements

★​ Epeirogenic movements are

essentially responsible for the
creation of plateaus and
continents on Earth.
★​ These powerful movements
occur from the center of the
earth.
★​ Vertical movements can be
responsible for both the
Lesson 1: Landform Forming Processes
Sudden Forces (Earthquake )
➔​ Earthquake is an example of
sudden forces that are
happening all the time but are
not noticed until they cause
visible damage.
➔​ The visible sudden changes are
rapid shaking of the earth due
to the released energy of External (climatically-driven) forces/
rocks. Exogenic Forces
➔​ It is a natural phenomenon.
★​ The forces that derive their
strength from the earth’s
exterior or originate within the
earth’s atmosphere are called
exogenic forces or external
forces.
★​ The exogenic processes derive
their energy from the
Sudden Forces (Volcanoes) atmosphere determined by the
➔​ Volcanism is also called ultimate energy from the sun.
magmatism. ★​ The action of exogenic forces
➔​ Volcano is an example of results in wearing down and
sudden movement that occurs hence they are considered as
due to plate movement land-wearing forces.
➔​ Volcanism is the process where
Exogenic Processes
deep magma erupts onto the
surface or emplaces near the
surface through a volcanic
conduit, thereby forming
various types of volcanic
debris
➔​ The erupted materials can
contain:
1.​ Cinder- dark colored pieces
2.​ Pumice- bubbly, frothy hard
rocks
3.​ Ash-grained particles
Lesson 1: Landform Forming Processes
Exogenic Processes or Denudation Weathering
➔​ Weathering, mass wasting,
erosion, and deposition are ★​ Weathering is the action of
the main exogenic processes. elements of weather and
➔​ All the exogenic processes are climate over the earth's
covered under a general term: material.
denudation, which means strip ★​ It can be defined as mechanical
off or uncover. disintegration and chemical
➔​ The elements of nature decomposition of rocks through
capable of doing these the actions of various elements
exogenic processes are termed of weather and climate.
geomorphic agents (or ★​ When rocks undergo
exogenic geomorphic agents). weathering, some minerals are
Example: the wind, water, removed through chemical/
waves, ice, etc. physical leaching by
➔​ The exogenic forces derive groundwater and thereby the
their energy from the concentration of remaining
atmosphere determined by the (valuable) minerals increases.
ultimate energy from the sun ★​ Weathering can be classified as
and also the gradient created – physical, chemical, and
by tectonic factors. biological
➔​ The gravitational force acts
upon all earth materials having Physical / Mechanical weathering
sloping surfaces and tends to ➔​ Physical or mechanical
produce movement of matter weathering processes depend
in the down-slope direction on some applied forces.
➔​ This creates stress and ➔​ The applied forces could be
induces deformation to the (i) gravitational forces such as
particles. overburden pressure, load, and
shearing stress;
(ii) expansion force due to
temperature changes, crystal growth,
or animal activity;
(iii) water pressure controlled by
wetting and drying cycles.
Causes: Most of the physical
weathering is caused by thermal
expansion and pressure.
Lesson 1: Landform Forming Processes
Unloading & Expansion

★​ Removal of overlying rock load

because of continued erosion
causes vertical pressure
release.
★​ Thus, the upper layers of the
remaining rock expand to
produce disintegration of rock
masses.
★​ Fractures will develop roughly
parallel to the ground surface.
★​ In areas of curved ground
surfaces, arched fractures
tend to produce massive sheets
or exfoliated slabs.
★​ So, unloading and expansion
create large, smooth rounded
domes called exfoliation domes.

Temperature Changes & Expansion

★​ With rising in temperature,

every mineral expands and
pushes against its neighbor and
as the temperature falls, a
corresponding contraction
takes place.
★​ Due to differential heating and
the resulting expansion and
Lesson 1: Landform Forming Processes
contraction of surface layers rock breaks apart.
and their subsequent
exfoliation from the surface
results in smooth rounded
surfaces in rocks.
★​ In rock-like granites, smooth
surfaced and rounded small to
big boulders called tors form
due to such exfoliation.

Salt Weathering

★​ Salts in rocks expand due to

thermal action, hydration, and
crystallization.
★​ Many salts like calcium, sodium,
magnesium, potassium, and
barium have a tendency to
expand.
Freezing, Thawing And Frost Wedging ★​ The expansion depends on
temperature and their thermal
★​ Cycles of freezing and thawing properties.
(the weather becomes warmer ★​ High temperature ranges
and causes snow and ice to between 30-50°C of surface
melt) cause frost weathering. temperatures in desert favors
★​ It is most effective at high such salt expansions.
elevations in mid-latitude where ★​ Salt crystallization is the most
freezing and melting are often effective of all salt weathering
repeated. processes.
★​ Rapid freezing of water causes ★​ It is favored in areas of
its sudden expansion and high alternative wetting and drying
pressure. conditions.
★​ The resulting expansion affects
joints, cracks, and small
intergranular fractures to
become wider and wider till the
Lesson 1: Landform Forming Processes
Solution
➔​ When something is dissolved in
water or acids, the water or
acid with dissolved content is
called a solution.
➔​ This process involves the
removal of solids in solution
and depends upon the
solubility of a mineral in water
or weak acids.
➔​ When coming into contact with
water, many solids
disintegrate and mix up as a
suspension in water.
➔​ Soluble rock-forming minerals
Chemical weathering like nitrates, sulfates,
potassium, etc are affected by
➔​ Chemical weathering involves
this process.
the complex processes that
➔​ This kind of weathering mainly
break down rock components
occurs in humid regions.
and internal structures of
minerals. Carbonation
➔​ Such processes convert the ➔​ Carbonation is the reaction of
constituents to new minerals carbonate and bicarbonate
or release them to the with minerals and is a common
surrounding environment. process helping to break down
➔​ During this transformation, feldspar and carbonate
the original rock decomposes minerals.
into substances that are ➔​ Carbon dioxide from the
stable in the surface atmosphere and soil air is
environment. absorbed by water to form
➔​ Consequently, the products of carbonic acid that acts as a
chemical weathering will weak acid.
remain essentially unchanged ➔​ Calcium carbonates and
as long as they remain in an magnesium carbonates are
environment similar to the one dissolved in carbonic acid and
in which they formed. are removed in a solution
without leaving any residue
resulting in cave formation.
Lesson 1: Landform Forming Processes
the disturbance caused by the
addition of oxygen.
➔​ When oxidized minerals are
placed in an environment where
oxygen is absent, reduction
takes place.

Hydration
➔​ Hydration is the chemical
addition of water.
➔​ Minerals take up water and
expand; this expansion causes
Biological Weathering
an increase in the volume of
➔​ This kind of weathering is
the material itself or rock.
caused by several biological
➔​ The process is reversible and
activities like growth or
long, continued repetition of
movements of organisms.
this process causes fatigue in
➔​ They also bring conditions for
the rocks and may lead to
physical or chemical
their disintegration.
weathering.
➔​ Example calcium sulphate
➔​ Grazing of animals, plowing by
takes in water and turns to
human beings, etc are
gypsum, which is more unstable
examples of biological
than calcium sulphate.
weathering

Oxidation And Reduction

➔​ In weathering, oxidation
means a combination of a
mineral with oxygen to form
oxides or hydroxides.
➔​ Minerals most commonly
involved in this are iron,
manganese, sulfur, etc.
➔​ The red color of the iron upon
oxidation turns brown and
yellow.
➔​ In this process of oxidation,
rock breakdown occurs due to
Lesson 1: Landform Forming Processes
Slow movements: Creep
➔​ It occurs on moderately steep,
soil-covered slopes (doesn’t
need to be lubricated with
water as in solifluction).
➔​ The movement is extremely
slow and imperceptible except
through extended observation.
➔​ We might notice that some of
the electric posts in our region
which are posted in sloppy
areas deviated from their
horizontal linearity.
➔​ This is an effect of creep.

Freezing, Thawing And Frost Wedging

Slow movements: Solifluction
★​ These movements transfer the ➔​ It is the process of slow
mass of rock debris down the downslope flowing of soil mass
slope under the direct influence or fine-grained rock debris
of gravity. saturated or lubricated with
★​ Mass movements are very water.
active over weathered slopes ➔​ It can be said that a type of
rather than over unweathered creep with lubricated water
slopes. influences the movement.
★​ Usual geographic agents like ➔​ It mainly occurs in permafrost
running water, glaciers, wind, regions as the layers of
waves, etc do not have much groundwater are occupied in
role to play in mass movements, between permanently frozen
and it is gravity, that is the soil and rocks.
main driving force.
★​ Mass movements are classified Rapid Movements
into slow movements and rapid 1.​ EARTHFLOW
movements. ➔​ Movement of water-saturated
clayey or silty earth materials
down low-angle terraces or
hillsides is called earthflow
Lesson 1: Landform Forming Processes
2.​ MUDFLOW
➔​ In the absence of vegetation
and cover and with heavy
rainfall, thick layers of
weathered materials get
saturated with water and
either slow or rapidly flow
down along definite channels is
called mudflow.

3.​ DEBRIS AVALANCHE

➔​ It is more common in humid
Erosion and Deposition
regions with or without
vegetation. ➔​ Erosion is the acquisition and
➔​ It occurs in narrow tracks on transportation of rock debris
steep slopes and is similar to by geomorphic agents like
snow avalanches. running water, the wind, waves,
etc.
4.​ LANDSLIDES ➔​ Though weathering aids
➔​ In landslides, the materials erosion, it is not a
involved are relatively dry. pre-condition for erosion to
➔​ Landslides can be classified take place. (i.e., erosion can
into a slump, debris slide, rock take place in unweathered
slide, etc conditions also)
➔​ Deposition is a consequence of
★​ Slump: It is a type of landslide erosion.
in which slipping of several ➔​ The erosional agents lose their
units of rock debris occurs velocity and energy on gentle
with a backward rotation with slopes and materials carried by
respect to the slope over them start to settle
which the movement takes themselves.
place. ➔​ Note: Deposition is not the
★​ Debris slide: In this type of work of any agents. It is the
landslide, there is no backward end result of erosion.
rotation. The fall is almost
vertical.
★​ Rock slide: It is the slide of
individual rock masses.