Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance

1.1 Coulombs force a conservative force

• an external force does work in taking a body from a point to another against a force like
spring force or gravitational force, that work gets stored as potential energy of the body.

• When the external force is removed, the body moves, gaining kinetic energy and losing an
equal amount of potential energy.

• The sum of kinetic and potential energies is thus conserved

• Forces of this kind are called conservative forces

• Coulomb force between two (stationary) charges is also a conservative force

1.2 INDEPENDENCE OF LINE INTEGRAL OF ELECTRIC FIELD ON THE NATURE OF PATH

BETWEEN TWO POINTS
The electric field possesses one basic property that the line integral of electric field between two
points is independent of the path followed between the two points.
This property of electric field leads to the concept of electric potential, an electrical parameter of great
importance.
Consider a point charge + 𝑞 located at the origin O of the co-ordinate frame OXYZ
The electric field due to the point charge will be directed along the dotted arrows i.e. radially
outwards from the point charge + 𝑞.
Suppose that AB is any path (straight or curved) between two points A and B in the electric field of
the point charge + q, such that 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑟𝐴 and 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑟𝐵 .
Suppose that P is any point on the path AB and 𝐸⃗ is electric field due to the point charge + 𝑞 at this
⃗⃗⃗ be
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑑𝑙
point. Suppose that distance of point P from the point charge + 𝑞 is 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑟. Let 𝑃𝑄
infinitesimally small displacement along the path AB
𝐸⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 =work done by the electric field 𝐸⃗ in moving a unit positive charge from point P to Q i.e.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (= dl)
""through 𝑃𝑄
𝐵
∫𝐴 𝐸⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = work done by the electric field 𝐸⃗ in moving a unit positive charge from the point A to B
𝐵
∫𝐴 𝐸⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 is called the line integral of the electric field 𝐸⃗ between the points A and B.
From Figure
𝐸⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃 = 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑟
𝐵
⃗⃗⃗ =work done by the electric field E in moving a unit A positive charge from the point
Hence, ∫𝐴 𝐸⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙
A to B
𝐵
Here,, ∫𝐴 𝐸⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 =is called the line integral of the electric field E between the points A and B.
The electric field at point P due to point charge + q located at the point Ois given by
1 𝑞
𝐸⃗ = ⋅ 2 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Where 𝑟̂ s unit vector along the line OP. If 𝜃 is angle between the directions of 𝐸⃗ and 𝑑𝑙 , then
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝐸⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ⋅ 𝑟̂ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ⋅ (1)𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
1 𝑞
𝐸⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ⋅ 2 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
From the point Q, drop QN perpendicular to OP. Then, from the right angled ∆𝑃𝑁𝑄, we have
𝑃𝑁 = 𝑃𝑄 cos 𝜃 = 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃
Further, as PN (the projection of 𝑑𝑙 along the line OP) is in the direction of increasing 𝑟, the distance
PN is taken as + 𝑑𝑟.
Therefore, 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃 = 𝑑𝑟, we have
1 𝑞
⃗⃗⃗ =
𝐸⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 ⋅ 2 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝐵 𝐵 1 𝑞 1 𝐵 1
Hence ∫𝐴 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = ∫𝐴 ⋅ 2 𝑑𝑟 = ⋅ 𝑞 ∫𝐴 2 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝜀 0𝑟 4𝜋𝜀 0𝑟

The values of r corresponding to points A and B are 𝑟𝐴 and 𝑟𝐵 respectively.

𝐵 𝑟𝐵 𝑟
1 1 1 𝑟 −1 𝐵 1 1 1
∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = ⋅𝑞∫ 2
𝑑𝑟 = ⋅ 𝑞 | | = ⋅𝑞( − )
𝐴 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐴 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 −1 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵
𝐴

The equation (4.03) gives the value of line integral of the electric field between two points A and B
along the path AB shown in Fig. It follows that the expression depends only on the distances of the
end points A and B (i.e. 𝑟𝐴 and 𝑟𝐵 ) and not upon the path AB. Hence, the line integral of the electric
field between two points is same for all the paths between the two points i.e. it is independent of the
path followed between the two points.
𝐵 𝐴
∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 0
𝐴 𝐵
line integral of the electric field along the closed path may be expressed as

⃗⃗⃗ = 0
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙

the line integral of an electric field along a closed path in an electric field is always zero.

1.3 Coulombs force a conservative force

• consider the field E due to a charge Q placed at the origin.

• we bring a test charge q from a point R to a point P against the repulsive force on it due to the
charge Q.

• we assume that the test charge q is so small that it does not disturb the charge Q at the
origin

• In bringing the charge q from R to P, we apply an external force 𝑭𝒆𝒙𝒕 just enough to
⃗ 𝒆𝒙𝒕 = – 𝑭
counter the repulsive electric force 𝑭𝑬 (i.e, 𝑭 ⃗ 𝑬 ).

• there is no net force on or acceleration of the charge q when it is brought from R to P, i.e., it is
brought with infinitesimally slow constant speed

• work done by the external force is the negative of the work done by the electric force, and
gets fully stored in the form of potential energy of the charge q.

• If the external force is removed on reaching P, the electric force will take the charge away
from Q – the stored energy (potential energy) at P is used to provide kinetic energy to the
charge q in such a way that the sum of the kinetic and potential energies is conserved

• work done by external forces in moving a charge q from R to P

𝑝

𝑊𝑅𝑝 = ∫ 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 ⋅ 𝑑𝑟
𝑅

𝑊𝑅𝑝 = − ∫ 𝐹𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑟 (∵ 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝐹𝐸 )
𝑅

• At every point in electric field, a particle with charge q possesses a certain electrostatic
potential energy, this work done increases its potential energy by an amount equal to
potential energy difference between points R and P.
potential energy difference ∆𝑈 = 𝑈𝑃 − 𝑈𝑅 = 𝑊𝑅𝑃

1.4 ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL

• Let us consider the electrostatic field due to a source charge +Q placed at the origin O. Let a
small charge + 𝑞0 be brought from point A to point B at respective distances 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 from
O, against the repulsive forces on it.
 • Work done against the electrostatic force ⃗𝑭𝑬 , in displacing the charge 𝒒𝟎 through a
⃗ appears as an increase in the potential energy of the system.
small displacement 𝒅𝒓

∆𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = −∆𝑊𝑒𝑙 = ∆𝑈

𝑑𝑈 = 𝐹𝐸 . 𝑑𝑟 = 𝐹𝐸 . 𝑑𝑟 cos 𝜃

But 𝜃 is 180° so 𝑑𝑈 = 𝐹𝐸 . 𝑑𝑟 = 𝐹𝐸 . 𝑑𝑟 cos 𝜃 = −𝐹𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑟

• ⃗ 𝑬.
⃗ is against the electrostatic force 𝑭
Negative sign appears because the displacement 𝒅𝒓

• Force is varying as we come from infinity to the point so we do integration

• For a system of two point charge

𝑟2
𝑟 1 𝑄𝑞0
• ∆𝑈 = ∫𝑟 2 𝑑𝑈= ∫ − (4𝜋𝜀 ) 𝑟2
𝑑𝑟
1 0
𝑟1

1 1 𝑟2
• ∆𝑈 = 𝑈(𝑟2 ) − 𝑈(𝑟1 ) = − ( ) 𝑄𝑞0 (− )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑟1

1 1 1 𝑟2
• ∆𝑈 = (4𝜋𝜀 ) 𝑄𝑞0 (𝑟 − 𝑟 )
0 2 1 𝑟1

• The change in the potential energy depends only upon the end points and is independent of
the actual path taken by the charge

1 1 1
• 𝑊𝐴𝐵 = ∆𝑈 = 𝑈(𝑟2 ) − 𝑈(𝑟1 ) = (4𝜋𝜀 ) 𝑄𝑞0 [𝑟 − 𝑟 ]
0 2 1

• It is convenient to choose infinity to be the point of zero potential energy as the

electrostatic force is zero at 𝒓 = ∞
• Thus, the potential energy U of the system of two point 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑞1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2 separated by r
can be obtained from the above equation by using 𝑟1 = ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟2 = 𝑟. It is then given by
1 1 1
• 𝑊𝐴𝐵 = ∆𝑈 = 𝑈(𝑟2 ) − 𝑈(𝑟1 ) = ( ) 𝑄𝑞0 [ − ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 ∞
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
• 𝑈(𝑟) = (4𝜋𝜀 ) 𝑟
𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑
0

• 𝑞1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2 are taken with charge polarity i.e. negative or positive

• The above equation is derived by assuming that one of the charges is fixed and the other is
displaced.
• However, the potential energy depends essentially on the separation between the charges
and is independent of the spatial location of the charged particles.
• Two important comments may be made
 1. 𝑼𝑷 − 𝑼𝑹 = 𝑾𝑹𝑷 depends only on the initial and final positions of the charge and is
independent of the path taken to go from one point to the other. This is the fundamental
characteristic of a conservative force
2. ∆𝑼 = 𝑼𝑷 − 𝑼𝑹 = 𝑾𝑹𝑷 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 potential energy difference in terms of the physically
meaningful quantity work. this means is that the actual value of potential energy is not
physically significant; it is only the difference of potential energy that is significant. An
arbitrary constant α to potential energy at every point, since this will not change the potential
energy
3. Potential energy of charge q at a point (in the presence of field due to any charge
configuration) is the work done by the external force (equal and opposite to the electric
force) in bringing the charge q from infinity to that point.

1.5 WORK DONE TO MOVE A CHARGE IN AN ELECTROSTATIC FIELD

• Let us consider an arbitrary electric field due to any charged object. If we move a test charge
+q from position 1 to position 2 (see figure) in this electrostatic field, at each position of the
test charge, it will experience an electrostatic force 𝐹𝑒𝑙 = 𝑞𝐸⃗ .

• To move the test charge slowly, we must pull it against the electric force (field) with a force
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = −𝑞𝐸⃗ , opposite to the electric field 𝐸⃗ .
The work done by the external agent in shifting the test charge along the dashed line from 1 to 2 is
2 2 2
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = ∫ 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝑙 = ∫ (−𝑞𝐸) ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = −𝑞 ∫ 𝐸⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙
1 1 1
2
= −𝑞 ∫ (𝐸𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑘̂ )(𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂ )
1
2 2 2
= −𝑞 (∫ 𝐸𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝐸𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + ∫ 𝐸𝑧 𝑑𝑧)
1 1 1

1.6 Units of potential energy

• SI unit= joule (J)

• “One joule is the energy stored in moving a charge of 1C through a potential difference of 1
volt.
 • Another convenient unit of energy is electron volt (eV), which is the change in the kinetic
energy of an electron while crossing two points maintained at a potential difference of 1 volt.”

• 1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒

• Other related units are:

• 1 𝑚𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 × 10−22 𝐽

• 1 𝑘𝑒𝑣 = 1.6 × 10−16 𝐽

1.7 Electric Potential

• We can see that 𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 will be different for different values of the test charge. This means that
even though you perform the same work in bringing a test charge from infinity to any point P
following different paths, you will have to do different works in bringing different test
charges.

• However, if we take the ratio 𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 /𝑞, that is, work done per unit test charge, we will get a
constant quantity, which can be defined as "potential at the point P" denoted by V.

• It is a constant quantity for a given point. Hence, it is a point function (like electric field) that
may vary with positions. The "potential V" characterizes an electric field as a scalar function
in addition to "field strength E" as a vector function. Hence, potential field is a scalar field.

• The potential at any point P is given by

𝑃
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 (∞ → 𝑃)
𝑉= = − ∫ 𝐸⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙
𝑞 ∞

• which is equal to the external work done per unit positive charge in shifting slowly from
infinity to this point.

• The potential at any observation point P of a static electric field is defined as the work done
by the external agent (or negative of work done by the electrostatic field) in slowly bringing a
unit positive point charge from infinity to the observation point.
 • The potential at a point is more if the external agent does more work to shift the charge from
infinity to the given point and vice versa. In this way, we define potential as the external
work done by unit charge or roughly potential energy per unit charge.

• The electric potential at any point in the region of electric field is defined as the amount of
work done in bringing a unit positive test charge from infinity to that point along any
arbitrary path. It is a scalar quantity and is denoted by V

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝑊) 𝑈

• 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝑉) = =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑞0 𝑞

• According to the nature of charge, electric potential can be positive (due to positive charge),
negative (due to negative charge) or zero.

• Unit and dimensional formula of electric potential

1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
• Its SI unit is volt (𝑉) and 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 and

1
• CGS unit is 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 (𝑒𝑠𝑢), where 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
300

• Its dimensional formula is [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3 𝐴−1 ].

1.8 Electric Potential due to Point charge

• Consider a point charge Q placed at a point A

• We have to find the electric potential at a point P where AP = r.

• Let us take the reference point at r = ∞. Suppose, a test charge 𝑞0 is moved from r = ∞ to the
point P. The change in electric potential energy of the system is,
from equation

1 𝑄𝑞0
𝑈𝑃 − 𝑈∞ = ( )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

The potential at P is, from equation

𝑈𝑃 − 𝑈∞ 1 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = =( )
𝑞0 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

A positively charged particle produces a positive electric potential. A negatively charged particle
produces a negative electric potential
 1
𝑉∝
𝑟

1.9 Electric Potential due to system of charges

• Let there be a number of point charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 , … , 𝑞𝑛 at distances
𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 , … , 𝑟𝑛 respectively from the point P, where electric potential is to be calculated
energy of the system is, from equation

• Potential at P due to charge 𝑞1

1 𝑞1
𝑉1 = ( )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑃1

Similarly

1 𝑞 1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝑉2 = ( ) 2, 𝑉3 = ( ) 3 …….. 𝑉𝑛 =( ) 𝑛
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑃2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑃3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑃𝑛

Using superposition principle, we obtain resultant potential at P due to total charge configuration as
the algebraic sum of the potentials due to individual charges

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ … … + 𝑉𝑛

1 q1 q 2 qn
𝑉= ( + + ⋯…..+ )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑃1 𝑟𝑃2 𝑟𝑃𝑛

𝒏 𝒏
𝟏 𝒒𝒊 𝟏 𝒒𝒊
𝑽= ∑ = ∑
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝑷𝒊 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 |𝒓𝑷 − 𝒓𝒊 |
𝒊=𝟏 𝒊=𝟏

The net potential at a point due to multiple charges is equal to the algebraic sum of the
potentials due to individual charges at that particular point. Mathematically, it is expressed as

𝑉𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∑ 𝑉𝑖
𝑖=1