This is often due to either problems not being recognised or being recognised but not being dealt with

appropriately.
Solving a problem involves a certain amount of risk - this risk needs to be weighed up against not solving the
problem.

The measure of success is not whether you have a tough problem to deal with, but whether it is the same problem you had
last year.

John Foster Dulles, Former US Secretary of State.

Our problem solving pages provide a simple and structured approach to problem solving.

The approach referred to is generally designed for problem solving in an organisation or group context, but can also
be easily adapted to work at an individual level. Trying to solve a complex problem alone however can be a mistake,
the old adage: "A problem shared is a problem halved" is sound advice. Talking to others about problems is not only
therapeutic but can help you see things from a different point of view, opening up more potential solutions.

What is a Problem?
समस्या क्या है
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (1995) defines a problem as:

“A doubtful or difficult matter requiring a solution”

"एक समाधान की आवश्यकता वाली एक संदिग्ध या मुश्किल बात"

and

“Something hard to understand or accomplish or deal with.”

"कुछ समझना या पूरा करना या उसके साथ काम करना कठिन है

All problems have two features in common: goals and barriers.

सभी समस्याओं में दो विशेषताएं समान हैं: लक्ष्यों और बाधाएं

Goals

Problems involve setting out to achieve some objective or desired state of affairs and can include avoiding a situation
or event.

समस्याएं कुछ उद्देश्यों या वांछित मामलों को प्राप्त करने के लिए स्थापित करना शामिल हैं और
इसमें स्थिति या घटना से बचने शामिल हो सकते हैं।

Goals can be anything that you wish to achieve, where you want to be. If you are hungry then your goal is probably to eat
something, if you are a head of an organisation (CEO) then your main goal may be to maximise profits. In the example of
the CEO the main goal may need to be split into numerous sub-goals in order to fulfil the ultimate goal of increasing profits.

Barriers

If there were no barriers in the way of achieving a goal, then there would be no problem. Problem solving involves
overcoming the barriers or obstacles that prevent the immediate achievement of goals.

यदि लक्ष्य प्राप्त करने के रास्ते में कोई अवरोध नहीं थे, तो कोई समस्या नहीं होगी। समस्या को
सुलझाने में बाधाओं या बाधाओं का सामना करना पड़ता है जो लक्ष्यों की तत्काल उपलब्धि को रोकते
हैं।

Following our examples above, if you feel hungry then your goal is to eat. A barrier to this may be that you have no food
available - you take a trip to the supermarket and buy some food, removing the barrier and thus solving the problem. Of
course for the CEO wanting to increase profits there may be many more barriers preventing the goal from being reached.
The CEO needs to attempt to recognise these barriers and remove them or find other ways to achieve the goals of the
organisation.

Stages of Problem Solving समस्या हल करने के चरण

Effective problem solving usually involves working through a number of steps or stages, such as those outlined
below. For more detail continue to Stages of Problem Solving.

प्रभावी समस्या को हल करने में आमतौर पर कई चरणों या चरणों के माध्यम से काम करना शामिल होता
है, जैसे नीचे दिए गए रेखांकन। अधिक विस्तार के लिए समस्या सुलझाने के चरणों को जारी रखें।

Problem Identification: समस्या की पहचान:

This stage involves: detecting and recognising that there is a problem; identifying the nature of the problem;
defining the problem.

इस चरण में शामिल है: पहचानना और पहचानना कि कोई समस्या है; समस्या की प्रकृति की पहचान; समस्या
को परिभाषित करना

The first phase of problem solving may sound obvious but often requires more thought and analysis. Identifying a problem
can be a difficult task in itself, is there a problem at all? What is the nature of the problem, are there in fact numerous
problems? How can the problem be best defined? - by spending some time defining the problem you will not only
understand it more clearly yourself but be able to communicate its nature to others, this leads to the second phase.

Structuring the Problem: समस्या का ढांचा:

This stage involves: a period of observation, careful inspection, fact-finding and developing a clear picture of the
problem.

इस चरण में शामिल है: अवलोकन की अवधि, सावधानीपूर्वक निरीक्षण, तथ्य-ढूँढना और समस्या का स्पष्ट
चित्र विकसित करना.

Following on from problem identification, structuring the problem is all about gaining more information about the problem
and increasing understanding. This phase is all about fact finding and analysis, building a more comprehensive picture of
both the goal(s) and the barrier(s). This stage may not be necessary for very simple problems but is essential for problems of
a more complex nature.

Looking for Possible Solutions: संभव समाधान की खोज:

During this stage you will generate a range of possible courses of action, but with little attempt to evaluate them at
this stage.

इस चरण के दौरान आप कार्रवाई के संभावित पाठ्यक्रमों की एक श्रृंखला तैयार करेंगे, लेकिन इस

स्तर पर उन्हें मूल्यांकन करने के लिए बहुत कम प्रयास करेंगे।

From the information gathered in the first two phases of the problem solving framework it is now time to start thinking
about possible solutions to the identified problem. In a group situation this stage is often carried out as a brain-storming
session, letting each person in the group express their views on possible solutions (or part solutions). In organisations
different people will have different expertise in different areas and it is useful, therefore, to hear the views of each
concerned party.

Making a Decision: फ़ैसला करना:

This stage involves careful analysis of the different possible courses of action and then selecting the best solution for
implementation.

इस चरण में कार्रवाई के विभिन्न संभावित पाठ्यक्रमों के सावधानीपूर्वक विश्लेषण शामिल है और

फिर कार्यान्वयन के लिए सबसे अच्छा समाधान चुनना शामिल है।

This is perhaps the most complex part of the problem solving process. Following on from the previous step it is now time to
look at each potential solution and carefully analyse it. Some solutions may not be possible, due to other problems, like time
constraints or budgets. It is important at this stage to also consider what might happen if nothing was done to solve the
problem - sometimes trying to solve a problem that leads to many more problems requires some very creative thinking and
innovative ideas.

Finally, make a decision on which course of action to take - decision making is an important skill in itself and we
recommend that you see our pages on decision making.

Implementation: कार्यान्वयन:

This stage involves accepting and carrying out the chosen course of action.

इस चरण में कार्रवाई की चुने गए पाठ्यक्रम को स्वीकार और लेना शामिल है।

Implementation means acting on the chosen solution. During implementation more problems may arise especially if
identification or structuring of the original problem was not carried out fully.

Monitoring/Seeking Feedback: मॉनिटरिंग / अभिप्राय/ प्रतिपुष्टि की मांग:

The last stage is about reviewing the outcomes of problem solving over a period of time, including seeking feedback
as to the success of the outcomes of the chosen solution.

अंतिम चरण, समय की अवधि में समस्या को सुलझाने के परिणामों की समीक्षा करने के बारे में है,
जिसमें चयनित समाधान के परिणामों की सफलता के रूप में प्रतिक्रिया की मांग शामिल है।

The final stage of problem solving is concerned with checking that the process was successful. This can be achieved by
monitoring and gaining feedback from people affected by any changes that occurred. It is good practice to keep a record of
outcomes and any additional problems that occurred.

Stage One: Identifying the Problem

Before being able to confront a problem its existence needs to be identified. This might seem an obvious statement
but, quite often, problems will have an impact for some time before they are recognised or brought to the attention
of someone who can do anything about them.

In many organisations it is possible to set up formal systems of communication so that problems are reported early on, but
inevitably these systems do not always work. Once a problem has been identified, its exact nature needs to be determined:
what are the goal and barrier components of the problem? Some of the main elements of the problem can be outlined, and
a first attempt at defining the problem should be made. This definition should be clear enough for you to be able to easily
explain the nature of the problem to others.

GOAL (I want to...) BARRIER (but…)

Tell a friend that we find something they do
I don't want to hurt their feelings.
irritating.
I'm not sure which model to get or how much money is
Buy a new computer.
reasonable to spend.
Set up a new business. I don't know where to start.
Looking at the problem in terms of goals and barriers can offer an effective way of defining many problems and
splitting bigger problems into more manageable sub-problems.

Sometimes it will become apparent that what seems to be a single problem, is more accurately a series of sub-problems.
For example, in the problem:

“I have been offered a job that I want, but I don't have the transport to get there and I don't have enough money to
buy a car.”

“I want to take a job” (main problem)

“But I don't have transport to get there” (sub-problem 1)
“And I don't have enough money to buy a car” (sub-problem 2)
Useful ways of describing more complex problems are shown in the section, 'Structuring the Problem', below.

During this first stage of problem solving, it is important to get an initial working definition of the problem. Although it
may need to be adapted at a later stage, a good working definition makes it possible to describe the problem to others who
may become involved in the problem solving process. For example:

Problem Working Definition

“I want to take a job, but I don’t have
the transport to get there and I don’t “I want to take this job.”
have enough money to buy a car.”

Stage Two: Structuring the Problem

The second stage of the problem solving process involves gaining a deeper understanding of the problem. Firstly,
facts need to be checked.

Problem Checking Facts

“Do I really want a job?”
“I want to take a job, but I don’t have the transport to get there
“Do I really have no access to transport?”
and I don’t have enough money to buy a car.”
“Can I really not afford to buy a car?”

The questions have to be asked, is the stated goal the real goal? Are the barriers actual barriers and what other
barriers are there? In this example, the problem at first seems to be:

Goal Barrier 1 Barrier 2

Take the job No transport No money

This is also a good opportunity to look at the relationships between the key elements of the problem. For example, in the
'Job-Transport-Money' problem, there are strong connections between all the elements.

By looking at all the relationships between the key elements, it appears that the problem is more about how to achieve any
one of three things, i.e. job, transport or money, because solving one of these sub-problems will, in turn, solve the others.

This example shows how useful it is to have a representation of a problem.

Problems can be represented in the following ways:

  Visually: using pictures, models or diagrams.
 Verbally: describing the problem in words.
Visual and verbal representations include:

 Chain diagrams
 Flow charts
 Tree diagrams
 Lists

Chain Diagrams
Chain diagrams are powerful and simple ways of representing problems using a combination of diagrams and
words. The elements of the problem are set out in words, usually placed in boxes, and positioned in different places on a
sheet of paper, using lines to represent the relationship between them.

Chain Diagrams are the simplest type, where all the elements are presented in an ordered list, each element being connected
only with the elements immediately before and after it. Chain diagrams usually represent a sequence of events needed for a
solution. A simple example of a chain diagram illustrates the job-transport-money example as as follows:

GET MONEY GET TRANSPORT TAKE JOB

Flow Charts
Flow charts allow for inclusion of branches, folds, loops, decision points and many other relationships between the
elements. In practice, flow charts can be quite complicated and there are many conventions as to how they are drawn but,
generally, simple diagrams are easier to understand and aid in 'seeing' the problem more readily.

Tree Diagrams
Tree diagrams and their close relative, the Decision Tree, are ways of representing situations where there are a number of
choices or different possible events to be considered. These types of diagram are particularly useful for considering all the
possible consequences of solutions.

Remember that the aim of a visualisation is to make the problem clearer. Over-complicated diagrams will just
confuse and make the problem harder to understand.

Listing
Listing the elements of a problem can also help to represent priorities, order and sequences in the problem. Goals
can be listed in order of importance and barriers in order of difficulty. Separate lists could be made of related goals or
barriers. The barriers could be listed in the order in which they need to be solved, or elements of the problem classified in a
number of different ways. There are many possibilities, but the aim is to provide a clearer picture of the problem.
Problem
‘I want to take a job, but I don’t have the transport to get there and I don’t have enough money to buy a car.’
Order in which barriers need to be solved
1. Get money
2. Get car
3. Get job

A visual representation and a working definition together makes it far easier to describe a problem to others. Many
problems will be far more complex than the example used here.

Stage Three: Possible Solutions

Brainstorming

Brainstorming is perhaps one of the most commonly used techniques for generating a large number of ideas in a
short period of time. Whilst it can be done individually, it is more often practised in groups.

Before a brainstorming session begins, the leader or facilitator encourages everyone to contribute as many ideas as possible,
no matter how irrelevant or absurd they may seem.

There should be lots of large sheets of paper, Post-It notes and/or flip charts available, so that any ideas generated can be
written down in such a way that everyone present can see them.

The Rules of Brainstorming

The facilitator should explain the purpose of the brainstorming session (outline the problem/s), and emphasise the four
rules of brainstorming that must be adhered to:

1. Absolutely no criticism of suggestion or person is allowed. Positive feedback for all ideas should be encouraged.
2. The aim is to produce as many ideas as possible.
3. The aim is to generate a sense of creative momentum. There should be a feeling of excitement in the group with
ideas being produced at a rapid pace. All ideas should be encouraged, regardless of how irrelevant, 'stupid' or 'off
the mark' they might seem.
4. Ideas should cross-fertilise each other, in other words everyone should continually look at the suggestions of the
rest of the group and see if these spark any new ideas. Each person is then feeding off the ideas of the others.

Warming-up exercises encourage participants to get in the right frame of mind for creative thinking. The exercises should
be fun and exciting, with the facilitator encouraging everyone to think up wild and creative ideas in rapid succession.
Possible topics could be: 'What would you wish to have with you if you were stranded on a desert island?' or 'Design a
better mousetrap!'

It is better if the warm-up problems are somewhat absurd as this will encourage the uncritical, free-flowing creativity
needed to confront the later, real problem. A time limit of ten minutes is useful for the group to come up with as many
ideas as possible, each being written down for all to see. Remember, the aim is to develop an uncritical, creative
momentum in the group.

The definition of the problem arrived at earlier in the problem solving process should be written up, so that everyone is
clearly focused on the problem in hand. Sometimes it may be useful to have more than one definition.

As in the warm-up exercises, a time limit is usually set for the group to generate their ideas, each one being written up
without comment from the facilitator. It helps to keep them in order so the progression of ideas can be seen later. If the
 brainstorming session seems productive, it is as well to let it continue until all possible avenues have been explored.
However setting a time limit may also instil a sense of urgency and may result in a flurry of new ideas a few minutes before
the time runs out.

At the end of the session, time is given to reflect on and to discuss the suggestions, perhaps to clarify some of the ideas and
then consider how to deal with them. Perhaps further brainstorming sessions may be valuable in order to consider some of
the more fruitful ideas.

Divergent and Convergent Thinking

Divergent Thinking:
Divergent thinking is the process of recalling possible solutions from past experience, or inventing new ones. Thoughts
spread out or 'diverge' along a number of paths to a range of possible solutions. It is the process from which many of the
following creative problem solving techniques have been designed.

Convergent thinking:

Convergent thinking is the subsequent process of narrowing down the possibilities to 'converge' on the most
appropriate form of action.

The elements necessary for divergent thinking include:

 Releasing the mind from old patterns of thought and other inhibiting influences.
 Bringing the elements of a problem into new combinations.
 Not rejecting any ideas during the creative, problem solving period.
 Actively practicing, encouraging and rewarding the creation of new ideas.

Techniques of Divergent Thinking:

Often when people get stuck in trying to find a solution to a problem, it is because they are continually trying to approach it
from the same starting point. The same patterns of thinking are continually followed over and over again, with reliance
placed on familiar solutions or strategies.

If problems can be thought of in different ways - a fresh approach - then previous patterns of thought, biases and cycles
may be avoided.

Three techniques of divergent thinking are to:

 Bring in someone else from a different area.

 Question any assumptions being made.
 Use creative problem solving techniques such as 'brainstorming'.

Bring in Someone Else From a Different Area:

While it is obviously helpful to involve people who are more knowledgeable about the issues involved in a problem,
sometimes non-experts can be equally, or more valuable. This is because they do not know what the 'common solutions' are,
and can, therefore, tackle the problem with a more open mind and so help by introducing a fresh perspective.
 Another advantage of having non-experts on the team is that it forces the 'experts' to explain their reasoning in simple
terms. This very act of explanation can often help them to clarify their own thinking and sometimes uncovers
inconsistencies and errors in their thinking.

Another way of gaining a fresh viewpoint, if the problem is not urgent, is to put it aside for a while and then return to it at a
later date and tackle it afresh. It is important not to look at any of your old solutions or ideas during this second look in
order to maintain this freshness of perspective.

Questioning Assumptions:

Sometimes problem solving runs into difficulties because it is based on the wrong assumptions. For example, if a new
sandwich shop is unsuccessful in attracting customers, has it been questioned whether there are sufficient office workers or
shoppers in the local area? Great effort might be spent in attempting to improve the range and quality of the sandwiches,
when questioning this basic assumption might reveal a better, if perhaps unpopular, solution.

Listing assumptions is a good starting point. However, this is not as easy as it first appears for many basic assumptions
might not be clearly understood, or seem so obvious that they are not questioned. Again, someone totally unconnected with
the problem is often able to offer a valuable contribution to this questioning process, acting as 'devil's advocate', i.e.
questioning the most obvious of assumptions.

Such questions could include:

 What has been done in similar circumstances in the past? Why was it done that way? Is it the best/only way?
 What is the motivation for solving the problem? Are there any influences such as prejudices or emotions involved?
Of course, many assumptions that need to be questioned are specific to a particular problem. Following our previous
example:

Problem
‘I want to take a job, but I don’t have the transport to get there and I don’t have enough money to buy a car.’
Order in which barriers need to be solved
"Do I need to drive to work?"
"Do I need money to buy a car?"
"Do I want a job?”

Stage Four: Making a Decision

Once a number of possible solutions have been arrived at, they should be taken forward through the decision
making process.

Decision Making is a an important skill in itself and you may want to read our Decision Making articles for more
information.

For example, information on each suggestion needs to be sought, the risks assessed, each option evaluated through a pros
and cons analysis and, finally, a decision made on the best possible option.

Stage Five: Implementation

Making a decision and taking a decision are two different things.

Implementation Involves:

 Being committed to a solution.

  Accepting responsibility for the decision.
 Identifying who will implement the solution.
 Resolving to carry out the chosen solution.
 Exploring the best possible means of implementing the solution.

Stage Six: Feedback

The only way for an individual or group to improve their problem solving, is to look at how they have solved
problems in the past. To do this, feedback is needed and, therefore, it is important to keep a record of problem
solving, the solutions arrived at and the outcomes. Ways of obtaining feedback include:

 Monitoring
 Questionnaires
 Follow-up phone calls
 Asking others who may have been affected by your decisions.
It is important to encourage people to be honest when seeking feedback, regardless whether it is positive or negative.

Conclusions to Problem Solving

Problem solving involves seeking to achieve goals and overcoming barriers. The stages of problem solving include
identification of the problem, structuring the problem through the use of some forms of representation, and looking
for possible solutions often through techniques of divergent thinking. Once possible solutions have been arrived at,
one of them will be chosen through the decision making process.

The final stages of problem solving involve implementing your solution and seeking feedback as to the outcome,
feedback can be recorded for help with future problem solving scenarios.