AIR FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (AFIT)

AED508: VIBRATION AND AEROELASTICITY LECTURE

NOTES

COURSE DETAILS

Name of Faculty: FACULTY OF AIR ENGINEERING

Name of Department: AEROSPACE ENGINEERING
Course Code: AED508
Course Title: VIBRATION AND AEROELASTICITY
Credit Units: 2
Course Status: CORE
Lecture Venue:
Lecture Time:
Lecture Duration: 2 HRS
Lecturer(s): ASSOC. PROF MU BONET; ENGR UM
ADULLAHI
Technologist(s): NONE

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 COURSE GUIDE

Introduction:
Vibrations are oscillation of a mechanical or structural system about an equilibrium
position. Vibration is governed by the laws of nature. Sometimes they are designed and
sometimes they might not be desired. We can have controlled vibration; guitar, pendulum,
drum, speakers etc., and uncontrolled vibration; Earthquakes.
There are various classifications of vibration. Some of the important classifications are as
follows, free and forced vibration, undamped and damped vibration, linear and nonlinear
vibration.

Course Outline:
Single Degree of Freedom System
Introduction to simple harmonic motion, D’Alembert’s principle, free vibrations – damped
vibrations – forced vibrations, with and without damping – support excitation –
transmissibility – vibration measuring instruments.
Multi Degrees of Freedom System
Two degrees of freedom systems - static and dynamic couplings - vibration absorber-
principal coordinates- principal modes and orthogonal conditions - Eigen value problems
– Hamilton’s principle - Lagrangean equations and application.
Continuous System
Vibration of elastic bodies - vibration of strings – longitudinal, lateral and torsional
vibrations.
Approximate Methods
Approximate methods – Rayleigh’s method – Dunkerlay’s method – Rayleigh-Ritz
method, matrix iteration method.
Element of Aeroelasticity
Vibration due to coupling of bending and torsion - aero elastic problems - collars triangle
– wing divergence - aileron control reversal – flutter – buffeting. – Elements of servo
elasticity

Course Objectives:
This course aims to help students understand fundamental vibration theory and its
impact on system performance and safety. It covers Single-Degree-of-Freedom (1-
DOF) and Multi-Degree-of-Freedom (multi-DOF) systems, responses to Harmonic
Forces, Approximate methods and Aeroelasticity principles.

Learning Outcome:
At the end of this course, student should be able to
• Indicate the importance of study of vibration and the various classification of it.
• State the steps involved in vibration analysis.
• Compute the values of spring constants, masses, and damping constants.

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 • Define harmonic motion and different possible representations of harmonic
motion.
• Derive the equation of motion of a single-degree-of-freedom system using a
suitable technique such as Newton s second law of motion, D Alembert s
principle, the principle of virtual displacements, and the principle of conservation
of energy.
• Linearize the nonlinear equation of motion.
• Solve a spring-mass-damper system for different types of free-vibration response
depending on the amount of damping.
• Compute the natural frequency, damped frequency, logarithmic decrement, and
time constant.
• Determine whether a given system is stable or not.
• Find the free-vibration response using MATLAB.

Assessment Structure:
1. Assignment (To be solved using MATLAB) (10%): To be issued in the 3rd week of
lectures and to be submitted on the 7th week (on CA day)
2. Continuous assessment (20%): 7th week of lectures
3. Exams (70%)

Textbook:
• Singiresu S. Rao and Fook Fah Yap, “Mechanical Vibrations”, Prentice Hall

Reference Books/Materials:
• Mahesh Chandra Luintel, “Textbook of Mechanical Vibrations” Springer
• Dewey H. Hodges and G. Alvin Pierce, “Introduction to Structural Dynamics and
Aeroelasticity.”, Cambridge University Press
• S. Graham Kelly, “Mechanical Vibrations: Theory and Applications”, Cognella,
Incorporated
• EASA Part-66 Category B1 Maintenance License Module 2, “Physics”

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 COURSE NOTES

Week 1:
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Vibration
Vibration can be defined in so many ways. It can be defined as any motion that repeats itself after
an interval of time is called vibration or oscillation. It can also be defined as the to-and-fro motion
of a body or a system about its equilibrium position. Any system or a body having inertia and
elasticity is capable of vibration. Vibration is initiated when a body having inertia is displaced from
its equilibrium position due to some external disturbances. A restoring or conservative force is
developed due to elasticity of the system which pulls the system back toward its equilibrium, and
to-and-fro motion continues if there is not any dissipative force. In the presence of dissipative
force, vibration decays and system come to its equilibrium position after some time interval if the
external disturbance does not continue after initial disturbance, whereas it may undergo
continuous to-and-fro motion as long as the external disturbance continues.
One of the simplest models of a vibrating system is a simple pendulum shown in Fig. 1.1a. When
the pendulum bob is displaced from its vertical equilibrium position and released, the gravitational
force pulls the pendulum bob back toward the equilibrium. Another common model of a vibrating
system is a spring-mass system shown in Fig. 1.1b. When the particle of mass m is displaced
toward the right from its equilibrium position and released, the restoring force provided by the
spring pulls the mass back toward the equilibrium. The theory of vibration deals with the study of
oscillatory motions of bodies and the forces associated with them.
For the both systems, at the point of release, potential energy of the system will be maximum and
the kinetic energy is zero. When the mass/bob is on the left side, the potential energy is converted
to kinetic energy. At the equilibrium position, potential energy of the system will be minimum and
the kinetic energy will be maximum which can take the mass/bob toward the right side. Due to
this continuous conversion of energy, both the systems oscillate continuously about their
equilibrium positions in the absence of non-conservative forces. In the presence of dissipative
force like frictional force, oscillation stops after some interval and the system remains at its
equilibrium position.

Fig 1.1: a) Oscillation of a simple pendulum about its vertical equilibrium position, b) Oscillation
of a spring-mass system about its equilibrium position.

What causes vibration? Unbalanced, misalignment, friction, external excitation, flow induced
vibration, earthquakes, wind etc.

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1.2 Effects of vibration
Vibration of a system may be undesirable, trivial or essential for functioning of the device for what
it is designed for. Vibrations of machines or structures are usually undesirable. If the vibration of
the machine components or structures is not controlled, it will produce excessive loads, excessive
stresses, undesirable noise, looseness of parts and which may lead to the partial or complete
failure of parts.
In spite of these undesirable effects, vibration phenomena can also be utilized in different systems
for some beneficial effects. Suspension systems in automotive vehicles are designed to protect
passengers from discomfort when the vehicles run through any terrain. Vibration isolators and
vibration absorbers are also used to reduce the vibration of machines. Cushioning is provided to
many machines to reduce the effect of impulsive forces during transportation. Many nano/micro-
electromechanical systems are triggered by the vibration of tip. Many energy harvester devices
are designed to take the energy from the unwanted vibration. Musical instruments produce sound
of different frequencies due to vibration. Vibrations also exist in human body. We hear because
of vibration of the eardrum, we walk due to oscillation of legs, and we breathe due to vibration of
the lungs.

1.3 The number of degrees of freedom: The minimum number of independent coordinates
required to determine completely the positions of all parts of a system at any instant of time
defines the number of degrees of freedom of the system.
A particle on space can have a maximum of three degrees of freedom, i.e., three displacements
u, v and w along the three mutually perpendicular directions x, y and z. If its motion is constrained,
then its degree of freedom will be less than three. For example, a simple pendulum (Fig. 1.1a)
can swing on a plane, and its displacement from the equilibrium position can be conveniently
described by the angular displacement θ and hence has one degree of freedom. Similarly, a mass
attached to a spring (Fig. 1.1b) can move in only one direction on a plane and its displacement
from the equilibrium position can be conveniently described by x, and hence it also has one
degree of freedom. Any rigid body on space can have a maximum of six degrees of freedom, i.e.,
three displacements u, v and w along the three mutually perpendicular directions x, y and z and
three rotations θ𝑥 , θ𝑦 , and θ𝑧 about the three mutually perpendicular directions x, y and z.

1.4 Discrete and continuous systems:

Any vibrating system can be modeled as either a discrete system or a continuous system. If the
given system has finite degree of freedom, then it is called a discrete system. If the given discrete
system has one degree of freedom, then it is called a single degree of freedom system.
Governing equation of the discrete system with single degree of freedom appears in the form of
an ordinary differential equation, and the response of this system can be determined by the
solution of the ordinary differential equation. Similarly, if the given discrete has a degree of
freedom of two or more than two, then it is called a multi-degree freedom system. Governing
equation of the multi-degree of freedom system appears in the form of coupled ordinary
differential equations (system of ordinary differential equations) and which can also be efficiently
expressed in matrix form. Then the response of the multi-degree of freedom system can be
determined by solving the eigen-value problem.
If the given system has infinite degrees of freedom, then it is called a continuous system or
distributed parameter system. Continuous system can further be classified as one-dimensional
continuous system, two-dimensional continuous system and three-dimensional continuous
system. Any system in which dependent variable is function of only one spatial coordinate and
time is called a one-dimensional system. Longitudinal vibration of a rod, transverse vibration of
beam, transverse vibration of a string, etc., are the examples of one-dimensional system.
Governing equation of the one-dimensional system appears in the form of a partial differential
equation. Similarly, any system in which dependent variable is function of any two spatial

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coordinate and time is called a two-dimensional system. Transverse vibration of plate is the
example of two-dimensional system. Governing equation of the two-dimensional system appears
in the form of a coupled partial differential equations. Likewise, any system in which dependent
variable is function of all three spatial coordinates and time is called a three-dimensional system.
Vibration of any solid mass is the example of three-dimensional system. Governing equation of
the three-dimensional system also appears in the form of a coupled partial differential equations.

Fig. 1.2: Cantilever beam having infinite degree of freedom

2.0 Classification of Vibration

2.1 Free and Forced Vibration: If a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to vibrate on its
own, the ensuing vibration is known as free vibration. No external force acts on the system. The
oscillation of a simple pendulum is an example of free vibration.
If a system is subjected to an external force (often, a repeating type of force), the resulting
vibration is known as forced vibration. The oscillation that arises in machines such as diesel
engines is an example of forced vibration. If the frequency of the external force coincides with one
of the natural frequencies of the system, a condition known as resonance occurs, and the system
undergoes dangerously large oscillations. Failures of such structures as buildings, bridges,
turbines, and airplane wings have been associated with the occurrence of resonance.

2.2 Undamped and Damped Vibration: If no energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other
resistance during oscillation, the vibration is known as undamped vibration. If any energy is lost
in this way, however, it is called damped vibration. In many physical systems, the amount of
damping is so small that it can be disregarded for most engineering purposes. However,
consideration of damping becomes extremely important in analyzing vibratory systems near
resonance.

2.3 Linear and Nonlinear Vibration: If all the basic components of a vibratory system the spring,
the mass, and the damper behave linearly, the resulting vibration is known as linear vibration. If,
however, any of the basic components behave nonlinearly, the vibration is called nonlinear
vibration. The differential equations that govern the behavior of linear and nonlinear vibratory
systems are linear and nonlinear, respectively. If the vibration is linear, the principle of
superposition holds, and the mathematical techniques of analysis are well developed. For
nonlinear vibration, the superposition principle is not valid, and techniques of analysis are less
well known. Since all vibratory systems tend to behave nonlinearly with increasing amplitude of
oscillation, a knowledge of nonlinear vibration is desirable in dealing with practical vibratory
systems.

2.4 Vibration Analysis Procedure

A vibratory system is a dynamic one for which the variables such as the excitations (inputs) and
responses (outputs) are time dependent. The response of a vibrating system generally depends
on the initial conditions as well as the external excitations. Most practical vibrating systems are

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very complex, and it is impossible to consider all the details for a mathematical analysis. Only the
most important features are considered in the analysis to predict the behavior of the system under
specified input conditions. Often the overall behavior of the system can be determined by
considering even a simple model of the complex physical system. Thus, the analysis of a vibrating
system usually involves mathematical modeling, derivation of the governing equations, solution
of the equations, and interpretation of the results.
Step 1: Mathematical Modeling
The purpose of mathematical modeling is to represent all the important features of the system for
the purpose of deriving the mathematical (or analytical) equations governing the system s
behavior. The mathematical model should include enough details to allow describing the system
in terms of equations without making it too complex. The mathematical model may be linear or
nonlinear, depending on the behavior of the systems components. Linear models permit quick
solutions and are simple to handle; however, nonlinear models sometimes reveal certain
characteristics of the system that cannot be predicted using linear models. Thus, a great deal of
engineering judgment is needed to come up with a suitable mathematical model of a vibrating
system.
Step 2: Derivation of Governing Equations
Once the mathematical model is available, we use the principles of dynamics and derive the
equations that describe the vibration of the system. The equations of motion can be derived
conveniently by drawing the free-body diagrams of all the masses involved. The free-body
diagram of a mass can be obtained by isolating the mass and indicating all externally applied
forces, the reactive forces, and the inertia forces. The equations of motion of a vibrating system
are usually in the form of a set of ordinary differential equations for a discrete system and partial
differential equations for a continuous system. The equations may be linear or nonlinear,
depending on the behavior of the components of the system. Several approaches are commonly
used to derive the governing equations. Among them are Newton s second law of motion, D
Alembert s principle, and the principle of conservation of energy.
Step 3: Solution of the Governing Equations
The equations of motion must be solved to find the response of the vibrating system. Depending
on the nature of the problem, we can use one of the following techniques for finding the solution:
standard methods of solving differential equations, Laplace transform methods, matrix methods,
and numerical methods. If the governing equations are nonlinear, they can seldom be solved in
closed form. Furthermore, the solution of partial differential equations is far more involved than
that of ordinary differential equations. Numerical methods involving computers can be used to
solve the equations. However, it will be difficult to draw general conclusions about the behavior
of the system using computer results.
Step 4: Interpretation of the Results
The solution of the governing equations gives the displacements, velocities, and accelerations of
the various masses of the system. These results must be interpreted with a clear view of the
purpose of the analysis and the possible design implications of the results.

2.5 Simple Harmonic Motion

Simplest form of the oscillatory or vibratory motion is the periodic motion. Any motion that repeats
itself after some time interval is called a periodic motion. Most common example of a periodic
motion is a simple harmonic motion. If the mass m of Fig.1.1a is displaced by A unit toward right
and released, then the subsequent position of the mass in the absence of dissipative force will be
a simple harmonic motion as shown in Fig. 1.3.

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 Fig 1.3: A simple harmonic motion

Instantaneous position of a particle undergoing a simple harmonic motion can be represented by

the circular functions, sine or cosine. For this case,
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 1.1
where A is amplitude of the cycle which is defined as the maximum displacement from the
equilibrium position.
Since the circular function repeats itself in 2𝜋 radians and takes a time interval of T (𝜔𝑇 =
2𝜋), then
2𝜋
𝑇= 𝜔 1.2
where T is called time period of the cycle measured in sec and 𝜔 is the circular frequency of the
oscillation measured in 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Similarly, frequency of oscillation f which is the number of cycles measured in Hz can be
expressed as,
1 𝜔
f= = 1.3
𝑇 2𝜋
Velocity and acceleration of the vibrating particle can be determined by the successive
differentiation of displacement expression defined by Eq. (1.1) as
𝑥̇ (𝑡) = −𝜔𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 1.4
2
𝑥̈ (𝑡) = −𝜔 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 1.5
Comparing Eqs. (1.1) and (1.5), we get
𝑥̈ (𝑡) = −𝜔2 𝑥 1.6
With reference to Eq. (1.6), we can recall the definition of simple harmonic motion from mechanics
as:
When the acceleration of a particle with rectilinear motion is always proportional to its
displacement from a fixed point on the path and is directed toward the fixed point, the particle is
said to have simple harmonic motion.

2.6 Review of Dynamics

Vibration being a subdomain of dynamics, fundamental knowledge of dynamics is essential for
the development of mathematical model of any vibrating system. Therefore, a brief review of
dynamics is presented which is frequently used throughout this course.

2.6.1 Kinematics for a Particle

Kinematics is the branch of dynamics which deals the study of the geometrical description of
motion. The principles of kinematics focus on the relationship between the displacement, velocity,
acceleration and time of a body, without reference to the cause of the motion.
The location of a particle on a rigid body at any instant time can be referenced to a fixed cartesian
reference frame 𝒊, 𝒋, 𝒌 are unit vectors parallel to the x, y, z axes respectively. The position vector,
𝒓 of the particle is given by
𝒓 = 𝑥(𝑡) 𝒊 + 𝑦(𝑡)𝒋 + 𝑧(𝑡)𝒌 1.7

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Then the velocity and acceleration of the particle can be determined by the successive
differentiation of the position vector as
𝑑𝒓
𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥̇ (𝑡)𝒊 + 𝑦̇ (𝑡) 𝒋 + 𝑧̇ (𝑡)𝒌 1.8
𝑑𝑣
𝒂 = = 𝑥̈ (𝑡)𝒊 + 𝑦̈ (𝑡) 𝒋 + 𝑧̈ (𝑡)𝒌 1.9
𝑑𝑡

2.6.2 Kinetics for a Particle

Kinetics is the branch of dynamics which deals with the study of the relation between the forces
acting on a body, the mass of the body and the motion of the body. The basic law for kinetics of
particles is Newton’s second law of motion which establishes the relationship between the force
and motion as
𝛴𝑭 = 𝑚𝒂 1.10
Where 𝛴𝑭 is the sum of the forces applied to the particle and a is the acceleration of the particle.

2.6.3 Kinetics for a Rigid Body

A rigid body can undergo rotational motion also, and a moment equation is required for such
problems. The moment equation for a rigid body undergoing planar motion is
𝛴𝑀𝐺 = 𝐼 ̅ 𝛼 1.11
̅
where G is the mass center of the rigid body and 𝐼 is the mass moment of inertia about an axis
parallel to the z axis that passes through the mass center, 𝛴𝑀𝐺 is the sum of moments of all forces
acting on the rigid body about its mass center and 𝛼, is the angular acceleration of the rigid body.
In general, the force equation of Eq. (1.10) yields two independent equations, and the moment
equation of Eq. (1.11) yields one. If the axis of rotation of the rigid body is fixed, Eq. (1.11) may
be replaced by
𝛴𝑀𝑜 = 𝐼𝑜 𝛼 1.12
where 𝐼𝑜 is the moment of inertia about the axis of rotation.

Work-Energy Principle for a Particle

Consider a particle of mass m acted upon by a force F and moving along a rectangular path, the
relationship between the force and acceleration is given by
𝛴𝑭 = 𝑚𝒂
𝑑𝑉
𝐹𝑑𝑠 = 𝑚𝑉𝑑𝑉, from 𝑎 = 𝑉 𝑑𝑠
𝑠 1 1
∫𝑠 2 𝐹 𝑑 𝑠 = 2 𝑚𝑉2 2 − 2 𝑚𝑉1 2 1.13
1

The left side of Eq. (1.13) represents work done by the force, while the particle is displaced from
s1 to s2 and the right side represents the change in kinetic energy of the particle.
Hence, principle of work and energy can be state as: The work done by the force is equal to the
change in kinetic energy of the particle.
The principle of work and energy can be efficiently applied to solve many problems of dynamics.
However, in many dynamic systems, the total mechanical energy remains constant, although it
may be transformed from one form into another, i.e., from kinetic energy to potential energy or
from potential energy to kinetic energy.

However, the kinetic energy of a rigid body undergoing general plane motion is the sum of the
translational kinetic energy and the rotational kinetic energy
1 1
𝑇 = 2 𝑚𝑉̅ 2 + 2 𝐼 𝜔
̅ 2 1.14
If the body has a fixed axis of rotation at O, then kinetic energy can be determined as
1
𝑇 = 2 𝐼𝑜 𝜔2 1.15

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Impulse and momentum: Problems of dynamics can also be solved by applying the principle of
impulse and momentum. Although it can be applied for any problems involving time and velocities,
it is most suitable for the problems involving impulsive motion.
Newton’s second law of motion can also be expressed as
𝑑
𝐹 = 𝑑𝑡 (𝑚𝑉),
𝑑
̅ ),
and also, for a rigid body 𝑀 = 𝑑𝑡 (𝐼 𝜔

3.0 Self-Assessment Exercise(s)

Example 1.1
𝑥(𝑡) = 0.03cos (30𝑡) + 0.4sin (30𝑡),
a) Determine the amplitude of the motion
b) The period the motion
c) The frequency in Hz, rad/s and in rpm
d) The phase angle, and
e) The response equation in the form 𝑜𝑓 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑤𝑡 + ∅).

Example 1.2
Determine the number of degrees of freedom and recommend a set of appropriate generalized
coordinates for each of the system shown in Figure E1.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure E1: Exercise

References/Further Readings
• Mahesh Chandra Luintel, “Textbook of Mechanical Vibrations” Springer

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 Week 2:
2.0 Modelling of Components of a Vibrating System

2.1 Components of a Vibrating System

The basic components of a vibrating system under idealized conditions are the mass (m), the
spring (k), the damper (c) and the excitation (or source of energy) as shown in Fig. 2.1. The first
three components (m, k, and c) describe the physical system and are also called system
parameters.
The mass (m) is assumed to be rigid body. It carries energy in the form of kinetic energy in
accordance with the velocity of the body.
The spring (k) possesses elasticity and is assumed to be of negligible mass. A spring stores
energy in the form of potential energy or strain energy. For basic analysis, a spring is assumed to
be linear. A linear spring is one that obeys Hooke’s law, which is the spring force is proportional
to the spring deformation. The constant of proportionality, measured in force per unit deformation,
is called the stiffness, or the spring constant and its unit is N/m.
The damper (c) has neither mass nor elasticity. Damping force exists only if there is relative
motion between the two ends of the damper. The work or energy input to the damper is converted
into heat; i.e., it dissipates energy. Hence the damping element is non-conservative. Damping in
which damping force is proportional to the velocity is called linear damping. The damping
coefficient (c) is measured in force per unit velocity, and its unit is Ns/m.
Energy enters the system through the application of an excitation. Excitation force is applied to
the mass of the system.

Figure 2.1: Components of a vibrating system

2.2 Inertia Elements and Kinetic Energy

An inertia element is a body with finite mass. Inertia element possesses kinetic energy when the
vibratory motion executes in the system. Kinetic energy is stored when the speed of the body
increases and is released when its speed decreases. The kinetic energy of a body is a function
of the body’s inertia properties and its velocity. Mass is taken as inertial property if the system
undergoes translational vibratory motion (linear displacement) about its static equilibrium position,
and mass moment of inertia is taken as inertial property if the system undergoes rotational
vibratory motion (angular displacement) about its static equilibrium position.

2.3 Spring (Stiffness) Elements and Potential Energy

Elastic behavior of the component of the vibrating system is modeled by a stiffness element and
generally represented by a spring with stiffness k. Stiffness of a spring can be defined as the force
required to produce unit relative elastic displacement across its two ends. Although spring itself

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is a distributed system, it can be assumed as massless, if the inertia effect of the spring is
negligible in comparison with other inertia elements of the system. Stiffness element stores
energy in the form of potential energy or strain energy.

2.3.1 Potential Energy Stored by a Spring

A spring is said to be a linear spring if it follows the force-displacement relationship
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 2.1
Potential energy of a spring subject to a linear elastic deformation of 𝑥 is then given by
𝑥 𝑥
𝑉 = 𝑊12 = ∫0 𝐹𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2.2
1
∴𝑉= 2
𝑘𝑥 2 2.3
Similarly, potential energy of a torsional spring with torsional stiffness 𝑘𝑡 of subject to an elastic
deformation of θ is given by
1
∴ 𝑉 = 2 𝑘𝑡 θ2 2.4

2.3.2 Equivalent System and Equivalent Stiffness for Different Combinations of Springs
If a system consists of a number of springs are arranged in different way, then its potential energy
can be determined by using equivalent stiffness for the given combination of springs. Methods to
determine equivalent stiffness for series and parallel combination of springs are explained below.

(a) Series Combination of Springs

Consider n numbers of spring with stiffness values of 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 , 𝑘3 …, 𝑘𝑛 connected in series as in
Fig. 2.2. It can be replaced by an equivalent system consisting of a single spring with stiffness 𝑘𝑒𝑞
such that total displacement of the system is equal to sum of displacements in each spring, i.e.,
∆= ∆1 + ∆2 + ∆3 + ⋯ + ∆𝑛

Fig. 2.2: Series combination of springs and equivalent system

Since the force applied to each spring is same for series combination,
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
= + + +⋯+
𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 𝑘𝑛
1 1 1 1 1
𝑘𝑒𝑞
= 𝑘 + 𝑘 +𝑘 + ⋯+ 𝑘 2.5
1 2 3 𝑛
(b) Parallel Combination of Springs
Consider n numbers of spring with stiffness values of 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 , 𝑘3 …, 𝑘𝑛 connected in series as in
Fig. 2.3. It can be replaced by an equivalent system consisting of a single spring with stiffness 𝑘𝑒𝑞
such that total displacement of the system is equal to sum of force exerted in each spring, i.e.,
𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝑛
Since the deformation in each spring is same for parallel combination
𝑘𝑒𝑞 ∆= (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑛 )∆
𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑛 2.6

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 Fig. 2.3: Parallel combination of springs and equivalent system

2.3.3 Equivalent system for a Shaft with a Rigid Disk at its Free End
Consider a shaft which is fixed at the left end and a rigid disk of mass moment of inertia I attached
at its free end as shown in Fig. 2.4. The polar moment of inertia of its section is J, length of the
shaft is L, and the shear modulus of elasticity of the material of the bar is G. This system can be
analyzed by considering its equivalent system with system parameters 𝑘𝑒𝑞 and I shown in Fig.
2.4.

Fig. 2.4: Equivalent system for a shaft with a rigid disk at its free end

To determine the equivalent stiffness of the system, angular displacement at the free end of the
shaft where the disk is attached should be determined. Angular displacement at free end of a
shaft subjected to a torque T is given by
𝑇𝐿
𝜃 = 𝐺𝐽 2.7
Then equivalent stiffness of the system is given by
𝑇 𝐺𝐽
𝑘𝑒𝑞 = = 2.8
𝜃 𝐿

2.4 Damper and Energy Dissipation

In the absence of external force, vibration of any real system usually dies out after some interval.
This is due to the resistive effect imposed upon the system. Such resistive effect through which
energy of the system is dissipated such that it comes to equilibrium position after some interval is
called damping.
2.4.1 Types of Damping
Damping providing resistance to most of the vibrating system can be classified into three types:
viscous damping, Coulomb damping and structural damping.
(a) Viscous Damping
In viscous damper, resistance to vibration motion is provided by the viscosity of the fluid. It is a
most commonly used model for the damping effect. Systems such as hydraulic dashpots and
shocks absorbers can be effectively modeled by this type of damping. Simple mechanism of a
viscous damper is shown in Fig. 2.5a, and its schematic representation is shown in Fig. 2.5b.
Due to damping, there exists a velocity difference between two ends of the damper. A damper is
said to be a linear damper, if the damping force is proportional to the velocity of the particle to
which it is attached. The force developed in the linear viscous damper is given by
𝐹 = 𝑐𝑥̇ 2.9

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(a) Mechanism of a Viscous Damper (b) Schematic Representation of a Damper
Fig. 2.5: Viscous damper

2.4.2 Coulomb or Dry-Friction Damping

Here the damping force is constant in magnitude but opposite in direction to that of the motion of
the vibrating body. It is caused by friction between rubbing surfaces that either are dry or have
insufficient lubrication. If the coefficient of friction between the block and the surface shown in Fig.
2.6a is 𝜇, then the magnitude of frictional force resisting the motion is given by
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁 2.10
Where N is the normal component of the reaction force.
The frictional force acts toward left when the block moves toward right and acts toward right when
the block moves toward left as shown in Fig. 2.6b

(a) Block Sliding on a Rough Surface (b) Free body Diagrams showing Direction of
Frictional Force
Fig. 2.6: Coulomb damping

2.4.3 Structural (Hysteretic) Damping

Due to to-and-fro motion during vibration, materials are repeatedly subjected to increasing and
decreasing stress and strain and energy is dissipated due to intermolecular friction (between the
internal planes, which slip or slide). If stress–strain diagram of such materials is plotted, the path
will be different for loading (increasing strain) and unloading (decreasing strain) as shown in Fig.
2.7. The loop formed by these two paths is called hysteresis loop, and area enclosed by the loop
is equal to the energy lost during a cycle. This type of energy dissipation is called structural
damping, hysteretic damping or solid damping.

Fig. 2.7: Hysteretic loop formed due to intermolecular friction

2.4.4 Combination of Dampers
In some dynamic systems, multiple dampers are used. In such cases, all the dampers are
replaced by a single equivalent damper. When dampers appear in combination, we can use
procedures similar to those used in finding the equivalent spring constant of multiple springs to

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find a single equivalent damper. For example, when two translational dampers, with damping
constants and appear in combination, the equivalent damping constant can be found as
1 1 1 1 1
Series dampers: = + + + ⋯+
𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐𝑛
Parallel dampers: 𝑐𝑒𝑞 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛

2.5 External Excitation

External sources can provide energy to a vibrating system through motion or force/ moment as
shown in Fig. 2.8.

(a) Energy input through motion (b) Energy input through force
Fig. 2.8: External sources

Energy provided to the system through cam-follower mechanism and disturbance experienced by
a machine due to floor vibration are the examples of motion input. The magnitude of energy
provided to the system shown in Fig. 2.8(a) through input motion is given by
1
𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥𝑖𝑛 2
2
Energy provided to the system due to unbalance and wind blow on a structure are the examples
of force input. Force or moment exerted on a discrete system is dependent upon time and is
defined by upper F(t) is as shown in Fig. 2.8(b). External force or moment exerted on any system
may be periodic or aperiodic.

Examples will be solved in class.

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 Week 3:
3.0 Derivation of Equation of Motion of a Vibrating System

Introduction
As explained earlier, the first step to study any vibrating system is the mathematical modeling.
Mathematical modeling is developed to represent the phenomenon occurring in any real system
in terms of mathematical expression, which is called governing equation or equation of motion of
the system.
Equation of motion can be derived by the direct application of Newton’s second law of motion,
equivalent system parameters method or conservation of energy principle. These methods can
be more efficiently used for discrete system with few degrees of freedom. Equation of motion for
discrete system with relatively higher degrees of freedom and continuous system can also be
derived by using variational principle or energy principles. Most common forms of variational
formulation of the dynamic system are Hamilton’ principle and Lagrange equations which are also
modified forms of Newton’s second law of motion.

3.1 Classical Methods for Derivation of Equation of Motion

3.1.1 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Most common method to derive an equation of motion of a vibrating system is the application of
Newton’s second law of motion. Following procedure should be followed to use this method to
derive an equation of motion of any system.
(a) Determine degree of freedom of the system and choose any appropriate set of generalized
coordinates to describe the instantaneous position of the system.
(b) Draw free-body diagram for the particle or rigid body of the system under static condition and
determine static deflection of the system.
(c) Draw another free-body diagram of the system assume that it is further displaced from the
static equilibrium position. Draw representations of all external and reactive forces acting upon
the system.
(d) With reference to the free-body diagram, apply Newton’s second law of motion or D Alembert’s
principle as given below.

𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑥̈ (𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) 3.1

𝛴𝑀 = 𝐽𝜃̈ (𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) 3.2
𝑜𝑟,
𝛴𝐹 − 𝑚𝑥̈ = 0 (𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) 3.3
𝛴𝑀 − 𝐽𝜃̈ = 0 (𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) 3.4

To demonstrate the method, consider a spring, mass and damper system shown in Fig.3.1.
Instantaneous position of the system can be defined by the vertical displacement of the mass;
hence it is a single degree of freedom system and x can be used as a generalized coordinate.
Original or unstretched position of the spring is shown in Fig.3.2a. When the mass is attached to
the lower end of the spring and the damper, spring undergoes deformation by ∆ amount as shown
in Fig.3.2b. The deformation (∆) of the spring under such static condition is called static
displacement. With reference to the free-body diagram of the mass under static condition shown
in Fig.3.2c, equilibrium equation can be written as
𝑊 = 𝑘𝛥 3.5

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 Fig. 3.1: Single degree of freedom system consisting of spring, mass and damper

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 3.2: Free-body diagrams for static condition and vibrating conditions

When the mass is further displaced by x amount from its static equilibrium position, and
released it undergoes vibratory motion. With reference to free-body diagram of the mass
undergoing vibration shown in Fig. 3.2d, Newton’s second law of motion can be applied
as

3.2 Free Vibration of Single-Degree-Of-Freedom Systems (SDOF)

A system is said to undergo free vibration when it oscillates only under an initial disturbance with
no external forces acting afterward. Some examples are the oscillations of the pendulum of a
grandfather clock, the vertical oscillatory motion felt by a bicyclist after hitting a road bump, and
the motion of a child on a swing after an initial push.
Figure 3.3(a) shows a spring-mass system that represents the simplest possible vibratory system.
It is called a single-degree-of-freedom system, since one coordinate (x) is sufficient to specify the
position of the mass at any time. There is no external force applied to the mass; hence the motion
resulting from an initial disturbance will be free vibration.

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 Fig. 3.3: Single degree of freedom system consisting of a spring and a mass

Since there is no element that causes dissipation of energy during the motion of the mass, the
amplitude of motion remains constant with time; it is an undamped system. In actual practice,
except in a vacuum, the amplitude of free vibration diminishes gradually over time, due to the
resistance offered by the surrounding medium (such as air). Such vibrations are said to be
damped. The study of the free vibration of undamped and damped single-degree-of-freedom
systems is fundamental to the understanding of more advanced topics in vibrations.
𝐹(𝑡) = −𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚𝑥̈
𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 3.7
which is the required equation of motion of the system, using the procedures of Newtons second
law of motion.

D Alembert s Principle. The equations of motion, Eq. (3.7), can be rewritten as

𝐹(𝑡) − 𝑚𝑥̈ = 0 3.8a
̈
𝑀(𝑡) − 𝐽𝜃 = 0 (rotational motion) 3.8b
These equations can be considered equilibrium equations provided that 𝑚𝑥̈ and 𝐽𝜃̈ are treated as
a force and a moment. This fictitious force (or moment) is known as the inertia force (or inertia
moment) and the artificial state of equilibrium implied by Eq. (3.6a) or (3.6b) is known as dynamic
equilibrium. This principle, implied in Eq. (3.6a) or (3.6b), is called D Alembert s principle. Applying
it to the system shown in Fig. 3.3(c) yields the equation of motion:
−𝑘𝑥 − 𝑚𝑥̈ = 0, or 𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 3.9

NB: This hold true for when a mass moves in a vertical direction, we can ignore its weight,
provided we measure x from its static equilibrium position.

Solution
Now, the solution of 𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
The solution can be found by assuming
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡 3.10
Where C and s are constant to be determined. By substituting eqn. 3.10 into 3.9, gives

C(ms 2 + k) = 0 3.11
since S cannot be zero 𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑘 = 0 and hence,
𝑘 1
𝑠 = ±(− 𝑚)2 = ±𝑖𝜔𝑛 3.12

𝑘 1
𝜔𝑛 = ( )2
𝑚

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Equation (3.11) is called the auxiliary or the characteristic equation corresponding to the
differential Eq. (3.9). The two values of s given by Eq. (3.12) are the roots of the characteristic
equation, also known as the eigenvalues or the characteristic values of the problem. Since both
values of s satisfy Eq. (3.11), the general solution of Eq. (3.9) can be expressed as

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑛 𝑡 3.13

𝑒 ±𝑖𝜔𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡 ± 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑛 𝑡 (by using identities)
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑛 𝑡 3.14
Note that the number of conditions to be specified is the same as the order of the governing
̇ (𝑡) =
differential equation. In the present case, if the values of displacement 𝑥(𝑡)and velocity( 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
(𝑡) are specified as 𝑥𝑜 and 𝑥𝑜̇ at 𝑡 = 0, we have, from Eq. (3.14),
𝑑𝑡

𝑥(𝑡 = 0) = 𝐴1 = 𝑥𝑜
𝑥̇ (𝑡 = 0) = 𝜔𝑛 𝐴2 = 𝑥𝑜̇ 3.15
Thus, the solution of eqn. 3.9 subject to the initial conditions of eqn.3.15 is given by

𝑥𝑜̇
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑛 𝑡 3.16
𝜔𝑛

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Week 4:

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Stability of Systems
Stability is one of the most important characteristics for any vibrating system. Although many
definitions can be given for the term stability depending on the kind of system or the point of view,
we consider our definition for linear and time-invariant systems (i.e., systems for which the
parameters m, c, and k do not change with time). A system is defined to be asymptotically stable
(called stable in controls literature) if its free-vibration response approaches zero as time
approaches infinity. A system is considered to be unstable if its free-vibration response grows
without bound (approaches infinity) as time approaches infinity. Finally, a system is said to be
stable (called marginally stable in controls literature) if its free-vibration response neither decays
nor grows, but remains constant or oscillates as time approaches infinity. It is evident that an
unstable system whose free-vibration response grows without bounds can cause damage to the
system, adjacent property, or human life. Usually, dynamic systems are designed with limit stops
to prevent their responses from growing with no limit.

Examples will be solved in class!

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Week 5: Single-Degree-of-Freedom

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Self-Excitation and Stability Analysis
The force acting on a vibrating system is usually external to the system and independent of the
motion. However, there are systems for which the exciting force is a function of the motion
parameters of the system, such as displacement, velocity, or acceleration. Such systems are
called self-excited vibrating systems, since the motion itself produces the exciting force. The
instability of rotating shafts, the flutter of turbine blades, the flow-induced vibration of pipes, and
the automobile wheel shimmy and aerodynamically induced motion of bridges are typical
examples of self-excited vibrations.

Dynamic Stability Analysis

A system is dynamically stable if the motion (or displacement) converges or remains steady with
time. On the other hand, if the amplitude of displacement increases continuously (diverges) with
time, it is said to be dynamically unstable. The motion diverges and the system becomes unstable
if energy is fed into the system through self-excitation. To see the circumstances that lead to
instability, we consider the equation of motion of a single-degree-of-freedom system:

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Vibration Measuring Instruments
Response of a system due to external motion can also be used for the vibration measurement.
Such response can be calibrated to determine the displacement, velocity or acceleration of any
vibrating system.

Fig. 4.1: Components a vibration measuring instrument

The instruments which are used to measure the displacement, velocity or acceleration of a
vibrating body are called vibration measuring instrument. Figure 4.1 shows the essential elements
of a vibration measuring instrument. It consists of a seismic mass m supported by springs with an
equivalent stiffness k and a damper with a damping constant c inside a case which is to be
fastened to the vibrating body. The motion is to be measured is y and the relative motion z(=x-y)
is between the mass m and the supporting case is sensed. There two main vibration measuring
instruments, these are Seismometer and Accelerometer.

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 Week 6: Two degree of freedom systems
Introduction
Systems that require two independent coordinates to describe their motion are called two degree-
of-freedom systems. We shall consider only two-degree-of-freedom systems, so as to provide a
simple introduction to the behavior of systems with an arbitrarily large number of degrees of
freedom.
In this section we will show that a two degree of freedom system will have two natural frequencies.
When the system vibrates at any one of the natural frequencies, a definite relationship exists
between two vibration amplitudes, which is defined as the mode shape of the system. Two degree
of freedom system will therefore have two mode shapes. Free response of any two-degree
freedom of system due to any arbitrary initial disturbances will be superposition of these two
modes.
Forced vibration of a two degree of freedom system occurs at the frequency equal to the
frequency of the excitation force and the system undergoes resonance when the excitation
frequency becomes equal to any one of the natural frequencies of the system.

Fig. 5.1 Examples of two degree of freedom systems

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Fig. 5.8 Machine excited by an external force F(t) Fig. 5.9 Vibration absorber

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 Week 7: Continuous Systems
6.1 Introduction

The main assumption taken during the modeling of discrete system is that inertia (mass),
stiffness and damping properties are concentrated at specific points of the system.
However, all real systems cannot be effectively modeled as discrete systems because in
real system usually the system properties are spatially distributed within the system. Any
system in which its properties (inertia, stiffness and damping) are distributed within the
system is called a distributed or continuous system.
If the instantaneous position or configuration of a continuous system can be described as
a function of only one spatial coordinate, then it is called a one-dimensional continuous
system. Longitudinal vibration of a rod, transverse vibration of beam, transverse vibration
of a string, etc., are the examples of one-dimensional system. If two independent spatial
coordinates are required to define the instantaneous configuration of the system then it is
said be a two-dimensional continuous system. Transverse vibration of plate is the example
of two-dimensional system. Similarly, if three independent spatial coordinates are required
to define the instantaneous configuration of the system, then it is said be a three-
dimensional continuous system. Vibration of any solid mass with finite dimensions is the
example of three-dimensional system.
Instantaneous position or configuration of a continuous system can be defined by the
instantaneous positions of infinite particles of the system; therefore, a continuous system
is said to have an infinite degree of freedom and will have infinite natural frequencies.
When the system vibrates with any one of the natural frequencies, the system takes a
specific deflection shape which is defined by a continuous spatial function and is called a
principal mode of vibration corresponding to the considered natural frequency. The
vibration response of a continuous system with any arbitrary disturbance will be a
superposition of all the principal modes.
Governing equations of continuous system appear in the form of partial differential
equations, and the response of the system can be determined by applying both the
boundary values and the initial condition.
Main differences between the discrete and continuous system are presented in Table 7.1.
Modeling and vibration response analysis of common one-dimensional continuous
systems are explained below.

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Week 9:

Week 10:

Week 11:

Week 12:

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