FOOD PROCESSING - NUT 3141

By Walid Mottawea (Ph.D.)

School of Nutritional Sciences – Faculty of

Health Sciences – University of Ottawa

1
Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus

IV. Cooling processes:

a. Chilling
b. Freezing
c. Freeze-drying and Freeze concentration.
V. Post-processing operations
a. Packaging
b. Conditioning
c. Handling, storage and controls

2
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling

• Chilling is the unit operation in which the temperature of a food is

reduced to between1ºC and 8ºC
• Chilling makes it possible to preserve food for longer durations.
• Chilling delays the deterioration processes and preserves the
quality of the products.
• Chilling is ensured by the use of a mechanical cooling system in
which a refrigerant circulates.
3
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling
• A refrigeration system allows the transfer of heat from the cold
room to the outside*.
• The refrigeration temperature of food is between 0°C and 4°C, but a
range: -1°C – 8°C is also recognized.
• Many molecules are used as refrigerants.

• Main characteristic of a refrigerant: a low boiling point (i.e. Tebb

ammonia is -33.3 °C).
4
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling

To ensure cooling in the refrigerator, the refrigerant or refrigerant

then circulates in a closed circuit called a mechanical compression
system, which is composed of:
• A compressor
• A condenser
• A regulator
• An evaporator

5
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling
Refrigerant in
Refrigerant in a high vapour
low- vapour pressure state
pressure state Compressor

Evaporator Condenser

Refrigerant in liquid
Refrigerant in
liquid state at Regulator state (after giving
energy) and at high
low pressure
pressure
6
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling

Condenseur
Mechanical
refrigeration
system

Reference:
Food Processing Technology,
Second Edition, CRC Press,
WoodHead publishing limited,
2000
7
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling Different types of Different types of
evaporators condensers

Reference: Introduction to Food

Engineering, 4th edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh
& Dennis R. Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009 8
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling Different types of
regulators

Regulator: high pressure

float valve

Regulator: manual valve

Thermostatic valve

Reference: Introduction to Food

Engineering, 4th edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh
& Dennis R. Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009 9
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling

Pressure-enthalpy diagram
Change in the pressure and enthalpy of the refrigerant during its cycle in the
refrigeration system:
• In the evaporator and condenser, the enthalpy of the refrigerant changes
while the pressure remains constant.
• During compression, both enthalpy and pressure parameters increase.
• At the regulator, the enthalpy remains constant and the pressure
decreases.

10
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling
Pressure-enthalpy
diagram of a refrigerant

Pressure (kPa)

Reference: Introduction to Food

Engineering, 4th edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh
& Dennis R. Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009 Enthalpy (kJ/kg) 11
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling
Example: the pressure-enthalpy
diagram of Freon 12

Reference: Introduction to Food

Engineering, 4th edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh
& Dennis R. Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009
12
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling
A: Compressor input at P1, H2
B: compressor output at P2 and H3
(isentropic compression)).

Pressure (kPa)
In the condenser: latent heat is transferred
from C to D

D: Regulator inlet, pressure drops to P1

towards E, with constant enthalpy H1
E: Refrigerant consisting of liquid-vapour
mixture.
E-A: evaporation of refrigerant, constant
pressure P1 and increased enthalpy from
H1 to H2.
Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
13
Reference: Introduction to Food Engineering, 4th edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh & Dennis R. Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling

Coefficient of performance (CP)

The CP can indicate the efficiency of a refrigeration system, it is equal to the

ratio between the refrigeration energy obtained in relation to the energy
supplied to produce it

CP = (H2-H1)/(H3-H2)

14
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling
The selection of a refrigerant is done by considering the following characteristics:

• High latent heat of vaporization.

• Condensation pressure: should not be excessive.
• Freezing temperature: it should be lower than the evaporation temperature.
• High critical temperature: at higher temperatures refrigerant vapours cannot
liquefy.
• Non-toxicity, flammability, corrosivity, chemical stability, no leaks in the
system, low price, environmental effects (in case of leakage).

15
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling Formula Freon 12 Freon 22 HFC 134a Ammonia
(dichloro- (monochlorodifl (CH2FCF3): (NH3): R717
Refrigerant difluoro- uoro-methane R134a
methane CHClF2): R22
comparison CCl2F2): R12
(Tevaporation – 15 °C Molecular weight (Da) 120.9 86.5 102.3 17.0
and Tcondensation 30 °C Boiling point (°C) at
) - 29.8 -40.8 -26.16 -33.3
101.3 kPa*
Evaporation pressure
182.7 296.4 164.0 236.5
at -15 °C (kPa)
Condensation pressure
744.6 1203.0 770.1 1166.5
at 30 °C (kPa)
Reference: Introduction to Freezing point (°C ) at
-157.8 -160.0 -96.6 -77.8
Food Engineering, 4th 101.3 kPa
edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh Critical temperature (°C
& Dennis R. Heldman, 112.2 96.1 101.1 132.8
)
Elsevier, AP, 2009
16
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling Formula Freon 12 Freon 22 HFC 134a Ammonia
(dichlorodiflu (monochlorodifl (CH2FCF3): (NH3): R717
Refrigerant oro-méthane uoro-méthane R134a
CCl2F2): R12 CHClF2): R22
comparison
(Tevaporation – 15 °C Critical pressure (kPa) 4115.7 4936.1 4040 11423.4
and Tcondensation 30 °C Discharge temperature
) 37.8 55.0 43.0 98.9
at compression (°C)

- continu Compression ratio

4.07 5.06 4.81 4.94
(30°C/-15°C)
Latent heat of
vaporization at -15 °C 161.7 217.7 209.5 1314.2
(kJ/kg)
Référence: Introduction to
Food Engineering, 4th Stability** Yes yes no no
edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh
Inflammability No No No Yes
& Dennis R. Heldman,
Elsevier, AP, 2009
17
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling
Refrigerated foods are classified into 3 categories according to the refrigeration
temperature applied:

• -1 °C to + 1 °C: mainly meat and fish products

• 0 °C to + 5 °C : dairy products, fresh pasta, soups,..
• 0 °C to + 8 °C : cooked meat and fish products, butter, cheese, cooked
foods, fruit and their juices

18
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling
• Chilling slows down microbiological and enzymatic activities.
• Chilling delays breathing of fresh fruits and vegetables.
Product Relative Shelf life in weeks
respiration rate at 2°C

Asparagus 40 0.2 – 0.5

Mushrooms 21 0.2 – 0.5
Reference: Spinach 13 1-2
Food Processing Technology, Lettuce 11 1–2
Second Edition, CRC Press,
WoodHead publishing limited, Carrots 5 5 – 20
2000 Potatoes 2 25 - 50
19
IV. Cooling process
a. Refrigeration
Food Heat (W t-1) of respiration for the following storage temperatures
0 °C 10 °C 15.5 °C
Apples 10 -12 41 - 61 58 – 87
Bananas - 65 - 116 -
Beans 73 - 82 - 440 - 580
Reference: Carrots 46 93 -
Food
Processing Celery 21 58 - 81 -
Technology, Oranges 9 - 12 35 - 40 68
Second
Edition, CRC Lettuce 150 - 620
Press, Pears 8 – 20 23 - 63 -
WoodHead
Potatoes - 20 -30 -
publishing
limited, 2000 Strawberries 36 - 52 145 - 280 510
Tomatoes 57 - 75 - 78 20
IV. Cooling process
a. Refrigeration

Chilling can affect the organoleptic quality of fresh, unprocessed foods.

In some fruits, Chilling can contribute to:

• Decreased acidity.
• Inhibition of pigment synthesis and therefore color intensity.
• Modification of the aromatic profile.
• Induction of undesirable changes, if the refrigeration temperature is
below an optimum threshold (Chilling injury).

21
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling

The Chilling injury of the fruits can be manifested by:

• Internal and external browning.
• Maturation defects due to unbalanced metabolic activity.

Examples:
• Apples at temperatures below 2 – 3 °C.
• Bananas at temperatures below 12 – 13 °C.

22
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling

For unprocessed meat products:

• Anaerobic respiration takes place after slaughter, accompanied by a

drop in pH and rigor mortis.

• The application of cold is necessary during this phase to reduce

harmful meat processing..

23
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling
Examples of Fruit Temperature (°C) Relative Shelf life (days)
optimal cold humidity (%)
storage
conditions for Apricot - 0.5 – 0 90 7 – 14
certain fruits and Bananas 11 – 15.5 85 – 95 7 - 10
vegetables
Broccoli 0 95 10 - 14
Celery 0 95 30 – 60
Cucumber 10 - 15 90 - 95 10 -14
Eggplant 7 - 10 90 -95 7 - 10
Reference:
Food Processing Lettuce 0-1 95 – 100 14 - 20
Technology, Second Peach -0.5 – 0 90 14 - 30
Edition, CRC Press,
WoodHead publishing Strawberries -0.5 – 0 90 – 95 5-7
limited, 2000 Tomatoes 4 - 10 80 – 90 4-7
24
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling

For processed products:

• Temperature reduction slows the growth of most microbes.

• Refrigeration prevents the growth of thermophiles (optimum 55 –
65 °C) and most mesophiles (optimum 30 - 40°C).
• Some pathogens are able to grow at refrigerant temperatures.

25
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling Microorganism Growth min temp Typical foods
(°C)
Minimum growth Pathogens
temperatures of
Aeromonas hydrophilia 1–5 Raw milk, water, chicken, cheese, seafood
certain spoilage
microbes including Escherichia coli 4-7 Meat, fish, chicken, vegetables, cheese
pathogens* Vibrio parahaemolyticus 5 – 10 Crustaceans, oysters
Bacillus cereus 4 – 10 Products with spices and/or cereals
Yersinia enterocolitica -1 – 7 Red meats, seafood, milk, tofu
Salmonella enteriditis 5.2 – 6 Eggs, chickens, milk, meats, sauces
Clostridium botulinum I 10 Low-acid canned foods
Clostridium botulinum II 3.3 Smoked fish
Reference:
Food Processing Staphylococcus aureus 6 Dairy, cooked meats, seafood
Technology, Second Listeria monocytogenes -0.4 – 3 Milk and dairy products, ready-to-eat
Edition, CRC Press, sandwiches, salads (cabbage and meat))
WoodHead publishing Clostridium perfringens 12 Raw meats, chicken, fish, dairy products,
limited, 2000 dried foods, soups, spices, pasta 26
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling
Minimum growth
temperatures of
certain alteration Microorganism Growth min Typical foods
microbes including temperature (°C)
pathogens* - Altered microbes
Continued Certain lactic acid 0–5 Milk, dairy products, meats, fruit juices,
bacteria vegetables, sugar-containing products
Pseudomonas spp -3 – 0 The majority of refrigerated foods
Yeast (i.e. Candida spp), <0 Fruit juices, meat products, vegetables, dairy
Reference: and mould (i.e. Mucor products
Food Processing spp, Rhizopus spp)
Technology, Second
Edition, CRC Press,
WoodHead publishing
limited, 2000
27
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling

Interest of maintaining the cold chain:

• Maintaining the cold chain applied to the processed product is

necessary to maintain the quality and safety of the product.
• Rule of A. Monvoisin (1934)*:
1. Healthy raw material.
2. Chilling to be applied quickly after harvesting, fishing or
slaughtering.
3. Continuous application of constant cold temp at throughout
the product life cycle
28
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling
The continuous
cold chain

Reference figure: Frozen Food Science &

Technology. Ed. Judith A. Evans. Blackwell
Publising, 2008.
29
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling

The break in the cold chain leads to:

• Microbiological contamination.
• Reduced shelf life.
• Modification of sensory qualities including color.
• Economic losses.

30
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling
Solid food Chilling methods

• Air circulation: by ventilation of cooled air

Disadvantage: superficial dehydration of unpackaged products.

• Immersion in cold water or by vaporization:

Also called hydro-cooling: fast method.
The product is immersed in water or vaporized with cold water.

• Plate cooling: for thin-film products.

31
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling
Methods of refrigeration of solid foods during processing

• Cooling by ice addition: Simple and effective method (main application:

seafood).

• Vacuum cooling: Effective for products with a high surface area-to-

volume ratio to release internal water.

The products are placed in a vacuum chamber. The evaporation of water

from the product removes its heat (3 - 5 ° C less / 1% water removed)
Fast and economical method. 32
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling

Methods of refrigeration of solid foods during processing

• Cryogenic cooling*: rapid method by immersion of the product in liquid

nitrogen or other cryogenic agent (or its vaporization).
Disadvantage: risk of freezing of the surface of the product.

33
 IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling
Cryogenic cooling

CryoMetrix cryogenic refrigeration system

(source photo: https://www.cryometrix.com/)

34
IV. Cooling process
a. Chilling

Methods of refrigeration of liquid foods during processing

• Cooling after heat treatment

Refrigerant circulation near the liquid food (double jacket of the tanks).
Use of scraped surface tubular heat exchangers to cool the treated product
to refrigeration temperatures.

35
Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus

IV. Cooling processes:

a. Chilling
b.Freezing
c. Freeze-drying and Freeze concentration.
V. Post-processing operations
a. Packaging
b. Conditioning
c. Handling, storage and controls

36
IV. Cooling process
b. Freezing

• Cooling process more advanced than Chilling (refrigeration).

• The food treated by this technique is then cooled to temperatures
lower than the freezing point.
• The open water content then turns into solid ice, making the water
less available for spoilage of the food.
• As a result: the Aw of the food decreases.

37
IV. Cooling process
b. Freezing

• Freezing does not affect the sensory and nutritional properties of

the food too much.

• Textural properties may change as a result of freezing.

• The density of a product decreases with freezing.

38
IV. Cooling process
b. Freezing

At freezing temperatures, there is:

• Maximum reduction in the growth rate of microbes.

• All enzymatic reactions are also stopped.
• No deterioration possible for a food, but its quality can
deteriorate.

39
IV. Cooling process
b. Freezing

Water content and

freezing point of certain Food Percentage of Freezing point (°C)
foods water (%)
Vegetables 78 - 92 - 0.8 to – 2.8
Fruits 87 – 95 -0.9 to -2.7
Meat 55 – 70 -1.7 to – 2.2
Reference: Fish 65 – 81 - 0.6 to – 2.0
Food Processing
Technology, Second Milk 87 - 0.5
Edition, CRC Press, Eggs 74 - 0.5
WoodHead publishing
limited, 2000
40
IV. Cooling process
b. Freezing
Freezing speed can affect the textural quality of the processed solid food:

• Fast freezing allows to have small ice crystals which affects less the texture of
the product.

Freezing also requires continuity in the cold chain: transport and storage, which
increases the costs of the process.

41
IV. Cooling process
b. Freezing

• The freezing of a food is carried out by its exposure to an environment with

temperatures too low for a time that depends on the shape of the product
and its composition.

• The removal of latent and sensitive heat will lead to a decrease in the
temperature of the food and the conversion of its free water contents to a
solid state (ice crystals).).

42
IV. Procédé de refroidissement
b. Freezing
Solids freezing system

• Plate system: the food is placed for a period of time between two plates with
very low temperatures (no contact between the food and the refrigerant).

• Ventilated systems: the product is placed in a cold room in which air at very
low temperature circulates in forced convection (ventilation and direct air-
food contact)*.

43
IV. Cooling process
b. Freezing
The IQF (individual quick
freezing) system: very low
temperature air circulating at
very high speed (Air blast).

This system is designed for

foods with small product size
and ensures very fast
freezing.
Reference photo: Introduction to Food
Engineering, 4th edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh
& Dennis R. Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009 IQF continuous freezer with fluidized bed 44
IV. Cooling process
b. Freezing
Freezing by immersion

The product is reduced in size and then immersed in a liquid refrigerant bath
under conditions similar to those of IQF.

A conveyor allows the product to pass through the refrigerant bath for an
optimized time.

The liquid refrigerant can also be sprayed on the food instead of immersion.
45
IV. Cooling process
b. Freezing

Liquid nitrogen spray freezer

Reference:
Food Processing Technology,
Second Edition, CRC Press,
WoodHead publishing limited,
2000
46 45
IV. Cooling process
b. Freezing
Liquid freezing system

• Use of Scraped surface heat exchangers*:

the product in the form of "frozen sludge"
can still be pumped and packaged
properly.

Reference : Introduction to Food

Engineering, 4th edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh
& Dennis R. Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009
47
IV. Cooling process
b. Freezing

Ice cream freezing process

figure Reference : Frozen Food Science &

Technology. Ed. Judith A. Evans. Blackwell
Publising, 2008.
48
IV. Cooling process
b. Freezing
Undesirable Effects of freezing on food:

• Destabilization of emulsions.
• Possible precipitation of proteins.
• Downgrade of starch.
• Change in texture: tissues of animal origin are less sensitive.
• No effects on nutrients and sensory quality, except in the case of
prolonged storage.

49
IV. Cooling process
b. Freezing
To address the harmful effects of freezing on the texture of solid food
products:

• Isochoric freezing: applying high pressures to prevent water from turning to

ice while applying temperatures below freezing

Source photo: https://iifiir.org/

50
IV. Cooling process
b. Freezing

Vitamin losses during

freezing of certain
foods at -18°C for 12 Product Loss (%)
months Vit C Vit B1 Vit B2 Niacin Vit B6 Pantothenic Ac. Carotene

Beans 52 0 - 32 0 0 0 - 21 53 0 -23
Pea 11 0 - 16 0-8 0-8 7 29 0-4
Beef - 8 9 0 24 22 -
figure Reference :
Food Processing Technology, Fruits 18 29 17 16 - - 37
Second Edition, CRC Press,
WoodHead publishing limited,
2000
51
IV. Cooling process
b. Freezing
Shelf life

The International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR) defines shelf life as the period
after which a cumulative and irreversible reduction in the quality of the product
is achieved so that it is no longer suitable for consumption..

52
IV. Cooling process
b. Freezing Product Shelf life (months)
- 12 °C - 18 °C - 24 °C
Examples of
Beef carcass 8 15 24
frozen food shelf
life Whole chicken 9 18 > 24
Liver 4 12 18
Ground beef 6 10 15

Product Shelf life (months)

Figure reference:
- 7 °C - 12 °C - 18 °C
Food Processing Technology, Green beans 1 3.1 9.8
Second Edition, CRC Press,
Cauliflower 0.4 2 9.7
WoodHead publishing limited,
2000 Pea 1 3 10.1
Spinach 0.76 1.9 6.2 53
IV. Cooling process
b. Freezing

Freezing
diagram

Temperature (°C)

figure Reference : Introduction to

Food Engineering, 4th edition, Ed.
R. Paul Singh & Dennis R.
Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009
Heat removed (kJ/kg) 54
Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus

IV. Cooling processes:

a. Chilling
b.Freezing
c. Freeze-drying and Freeze concentration.
V. Post-processing operations
a. Packaging
b. Conditioning
c. Handling, storage and controls

55
IV. Cooling process
c. Freeze-drying and Freeze concentration

Freeze-drying is a drying/dewatering technique based on freezing.

The water in a food first freezes into ice, then sublimation

transforms it into steam, which dries out the product and reduces its
water activity Aw.

Freeze-drying is a drying technique that is characterized by the high

quality of dehydrated products.
56
IV. Cooling process
c. Freeze-drying and Freeze concentration
Souce photo: https://www.maisonducafe.com/

Examples of freeze-dried
food products Instant
soluble
coffee

Herbs

Freeze-dried
shrimp

Souce photo: https://www.epices-fuchs.fr/

57
Souce photo: https://www.menu.it/
IV. Cooling process
c. Freeze-drying and Freeze concentration

(a) (b)

(a) Freeze-dried strawberry

(b) Freeze-dried cranberry
(c) Freeze-dried raspberry
(d) Freeze-dried chives

(c)
(d)

figure Reference : Frozen Food Science &

Technology. Ed. Judith A. Evans. Blackwell
Publising, 2008.
58
IV. Cooling process
c. Freeze-drying and Freeze concentration

Pure water status

diagram

P1
Reference : Éditions techniques
de l’ingénieur. Lyophilisation,
Michèle Marin et Frédéric René.
2005

59
IV. Cooling process
c. Freeze-drying and Freeze concentration

Freeze-drying Freeze-drying chamber

equipment
Product

Heating
plate

Reference figure: Éditions

techniques de l’ingénieur.
Lyophilisation, Michèle Marin et ICE
Frédéric René. 2005
Condenser Vacuum pump

60
IV. Cooling process
c. Freeze-drying and Freeze concentration

Source photo: https://www.usinenouvelle.com/

Source photo: https://vikumer.com/industrial-food-freeze-

dryers
61
IV. Cooling process
c. Freeze-drying and Freeze concentration

Cudden Freeze Dry

industrial freeze
dryer

Photo reference: Frozen Food Science &

Technology. Ed. Judith A. Evans. Blackwell
Publising, 2008.
62
IV. Cooling process
c. Freeze-drying and Freeze concentration

Photo reference: Frozen Food Science &

Technology. Ed. Judith A. Evans. Blackwell
Publising, 2008. 63
IV. Cooling process
c. Freeze-drying and Freeze concentration
Comparison Hot air drying Freez Drying
between hot air Suitable for easily dehydrable Suitable for all foods and
drying and freeze- foods (vegetables and seeds)) successfully conducted for hard-to-
drying dry food

Not satisfactory for meat Satisfactory with meat products

Temperature range 37 – 93 °C Temperatures below freezing

Atmospheric pressure Reduced pressures (27 – 133 Pa)*

Reference :
Food Processing Technology, Evaporation of water from the Sublimation of ice water
Second Edition, CRC Press, surface
WoodHead publishing limited,
2000 64
IV. Cooling process
c. Freeze-drying and Freeze concentration
Hot air drying freeze-drying
Comparison
Solute movement and crust formation Minimum movement of solutes
between hot air
drying and Modification of texture and Minimal structural changes
freeze-drying - appearance of cracks and shrinkage
continued Slow and incomplete rehydration Fast and complete rehydration

The solid porous foods obtained have The porous solids obtained have a
higher densities lower density
Reference :
Food Processing Technology,
Abnormal taste and smell Normal taste and smell
Second Edition, CRC Press,
WoodHead publishing limited,
2000 65
IV. Cooling process
c. Freeze-drying and Freeze concentration
Comparison
between hot air
drying and Hot air drying freeze-drying
freeze-drying - Darker color Normal color that approximates the
Continued initial color

Reduced nutritional value Nutrients are saved

Low installation and operating High installation and operating costs

Reference : costs
Food Processing Technology,
Second Edition, CRC Press,
WoodHead publishing limited,
2000 66
IV. Cooling process
c. Freeze-drying and Freeze concentration

Vitamin
Food Loss (%)
losses during Vit C Vit A Thiamine Riboflavin Folic acid Niacin Pantothenic Ac.
freeze-drying
Beans 26 - 0- - 0 - 10 -
60 24
Pea 8– 5 0 - - 0 10
30
Reference : Orange 3 3-5 - - elevation - -
Food Processing juice
Technology, Second Beef - - <10 0 - 0 56
Edition, CRC Press,
WoodHead publishing
limited, 2000
67
IV. Cooling process
c. Freeze-drying and Freeze concentration

Freeze concentration is a method used for liquid foods and allows:

• The crystallization of water into ice and its elimination.

• The concentration of the liquid feed to a higher total solid
concentration values.

The technique is used at very low temperatures which makes it

possible to retain the sensory qualities of the concentrated liquid
feed.
68
IV. Cooling process
c. Freeze-drying and Freeze concentration

Freeze
concentration unit

Reference:
Food Processing
Technology, Second
Edition, CRC Press,
WoodHead publishing
limited, 2000
69
IV. Cooling process
c. Freeze-drying and Freeze concentration

Freeze concentration unit for fruit

juices

Source photo:
http://www.juicemakingmachine.com/

70