REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

PRINCIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

•Laws of thermodynamics
(a)First Law of Thermodynamics
This law states that heat and work are mutually convertible
(b)Second Law of Thermodynamics
*Kelvin-plank statement
“It is impossible to construct a device which operates on a cycle
and produces no other effect than the production of work and
the transfer of heat from a single body”.
*Clausius statement
“It is impossible to design a device which works on a cycle
and produce no other effect other than heat transfer
from a cold body to a hot body.”
 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
•Conduction
Transfer of heat energy from one particle to another by direct contact
•Convection
Transfer of heat energy in fluids (gases and liquids) through the bulk movement of matter from one place to another
•Radiation
Heat transfer by electromagnetic waves
FORMATION OF STEAM
• Sensible heat
When a substance is heated and the temperature rises as the heat is added, the increase in heat with out change of its
state is called sensible heat .
• Latent heat
The latent heat is the amount of heat required to change the state of a substance with out change of temperature
For ice 335kJ/kg.
•Total heat
Sum of sensible heat and latent heat
•Melting
The temperature for change from solid state to liquid state or vice versa, is called melting or freezing.
The temperature for change from liquid phase to vapour phase and vice versa, is the boiling or condensing.
Similarly the temperature for change between soilid state to vapour state is called sublimation.
• Ablimation: Vapour to solid
• Triple point temperature
At triple point the soilid,liquid and vapour phases are in equilibrium
•Critical temperature;
Temperature at and above which vapour of the substance can not be liquefied
•Critical pressure
The critical pressure of a substance is the pressure required to liquefy a gas at its critical temperature.
•Enthalpy
A thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat content of a system. It is equal to the internal energy of the system
plus the product of pressure and volume.
H=U+PV
•Entropy
Entropy is defined as a measure of randomness or disorder of a system.
 REFRIGERATION

• THE SCIENCE OF PROVIDING AND MAINTAINING TEMPERATURE BELOW THAT OF SURROUNDING ATMOSHERE

• Methods of refrigeration-
1- ice refrigeration
2-dry ice refrigeration
3- air expansion refrigeration
4- evaporative cooling
5-liquid evaporation refrigeration
6- steam jet refrigeration
 ICE REFRIGERATION
•In this method the ordinary ice is used for keeping the
space at temperature below the surrounding temperature.
•The temperature of ice is considered to be 0 degree Celsius
hence it can be used to maintain the temperatures of about
5 to 10 degree Celsius.
• To use the ice for refrigerating effect a closed and insulated
chamber is required.
• On one side of the chamber ice is kept while on the other
side there is a space which is to be cooled where some
material to be cooled can be placed.
• If the temperature below 0 degree Celsius is required,
then the mixture of ice and salt is used.
•This method of cooling is still being used for cooling the
cold drinks, keeping the water chilled in thermos, etc.
 DRY ICE REFRIGERATION
•Dry ice is the solid carbon dioxide having the temperature of -
78 degree Celsius.
• Dry ice converts directly from solid state to gaseous; this
process is called as sublimation.
•Dry ice can be pressed into various sizes and shapes as blocks
or slabs.
•Dry ice is usually packed in the frozen food cartons along with
the food that has to be kept frozen for long intervals of time.
•When the dry ice gets converted into vapor state it keeps the
food frozen.
• The process of dry ice refrigeration is now-a-days being used
for freezing the food in aircraft transportation.
 LIQUID EVAPORATION REFRIGERATION

• Liquid evaporates by absorbing heat .It absorbs latent heat of vaporisation from its
surroundings, and produces coldness.
• Liquid gas is filled in a well insulated cylinder and its quantity is regulated by means
of a valve
•Liquid gas is sprayed in the refrigerated space through nozzles.
•The liquid gas evaporates producing low temperature in the refrigerated space
•When the temperature rises above the required temperature ,the temperature
controller opens the liquid line and liquid nitrogen enters in to the spray header
where it becomes vapour and maintains the desired temperature
•The temperature produced may be below -20C
•This method is used for cooling the vehicles transporting fruits ,vegetables ,meat,
fish and other food stuff.
•The gas after absorbing heat from the refrigerated space is released to atmosphere.
 STEAM JET REFRIGERATION
Steam jet or Ejector refrigeration system uses water as refrigerant. It uses the
basic principle of boiling of liquid at lower temperature by reducing pressure
on its surface.
•This system employs a steam ejector or booster instead of mechanical
compressor. The main components are flash chamber or evaporator, steam
nozzles, ejector and condenser.
•The flash chamber is heavily insulated and is fitted with perforated pipes
which spray warm water coming out of refrigerated space. Some of this water is
converted into vapours after absorbing latent heat from the rest of the water,
thereby cooling it. Loss of water through vapours is made up from make-up
water line. High pressure steam from boiler is passed through steam nozzle
thereby increasing its velocity. This entrains water vapours from flash chamber
and results in further formation of vapours.
•The mixture of steam and water vapour passes through venturi-tube of ejector
and gets compressed. This leads to rise in temperature and pressure of the
mixture and then it is fed to the water cooled condenser.
•The condensate is again fed to boiler as feed water.
•Steam jet refrigeration system is widely used in paper mills, breweries, food
processing plants, gas plants etc. Since water is the refrigerant, it cannot be
used for applications below 0°C.
Advantages:
• It is flexible in operation; cooling capacity can be easily and quickly changed.
• It has no moving parts as such it is vibration free.
• It can be installed out of doors.
• The weight of the system per ton of refrigerating capacity is less.
• The system is very reliable and maintenance cost is less.
• The system is particularly adapted to the processing of cold water used in rubber mills,, distilleries, paper mills, food
processing plants, etc.
• This system is particularly used in air-conditioning installations, because of the complete safety of water as refrigerant and
ability to adjust quickly to load variations and no hazard from the leakage of the refrigerant
Disadvantages:
• The use of direct evaporation to produce chilled water is usually limited as tremendous volume of vapor is to be handled.
• About twice as much heat must be removed in the condenser of steam jet per ton of refrigeration compared with the vapor
compression system.
• The system is useful for comfort air-conditioning, but it is not practically feasible for water temperature below 40 C.
 APPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION

1.Presevation of medicines ,blood and human tissues like eyes etc.by refrigeration.
2.Manufacture of ice.
3.Storage and transportation of food stuff such as dairy products fruits,vegetables,fish,meat etc.
4.Processing of textiles and printing work.
5.Cooling of concrete for dams.
6.Processing of petroleum and other chemical products.
7.Production of rocket fuels.
8.Functioning of computers and computerised NC machines
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HEAT ENGINE,
REFRIGERATOR AND HEAT PUMP
HEAT ENGINE
 REFRIGERATION EFFECT:
• The cooling effect produced by a refrigerating machine in a given time is known as its refrigerating effect. It is
expressed as kJ/sec
UNIT OF REFRIGERATION
•Capacity of refrigeration unit is generally defined in ton of refrigeration(TR).
•A ton of refrigeration is defined as the quantity of heat to be removed in order to form one ton (1000 kg) of ice at 0ºC in
24 hrs, from liquid water at 0ºC. This is equivalent to 3.5 kJ/s (3.5 kW) or 210 kJ/min.

COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE
•C O P is the ratio of refrigeration effect to work input
REFRIGERATING EFFECT
•C O P =
WORK INPUT

(Heat absorbed) 𝐿𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅 𝑇𝐸𝑀𝑃𝐸𝑅𝐴𝑇𝑈𝑅𝐸

•C O P = = (for refrigerator)
(Heat rejected−Heat absorbed) 𝐻𝐼𝐺𝐻𝐸𝑅 𝑇𝐸𝑀𝑃𝐸𝑅𝐴𝑇𝑈𝑅𝐸−𝐿𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅 𝑇𝐸𝑀𝑃𝐸𝑅𝐴𝑇𝑈𝑅𝐸

(Heat rejected) 𝐻𝐼𝐺𝐻𝐸𝑅 𝑇𝐸𝑀𝑃𝐸𝑅𝐴𝑇𝑈𝑅𝐸

•COP= = (for heat pump)
(Heat rejected−Heat absorbed) 𝐻𝐼𝐺𝐻𝐸𝑅 𝑇𝐸𝑀𝑃𝐸𝑅𝐴𝑇𝑈𝑅𝐸−𝐿𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅 𝑇𝐸𝑀𝑃𝐸𝑅𝐴𝑇𝑈𝑅𝐸
 QUESTIONS
1)- Find the COP of the refrigerating system if the work input is 150 kJ/kg and the refrigerating effect produced is 300kJ/kg
of refrigerant ?

2)- A refrigerating plant extracts heat 6,50,000 kJ/hr from the system .Determine the capacity of the plant in tons of
refrigeration ?

3)-A cold storage plant is supplied 1000 kg of fruits at 250 C .The temperature is to be maintained at -100 C in 10 hours . The
latent heat of freezing of fruits is 285 kJ/kg and specific heat of fruits is 3.768 kJ/kg K above freezing point and 2.5 kJ/kg K
below freezing point .fruits freeze at -20 C .find the capacity of the plant ?

4)-8000 litres of water at 250 C is to be converted into ice at -40 C in one day .find the capacity of the refrigeration system .
Take specific heat of ice = 2 kJ/kg K,latent heat of ice = 336 kJ/kg and specific heat of water = 4.2kJ/kg K ?
 AIR REFRIGERATION
(1)Open air refrigeration systems
• In this system the air refrigerant is circulated through the cold room which is actual space to be cooled and comes in
direct contact with the products placed in refrigerated space at atmospheric pressure.
• The air undergoes compression ,cooling and expansion.
• The air after expansion is directly led to the conditioned space at atmospheric pressure.
• The air used in the refrigerated space is thrown into the atmosphere.
• In the open air system ,heat exchanger is not required for refrigeration process
• (2)Closed air refrigeration systems
 AIR REFRIGERATION CYCLE:
• Basic assumptions
1.Air is used as working fluid.
2.No change of phase through out.
3.Cp and Cv are constant through out cycle.
4.Compression and expansion assumed to be isentropic.
5.Heat carrying capacity/kg of air is verysmall compared with other refrigerant systems.
 CARNOT REFRIGERATION CYCLE(REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE)
•Reversed carnot cycle
•It is a theoretical cycle and has highest possible efficiency
•A reversed Carnot cycle is a refrigeration cycle consisting of four reversible processes as shown in P-V and T-S diagrams.
•The four basic components of the refrigeration systems are
(a)Compressor (b)heat rejection device (c)expander (d)Cold chamber
Assume one kg of air is taken as working substance in the cylinder

• Consists of 4 processes
• 1.Isentropic Compression 1-2
• 2.Isothermal Compression 2-3
• 3.Isentropic Expansion 3-4
• 4.Isothermal Expansion 4-1
REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE
COP OF CARNOT CYCLE
 questions
• An air refrigerating plant working on carnot cycle between the temperature limits of 30 0C and -5 0C has a capacity of
10tons. Determine the power input to the plant
• A 15 T refrigeration system works on reversed carnot cycle between -5 C and 20 C .find (a) COP (b) Heat rejected fron
system per hour (c) rating of compressor if its overall efficiency is 75 %
• A Refrigeration system operates on reversed carnot cycle .The highest temperature of the refrigerant in the system is
30C and the lower temperature is 10 0C .The capacity is 10 TR .neglect all losses . Determine (a) COP (b) heat
rejected from the system per hour (c) power required
• An air refrigeration system working on carnot cycle requires 6.2 kW. It works between the temperature limits of 34 0C
and -100 C .Determine the capacity of the plant in tons of refrigeration
AIR REFRIGERATION WORKING ON BELL-COLEMAN CYCLE

Consists of 4 processes
1.Isentropic Compression 1-2
2.Constant pressure Cooling 2-3
3.Isentropic Expansion 3-4
4.Constant pressure Expansion 4-1
 ADVANTAGES OF AIR REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
• •Cheap and abundant refrigerant, highly reliable: Air is used as refrigerant, which is easily available and inexpensive.
• •Charging of refrigerant is very easy.
• •Design and construction is simple, No complicated parts and its maintenance cost is low.
• •Refrigerant (Air) is non-toxic, non-flammable, non-corrosive. There is no danger of any kind of leakage.
• •There is no phase change (liquid- gas) during the operation of system.

DISADVANTAGES OF AIR REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

• •Lower C.O.P. compared to other refrigeration cycle.
• •Running cost is high.
• •The mass of air required to circulate in the system is very high when compared to other type of refrigeration cycle
due to low specific heat capacity.
• •System components are bulky, large space per ton of refrigeration.
• •The chance of frosting at expander is more due to moisture content in the air.
 A VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION:-
•A vapour compression refrigeration system is an improved type of air refrigeration system in which a suitable working
substance, termed as refrigerant, is used.
•It condenses and evaporates at temperatures and pressures close to atmospheric conditions.
•The refrigerants, usually used for this purpose are ammonia (NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2) and Sulphur dioxide (SO2).
•The vapour compression Refrigeration system is nowadays used for all purpose refrigeration.
•It is generally used for all industrial purpose from a small domestic refrigerator to a big air conditioning plant.
 COMPONENTS OF SIMPLE VCR

• Main components are;

• •Compressor
• •Condenser
• •Expansion Devices
• •Evaporator
• The figure shows the basic components of a vapor compression refrigeration system.
•As shown in the figure the basic system consists of an evaporator, compressor, condenser and an expansion valve.
• The refrigeration effect is obtained in the cold region as heat is extracted by the vaporization of refrigerant in the
evaporator.
•The refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is compressed in the compressor to a high pressure at which its saturation
temperature is greater than the ambient or any other heat sink.
•Hence when the high pressure, high-temperature refrigerant flows through the condenser, condensation of the vapor into
liquid takes place by heat rejection to the heat sink.
• To complete the cycle, the high-pressure liquid is made to flow through an expansion valve. In the expansion valve the
pressure and temperature of the refrigerant decrease.
•This low pressure and low-temperature refrigerant vapor evaporates in the evaporator taking heat from the cold region.
• It should be observed that the system operates on a closed cycle. The system requires input in the form of mechanical
work.
•It extracts heat from a cold space and rejects heat to a high-temperature heat sink.
• A refrigeration system can also be used as a heat pump, in which the useful output is the high-temperature heat rejected
at the condenser.
• Alternatively, a refrigeration system can be used for providing cooling in summer and heating in winter.
• Such systems have been built and are available now
PRINCIPLE PARTS
TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY CHART(T-S CHART)
 DRYNESS FRACTION
• Dryness fraction is defined as the ratio of mass of dry steam (vapour) to combined mass of dry steam (vapour) & mass
of liquid in mixture. It is denoted by x

• For saturated liquid x = 0

• For saturated vapour = 1
• The value of dryness fraction lies between 0 and 1.
ENTHALPY AND ENTROPY
ANALYSIS OF VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
ON T-S AND P-H DIAGRAMS
 FACTORS EFFECTING THE PERFORMANCE OF A VAPOUR
COMPRESSION SYSTEM
• 1)Effect of Sub Cooling
• i).Increases the refrigeration effect.
• ii).Increases the cop of the cycle .
2)Effect of superheating:
1.Increases the refrigeration effect
2. The increase in work is more as
compared to increase in refrigerating effect .
3. superheating may increase or decreases C.O.P.
• 3)Effect of Suction Pressure
• i)Decrease in Refrigerating effect
• ii)Increase in Compressor Work
• iii)Decrease in COP
• iv)Decrease in Volumetric efficiency due to increase in pressure ratio
• 4)Effect of Discharge Pressure
• i)Decrease in refrigerating capacity
• ii)Decrease in COP
• iii)Decrease in volumetric efficiency
• iv)Increase in power consumption
• v)Increase in compressor work
 USE OF ACCUMULATOR AND FLASH CHAMBER
• Flash Chamber
•The partly evaporated liquid refrigerant is known an flash. It is a mixture of liquid
and vapour.
•A flash chamber is an insulated tank fitted after the expansion valve but before the
evaporator in the vapour compression system.
•The liquid refrigerant when passed through the expansion valve it evaporates partly.
•The purpose of flash Chamber is to separate the vapour and liquid and supply only
liquid to the evaporator.
• The liquid refrigerant collects at the bottom and vapour at the top. The vapour is
directly connected to the compressor in take. The only liquid collected in the flash
chamber is taken to the evaporator
•The use of flash chamber has no effect on thermodynamic cycle. The refrigeration
effect, COP and power required etc., remains same.
•It only reduces the mass of refrigerant flowing through the evaporator which helps
to reduce the size of evaporator.
• Accumulator
• •The Accumulator is a small hollow cylinder fitted at the end of the evaporator.
• •Any liquid that may be carried over from the evaporator falls into bottom of the Accumulator and prevents liquid
entering in to the compressor.
• •The refrigerant vapour alone enters in to the compressor.
• •The liquid collected in the accumulator slowly vapourises or some times liquid refrigerant may be pumped back to
evaporator.
QUESTION