Fire Sa[ety Journal 23 (1994) 1-16

~) 1994 Elsevier Science Limited

Printed in Northern Ireland. All rights reserved
0379-7112/94]$07.00
ELSEVIER

Fire Engineering for a Performance Based Code*

A n d r e w H. B u c h a n a n

University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

(Received 11 October 1993; revised version received 1 February 1994;
accepted 18 February 1994)

ABSTRACT
This paper describes recent fire code developments in New Zealand. A
new performance based code has recently been introduced, leading to
major changes in the fire safety design o f buildings. The code requires
specific fire engineering design for certain buildings, and permits it as an
option for all buildings.
This new regime has created enormous interest in fire safety among
designers. A Design Guide is being produced to give guidance to those
making and approving designs, and a major educational effort is
underway, including a series o f national seminars and a new degree in
fire engineering.

INTRODUCTION
Prescriptive codes
Building codes for fire have evolved very slowly over the past 100 years.
New technology for fire protection and changing industrial practices
have resulted in increasingly complex and detailed codes, but in
general, most codes in all countries continue to be prescriptive
documents as described by Cohn. l Prescriptive (or specification type)
codes often specify their requirements with no statement of objectives,
little or no opportunity to consider alternative strategies, no place for
engineering calculations, and no flexibility to adapt to unusual
situations.
For the past 30 years, the fire design of buildings in New Zealand has

* This paper was presented at Interflam '93, Oxford, March 1993.

1
2 A . H . Buchanan

been based on a prescriptive code. 2 That document specified require-

ments for fire resisting construction and means of escape, but it had no
stated objectives and was very difficult to adapt to unusual situations. A
draft revision of that document in 19843 was never adopted because of
conflict resulting from insufficient consultation with certain major
parties during the drafting process. The 1992 legislation has resulted in
a new performance based building code which is described in more
detail below.

Performance based codes

Much has been written in recent years about the desirability of

performance or goal-oriented codes. Such a code should:
1. State its objectives clearly.
2. Specify performance requirements.
3. Permit any solution that meets the performance requirements.
A performance based code will allow the use of new knowledge as it
becomes available. The performance goals should preferably specify a
level of safety that is independent of prescriptive building codes, in
contrast to simply specifying code-equivalent performance.
Performance requirements can be descriptive, but it is much better if
they can be quantified. Quantifiable performance requirements can be
specified separately for different parts of the fire safety system using a
simple deterministic approach with suitable safety factors. A holistic
performance based code will require a probabilistic performance
statement for the whole building, including all aspects of the fire safety
system.
This will require recognition of the likelihood of ignition, and the
trade off between reliability and complexity of the whole system and
component parts, including the influence of building management and
maintenance over the life of the building. There is also a most
important trade-off between accuracy and simplicity in the design
process. A detailed and complicated code may give an illusion of
accuracy which cannot be achieved because of the difficulty of
modelling complex phenomena and the possibility of human error in
the design process.
Many recent 'performance' based codes possess very few of the
desirable attributes listed above. The New Zealand code is a major step
in the right direction, with an excellent code structure but no way of
quantifying performance or safety.
The New Zealand code is similar in concept to the regulations
 Fire engineering for a performance based code

adopted in England and Wales in 1985, but these regulations have not
resulted in the significant use of specific fire engineering design, because
the Approved Document can be used for all buildings.
The draft Australian code 4 is a much more ambitious attempt to
produce a probabilistic performance based fire code. It is based on a
comprehensive risk assessment model which is still under development.
It will be several years before the risk assessment model is suitable for
general use. The present draft specifies code-equivalent performance,
although it is planned to develop a code-independent performance
statement.

Risk assessment models

The major obstacle to quantifiable performance based codes is the lack

of a technique for assessing the fire safety of a building in quantifiable
terms. A probabilistic risk assessment model will be an essential part of
the next generation of performance based codes. Because of the
uncertainties in fire outbreak and subsequent behaviour, assessment
models must be probabilistic rather than deterministic.
There are many difficulties with risk assessment models, including the
following: the degree of precision and complexity of the model must be
matched to the accuracy with which the poorest input data and the
poorest modelling subroutines can operate. In view of the inherent
inaccuracies of such models, they cannot be used as accurate predictive
tools, but are much better used for comparing the effectiveness of
various strategies.
Preliminary models have been developed at the University of
Canterbury: These studies quantified fire performance with two
indices; a loss index representing the value of damage as a ratio of the
capital cost of the building, and a safety index representing the
probability of escape routes being blocked. A much more detailed and
comprehensive risk assessment model is under development in Austra-
lia, following the work of the Warren C e n t r e : A recent overview of fire
risk analysis is given by Hall. 7

N E W Z E A L A N D B U I L D I N G C O D E 1992
General

Following a long gestation, a new Building Act 8 was passed into law in
December 1991. This Act consolidates a wide range of previous
legislation relating to building construction, establishes the Building
4 A. I-1. Buchanan

Industry Authority, and requires all new construction to be in ac-

cordance with the Building Code.
The principal concern of the Building Act is with the health and
safety of building occupiers, including structural stability, access, safety
of users, services and facilities. Secondary provisions include energy
efficiency, fire fighting access, and prevention of fire spread to other
buildings. The Act does not require controls on fire spread or fire
damage within the fire building.
Each section of the Code specifies performance with a five level
structure, as follows:

1. objective,
2. functional requirement,
3. performance,
4. verification method,
5. acceptable solution.

The first three levels are mandatory requirements. To meet these

requirements, the designer may use the means of compliance specified
at level four or level five, or any other method provided that
compliance with the first three levels can be demonstrated.
In structural design, for example, existing loading codes and materials
design standards are referenced as Verification Methods at level four.
Prescriptive building standards are referenced as Acceptable Solutions
at level five.

Fire requirements

The fire safety requirements are divided into four categories:

C1. outbreak of fire,

C2. means of escape,
C3. spread of fire,
C4. structural stability during fire.

For each category, the requirements at the first three levels are listed in
the Appendix. The fire provisions of the new Building Code have
caused major problems for designers because there are no approved
Verification Methods at level 4, and the previously existing Standard
was not listed as an Acceptable Solution at level 5.
 Fire engineering for a performance based code

A new Acceptable Solution has been prepared by the Building

Industry Authority. 9 This is a prescriptive document, but it has
significant advantages over the previous standard, including comments
explaining the intent of some clauses, good illustrations, and a fire
engineering basis for some sections. The fire resistance ratings of walls
and floors have been obtained using an equivalent fire severity formula
from the draft ISO Code. 1°
The Acceptable Solution does not apply to buildings with very high
fire load (greater than 1500 MJ/m 2 floor area). Specific fire engineering
design is required for these buildings, as well as for certain other
situations such as firecells with inadequate ventilation. Specific fire
engineering design is also used for the provision of property protection
because the Acceptable Solution does not provide that.
Although specific fire engineering design is required for certain
buildings and permitted for all buildings, the procedures and objectives
for such design are not well established.
The performance requirements do not quantify the level of safety
required, so a large degree of fire engineering experience and judge-
ment is necessary.

DESIGN GUIDE

The fire provisions of the new Building Code have resulted in major
concern within the building design community, because there has been
very little fire engineering expertise in New Zealand.
In recognition of the need for a uniform approach, A Study Group
has been established by the New Zealand Structural Engineering
Society and the New Zealand Fire Protection Association, to produce a
Design Guide 11 for fire engineering design of buildings. The Study
Group has representatives of all of the major fire interest groups in
New Zealand, including the Fire Service, the Building Research
Association, the Institution of Fire Engineers, the universities, building
materials industries, the insurance industry, the fire protection industry
and fire engineering consultants. The objective of the Design Guide is
to provide guidance to those wishing to carry out or review specific fire
engineering designs to meet the performance requirements of the New
Zealand Building Code, and any additional requirements of the
building owner.
6 A . H . Buchanan

I Determine geometry.,construction ] Establish performance

~'t and use of the building requirements
1
E s ~ e maximumlikely fuel R~ls

Esti~te maximum likely number

of occupants and theft locations

Assume certain fire I

protection features
I
Can'y-! out fire engineering analysis
vl
f Modify fire
safety features
A
NO

Accept design
Fig. 1. Outline of fire engineering design procedure.

Strategy

T h e overall strategy of the Design Guide is shown in the flow chart in

Fig. 1. T h e first two steps are to d e t e r m i n e the geometry, construction
and use of the building and to establish p e r f o r m a n c e requirements.
T h e design p r o c e d u r e is essentially a 'trial and error' process to
analyse the likely effects of a fire, given the worst likely location and
time of ignition. Knowledge of the fuel loads, the n u m b e r and location
of occupants and the fire protection features are essential for assessing
w h e t h e r the p e r f o r m a n c e criteria are met. Some parts of the analysis
can be quantified with numbers, but m u c h of the analysis requires
subjective j u d g e m e n t as to the likely m o v e m e n t and consequences of a
fire. If the p e r f o r m a n c e criteria are not met, then either the building
geometry or the fire protection features must be modified until
satisfactory p e r f o r m a n c e is achieved.
 Fire engineering for a performance based code

Fire protection features

Fire protection features which can be provided or modified by the
designer include the following:
Compartmentation and structural Occupant safety
fire resistance (passive measures) Communication systems
Compartmentation, size of firecells Escape routes
Type of finish on building materials Protected paths, safe paths
Fire resisting barriers Number of exitways
Fire stopping, concealed spaces Width, etc., of exitways
Smoke resisting barriers Emergency lighting, signs
Smoke stopping Defend in place
Fire resisting structure Fire Service access and safety
Openings in external walls
Detection and suppression systems Smoke movement systems
(active measures) (active measures)
Heat detectors Natural smoke movement
Smoke detectors Mechanical smoke movement
Sprinkler system H V A C systems
Fire hose reels, extinguishers Pressurization
Riser mains
Fire fighting
Fire Service operations
Water supplies available for Fire Service and sprinklers
Collection of water from hazardous substance fires

Acceptable performance
Building designers have a legal responsibility to meet the first three
levels of the performance requirements. In many cases there will be
additional requirements of the owner or tenant. In general terms, a
building is considered to have acceptable performance, if, in the
judgement of the design engineer:
1. the design of the building and the activities within the building do
not present an unreasonable probability of fire occurring, and
2. in the event of a fire, the following can be achieved with a
reasonable degree of certainty:
(a) all occupants will have adequate time to escape to a safe
place without being overcome by the effects of the fire;
(b) the Fire Service will have adequate time and suitable access
to undertake rescue operations and to protect property;
8 A.H. Buchanan

(c) the fire will not spread to other firecells within an acceptable
time;
(d) the fire will not spread to adjacent household units and
other property;
(e) significant quantities of hazardous substances will not be
released to the environment;
(f) the contents of the building will not be seriously damaged;
(g) the building itself will not be seriously damaged;
(h) any damage to the building will be easily repairable.
Note that items 2(a)-2(e) are a summary of the requirements of the
New Zealand Building Code, which are listed in full in the Appendix.
The remaining items will be requirements of the owner or tenant, or the
insurer of the building or its contents, to be determined in consultation
with the design engineer.

Fire engineering analysis

The fire engineering analysis is the most difficult part of the design. A
proposed outline is, for each room in turn, to consider the consequences
of a fire occurring with the assumed fire safety measures in place,
following the steps below:
1. Assume the worst or most likely location for first ignition.
2. Assume the worst likely arrangement of combustible materials.
3. Estimate the rate of fire development, temperature rise and
smoke production.
4. Estimate the activation time for detection and suppression
systems.
5. Throughout the development and burning phases, consider the
likely movement of:
People Smoke, by Fire, by
number natural convection conduction --barriers
location forced convection convection -----openings
notification mechanical plant --penetrations
response ---concealed spaces
rate of --gaps or
movement weaknesses
safety of radiation --across shafts
route - - t o other
buildings.
. For life safety, continue the analysis until all occupants are
deemed to be safe.
 Fire engineering for a performance based code 9

7. For neighbouring property and public safety, continue the

analysis for the full duration of the fire to ensure that external
walls do not collapse and external openings do not increase in
area.
8. For the owner's property protection, continue the analysis for the
full duration of the fire to ensure damage beyond the firecell of
origin is minimised.
9. Repeat the procedure with altered parameters.
The following assumptions are considered to be reasonable in the fire
engineering analysis:
(a) If sprinklers are present, assume that they operate, and always
limit the fire to a certain size. There is always a small probability
that sprinklers will not control the size of the fire, especially
after an earthquake. The designer should consider the conse-
quences of this possibility within the overall context of the
building's fire safety.
(b) Ignore the possible use of fire hose reels or portable extin-
guishers on fire growth because they will not always be used
successfully (conservative assumption).
(c) Ignore the effect of Fire Service intervention on the initial fire
growth because of uncertainty about time of arrival.
(d) Assume that the design fire load is less than the total fire load if
the available Fire Service facilities with adequate water supplies
can be relied upon to interrupt the growth and spread of the
fire.
The analysis should be repeated for different times of day, different
locations of ignition, different activities of the building, different
arrangements of doors and windows, etc.
The analysis may be done by hand calculation, or using fire growth
computer models. In either case, detailed knowledge and experience of
fire behaviour in buildings is essential.
Large scale fire tests may be used in special situations as part of the
fire engineering analysis.

FIRE E N G I N E E R I N G CALCULATIONS

Improved understanding of fire behaviour in the last 10-20 years has

dramatically increased the number of aspects of fire design that can be
assessed by numerical calculation, including:
10 A. H. Buchanan

1. Fire growth and spread.

2. Smoke production and movement.
3. Occupant response, escape route design.
4. Design of active systems
--detection
--sprinklers, water supplies
--smoke control.
5. Passive systems, structural performance.
6. Fire spread by flame and radiation.
The New Zealand Design Guide encourages the use of engineering
calculations wherever possible, based on a thorough understanding of
fire behaviour described in texts such as Drysdale 12 and using design
methods such as those in the SFPE Handbook. 13
Designers are encouraged to use computer based fire growth models
for assessing the growth of fires to flashover. Such models permit
calculation of times to response of detectors or sprinklers, and the rate
of lowering of the smoke layer leading to untenable conditions in the
fire compartment. This can be combined with a speed of travel model to
estimate occupant safety. F P E T O O L and H A Z A R D I are becoming
widely used.
The severity of post-flashover fires can be estimated on the basis of
fuel load and available ventilation. This can be used to select fire
resisting barriers on the basis of standard fire tests, or to make
calculations of structural fire resistance from first principles. Structural
design under fire conditions is well established for steel, concrete and
timber structures.
The fire resistance and permitted openings in external walls can be
calculated using the expected fire severity and the radiant heat transfer
to adjacent buildings, based on the work of Barnett 14 which also relates
fire compartment area to available water supplies.
Smoke movement and control systems require detailed analysis based
on the interaction with the building's heating, ventilating and air
conditioning and security systems.

EDUCATION

The new Building Code has prompted many design professionals to

seek education in fire engineering. In addition to seminars on the
Building Code itself, a number of courses on specific fire engineering
are in progress, organized by the New Zealand Structural Engineering
Society and the New Zealand Fire Protection Association, covering
 Fire engineering for a performance based code 11
topics such as fire growth and severity, structural fire resistance, Fire
Service response, building services and smoke control, and case study
design using simple computer models.
It is intended that participants at these workshops who submit a
number of fire engineering designs will be listed on a competency file
administered by the Institution of Professional Engineers New Zealand,
with progression towards 'Professional Fire Engineer' status. It is
expected that peer review of fire engineering designs will be required by
the approving authorities.
In a complementary development, a major initiative in fire engineer-
ing education has been launched at the University of Canterbury, in
order to produce engineering graduates with fire engineering expertise.
A Master of Engineering degree in Fire Engineering has been
established as a 12 month degree available to graduates from any
relevant engineering discipline. The degree consists of 6 months of
course work followed by 6 months individual project work. A new
teaching position has been established, funded by the New Zealand Fire
Service. Teaching will be carried out by the existing faculty, the new
lecturer, outside consultants and visiting Professors.

CONCLUSIONS

The need for quantifiable performance based fire codes is becoming

recognized around the world, but there is not much significant progress
towards developing such codes. The recent New Zealand code has the
right structure for a performance based code, but no quantifiable
statements of performance or safety. However a fire engineering
strategy has been developed for meeting the performance requirements
of the code.
The introduction of a new code in New Zealand has required a major
educational initiative to help practising engineers and to produce new
graduates qualified in fire engineering.

REFERENCES

1. Cohn, B. M., The synthesis of a goal-oriented building code. Journal o f

Applied Fire Science, 1(4) (1991) 301-14.
2. SANZ, Fire resisting construction and means of egress. New Zealand
Standard NZS 1900 Chapter 5: Standards Association of New Zealand,
Wellington, 1963.
3. Design for Fire Safety. Draft New Zealand Standard DZ 4226: Standards
Association of New Zealand, Wellington, 1984.
12 A.H. Buchanan
4. Draft National Building Fire Safety Systems Code, Victoria University of
Technology, Melbourne, 1991.
5. Platt, D. G., Modelling fire spread--a time based probability approach.
Department of Civil Engineering Research Report 89/7, University of
Canterbury, New Zealand, 1989.
6. Fire Safety and Engineering. The Warren Centre, University of Sydney,
Australia, 1981.
7. Hall, J. R., Practical rules for selecting fire science tools appropriate to the
decision to be made. Proceedings Interflam '93 Conference. Interscience
Communications Ltd, England, 1993.
8. The Building Act 1991, The Building Regulations 1992. New Zealand
Government, Wellington, New Zealand.
9. New Zealand Building Code Handbook and Approved Documents.
Building Industry Authority, Wellington, New Zealand, 1992.
10. Eurocode Actions on Structures. Part 10. Actions on Structures Exposed
to Fire. February 1993 Draft.
11. Buchanan, A. H. (Editor), Fire Engineering Design Guide. Centre for
Advanced Engineering, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New
Zealand.
12. Drysdale, D., An Introduction to Fire Dynamics. John Wiley, Chichester,
1985.
13. The SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering. Society of Fire
Protection Engineers, Quincy, MA, 1988.
14. Barnett, C. R., Analytical tools to evaluate building spacing, compartment
sizing, and exterior walls in tall buildings. Chapter 10 of Fire Safety in Tall
Buildings. Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat and McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1992.

APPENDIX

P E R F O R M A N C E R E Q U I R E M E N T S OF T H E N E W Z E A L A N D
BUILDING CODE
Words in italics are terms defined in the Building Code.

Clause C l m O U T B R E A K OF FIRE

OBJECTIVE
CI.1 The objective of this provision is to safeguard people from injury
or illness caused by fire.
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENT
C1.2 In buildings fixed appliances using the controlled combustion of
solid, liquid or gaseous fuel, shall be installed in a way which reduces
the likelihood of fire.
PERFORMANCE
C1.3.1 Fixed appliances shall be installed so as to avoid the accumula-
tion of gases within the installation and in building spaces, where heat
or ignition could cause uncontrolled combustion or explosion.
 Fire engineeringfor a performancebasedcode 13

C1.3.2 Fixed appliances shall be installed in a manner that does not

raise the temperature of any building element by heat transfer or
concentration to a level that would adversely affect its physical or
mechanical properties or function.

Clause C2---MEANS OF E S C A P E

OBJECTIVE
C2.1 The objective of this provision is to:
(a) safeguard people from injury or illness from a fire while
escaping to a safe place, and
(b) facilitate fire rescue operations.
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENT
C2.2 Buildings shall be provided with escape routes which:
(a) give people adequate time to reach a safe place without being
overcome by the effects o f fire, and
(b) give fire service personnel adequate time to undertake rescue
operations.
PERFORMANCE
C2.3.1 The number of open paths available to each person escaping to
an exitway or final exit shall be appropriate to:
(a) the travel distance,
(b) the number of occupants,
(c) the fire hazard, and
(d) the fire safety systems installed in the firecell.
C2.3.2 The number of exitways or final exits available to each person
shall be appropriate to:
(a) the open path travel distance,
(b) the building height,
(c) the number of occupants,
(d) the fire hazard, and
(e) the fire safety systems installed in the building.
C2.3.3 Escape routes shall be:
(a) of adequate size for the number of occupants,
(b) free of obstruction in the direction of escape,
(c) of length appropriate to the mobility of the people using them,
(d) resistant to the spread of fire as required by Clause C3 'Spread
of Fire',
(e) easy to find as required by Clause F8 'Signs',
(f) provided with adequate illumination as required by Clause F6
'Lighting for Emergency' and
(g) easy and safe to use as required by Clause D1.3.3 'Access
Routes'.
14 A. H. Buchanan

Clause C 3 - - S P R E A D OF FIRE

OBJECTIVE
C3.1 The objective of this provision is to:
(a) safeguard people from injury or illness when evacuating a
building during fire,
(b) provide protection to fire service personnel during firefighting
operations,
(c) protect adjacent household units and other property from the
effects of fire,
(d) safeguard the environment from adverse effects of fire.
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENT
C3.2 Buildings shall be provided with safeguards against fire spread so
that:
(a) occupants have time to escape to a safe place without being
overcome by the effects of fire,
(b) firefighters may undertake rescue operations and protect
property.
(c) adjacent household units and other property are protected from
damage, and
(d) significant quantities of hazardous substances are not released to
the environment during fire.
PERFORMANCE
C3.3.1 Interior surface finishes on walls, floors, ceilings and suspended
building elements, shall resist the spread of fire and limit the generation
of toxic gases, smoke and heat, to a degree appropriate to:
(a) the travel distance,
(b) the number of occupants
(c) the fire hazard and
(d) the active fire safety systems installed in the building.
C3.3.2 Fire separations shall be provided within buildings to avoid the
spread of fire and smoke to:
(a) other firecells,
(b) spaces intended for sleeping, and,
(c) household units within the same building or adjacent buildings.
C3.3.3 Fire separations shall:
(a) where openings occur, be provided with fire resisting closures to
maintain the integrity of the fire separations for an adequate
time, and
(b) where penetrations occur, maintain the fire resistance rating of
the fire separation.
C3.3.4 Concealed spaces and cavities within buildings shall be sealed
 Fire engineering for a performance based code 15

and subdivided where necessary to inhibit the unseen spread of fire and
smoke.
C3.3.5 External walls and roofs shall have resistance to the spread of
fire, appropriate to the fire load within the building and to the proximity
of other household units and other property.
C3.3.6 Automatic fire suppression systems shall be installed where
people would otherwise be:
(a) unlikely to reach a safe place in adequate time because of the
number of storeys in the building,
(b) required to remain within the building without proceeding
directly to a final exit, or where the evacuation time is excessive,
(c) unlikely to reach a safe place due to confinement under
institutional care because of mental or physical disability, illness
or legal detention, and the evacuation time is excessive, or
(d) at high risk due to the fire load and fire hazard within the
building.
C3.3.7 Air conditioning and mechanical ventilation systems shall be
constructed to avoid circulation of smoke and fire between firecells.
C3.3.8 Where an automatic smoke control system is installed, it shall
be constructed to:
(a) avoid the spread o f fIre and smoke between firecells, and
(b) protect escape routes from smoke until the occupants have
reached a safe place.
C3.3.9 The fire safety systems installed shall facilitate the specific needs
of fire service personnel to:
(a) carry out rescue operations, and
(b) control the spread o f fire.
C3.3.10 Environmental protection systems shall ensure a low proba-
bility of hazardous substances being released to:
(a) soils, vegetation or natural waters,
(b) the atmosphere, and
(c) sewers or public drains.
Performance C3.3.10 applies only to buildings where significant quan-
tities of hazardous substances are stored or processed.

Clause C4---STRUCTURAL STABILITY D U R I N G FIRE

OBJECTIVE
C4.1 The objective of this provision is to:
(a) safeguard people from injury due to loss of structural stability
during fire, and
16 A.H. Buchanan
(b) protect household units and other property from damage due to
structural instability caused by fire.
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENT
C4.2 Buildings shall be constructed to maintain structural stability
during fire to:
(a) allow people adequate time to evacuate safely,
(b) allow fire service personnel adequate time to undertake rescue
and firefighting operations, and
(c) avoid collapse and consequential damage to adjacent household
units or other property.
PERFORMANCE
C4.3.1 Structural elements of buildings shall have fire resistance ap-
propriate to the function of the elements, the fire load, the fire intensity,
the fire hazard, the height of the buildings and the fire control facilities
external to a n d within them.
C4.3.2 Structural elements shall have a fire resistance of no less than
that of any element to which they provide support within the same
firecell.
C4.3.3 Collapse of elements having lesser fire resistance shall not cause
the consequential collapse of elements required to have a higher fire
resistance.