Male Reproductive System

Male genital organs-

The male reproductive organs & glands primarily resume
the male gamete or sperm
The male reproductive system of mammals consists of two
testes (testicles) in the scrotum
Scrotum is a accessory organs including ducts & glands, the
urethra of the penis
Function of Testes & accessory genital glands-
Scrotum-
It is a cutaneous sac that confirms their size & shape to the
testes it contains
The skin is thin, pliable & hairless next to skin, a layer of
fibro-elastic tissue mixed with smooth muscle fibers called
the tunica dartos
The fibrous sheet of tunica dartos is present in between
two testes to form scrotal septum which divides the
scrotum into two compartments
During cold exposure the muscle fibers of the tunica dartos
contract & hold against the abdomen
 The cremaster muscle also contracts during cold exposure
to assist the drawing of testes towards abdomen
Each testis consists of a mass of coiled seminiferous tubules
surrounded by heavy fibrous capsule called tunica
albuginea
A number of fibrous septa dividing the testis into lobules &
providing a framework for support of the seminiferous
tubules & the interstitial cells that produce testosterone
Spermatogenesis- It occurs in the Seminiferous tubules
(formation of spermatozoa)
Seminiferous Tubules-
The seminiferous tubules lined with epithelium consists of
two cell types, the sustentacular or sertoli cells & germ cells
The sustentacular (sertoli) cells are irregular in shape &
they nourish the developing sperm & mediates the effects
of FSH & testosterone on the germ cells
The sustentaculer cells produce a fluid along with the
spermatozoa for transportation from the tubules to the
rete-testis
Male genital organs:
 One of the fluid component, androgen binding protein,
transports androgen from their site of synthesis in the testis
to the epididymis to get maturation of spermatozoa
Interstitial cell (leydig cell) lies between the CT of
seminiferous tubules secrete Testosterone
The interstitial fluid between sertoli cells & within the
lumen of the seminiferous tubules differs from typical
interstitial fluid due a permeable barrier (blood testis
barrier) between these fluids & fluid outside of the tubules
Spermatogenesis-
It involves in the formation of mature male gametes from
the most undifferentiated germ cells along with the several
mitotic cell divisions consisting the mitotic cell division
during which the chromosome number is reduced from
diploid to haploid
Meiosis entails two cell divisions & occurs only during the
development of gametes in the testis & ovary
Beyond 1st division, the DNA is replicated to that of mitotic
cell division
This replication results in chromosomes, consists two
identical chromatids
In preparing 1st mitotic division, homologus chromosomes
pair up along the middle of the cell
During the 1st meiotic division, one chromosome of each
homologus pair moves into each daughter cell
The individual homologous pair moves randomly to the
daughter cell
This mixing is done for the genetic variation among the
offsprings
After the 1st meiotic division, each daughter cell has a
haploid number of chromosome but each chromosome
consists of two chromatids
During the 2nd meiotic division of the two daughter cells
each of the resulting four cells receives one of the
chromatids
 The overall result of meioses is the production of four
daughter cells, each of which has a haploid number of
chromosomes
In case of mammals, male produce when (XY) chromosome
superior
But when (XX) chromosome united the female offspring will
produce
But in case of avian, there is opposite, female avian
contains (ZW) chromosome where as in male, it consists
both (ZZ) chromosomes
When homologous chromosomes are paired in preparation
for the 1st meiotic division, crossing over may occur
The chromosomes may be exchanged between homologus
chromosomes
These exchanges ↑ genetic variability among the offspring
Spermiogenesis- Spermatids undergo a series of functional &
structural changes to become spermatozoa & this process is
termed spermiogenesis
Bulbourethral gland (Cowpers gland)- These are paired
glands on either side of the pelvic urethra cranial to the
ischial arch caudal to other accessory glands
Penis:
It is the male secondary sex organ of copulation
It is divided into glans or free extremity, the body or main
portion & the 2 crura or root attaches with the ischial arch
of the pelvis
It is derived or surrounded by fibro-elastic capsule, tunica
albuginea
Tunica albuginea surrounds the bulk of penile body`s
internal structure composed of paired columns of erectile
tissue, the corpora cavernosa
Each corpora cavernosa is replete with blood sinusoids
divided by sheets of CT called Trabeculae
In swine & ruminants the penis is firm when not erect
In horse it is musculo-cavernous penis with flaccid
 The ventral midline groove between the corpora cavernosa
contains the penile urethra & an associated unpaired body
of erectile tissue, the corpus spongiosus
Prepuce:
It is an invaginated fold of skin surrounding the free
extremity of the penis
The outer surface consists of typical skin while inner
mucous membrane consists of a preputial layer lining the
prepuce
It accumulates urine, secretions & dead cells which
contribute to the typical odor of a mature boar
Erection & Ejaculation:
Penile erection is a neural reflex initiated by appropriate
tactile stimulation of the penis, visual or environmental
stimuli (estrus)
Penile erection requires vasodilation within the penis
 Parasympathetic nerves releases Ach, which stimulates
endothelial cells lining the blood vessels to release nitric
oxide & acts directly on smooth muscle to bring about
vasodilation
Prior to ejaculation, spermatozoa are moved from
epididymis through the ductus deferentia to the pelvic
urethra termed as emission
Emission & ejaculation are autonomic reflexes involving
both sympathetic & parasympathetic divisions
Ejaculation of semen through the penile urethra is
associated with more contractions of the epididymis,
ductus deferentia & additional contractions by muscles of
the penis surrounding the penile urethra
Spermatozoa morphology-
The spermatozoa consists of a head & tail
The head contains the nucleus, primarily consisting of
condensed genetic material & an acrosome, membrane sac
 The tail has a central core of microtubules & filaments for
providing motility
The middle piece of the tail contains a dense collection of
mitochondria for energy provision
The acrosome is a sac of hydrolytic enzymes including
acrosin & hyaluronidase
These enzymes facilitate the fusion of the male & female
gametes
Epididymis:
It composed of a long convulated tube that connects the
efferent ductules of the testis with the ductus deferens
The spermatozoa released from seminiferous tubules pass
through the rete testis into the epididymis
The tail of epididymis contains these spermatozoa's
 During passage of spermatozoa into epididymis,
spermatozoa that are immotile & incapable of fertilization
comes in touch with epididymal secretions & testosterone
Hence, there is a functional change associated with these
spermatozoas & are become motile & capable of
fertilization
Semen & Semen technology- Semen acts as transport
medium for the spermatozoa & it contains a variety of
substances including various electrolytes, fructose, citric
acid & sorbitol provides source of energy for spermatozoa
Characteristics of Semen-
o Concentration of spermatozoa per ml of semen
o Motility characteristics of spermatozoa
o Shape of the spermatozoa
Semen is also collected & used for breeding technologies
such as AI & in vitro fertilization. It can also be frozen &
used for years
Sperms of different species:
Sperm concentration in different species:
Hormones of male reproduction:
The gonadotrophins (FSH & LH), protein hormones
stimulate testicular function from the adenohypophysis
FSH promotes spermatogenesis by its action on the germ
cells in the seminiferous tubules & sertoli cells that support
the development of the spermatozoa
LH acts on testicular interstitial cells to promote the
secretion of androgens primarily testosterone
Gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) from the
hypothalamus stimulates the release of both FSH & LH from
the adenohypophysis
Testosterone has direct effect on the adenohypophysis to
suppress LH release directly
When stimulated by FSH, sustentacular cells produce
inhibin
Inhibin has a –ve feedback effect on the adenohypophysis
to suppress further release of FSH
Testosterone; its function & regulation:
It is a steroid hormone when enters to the target cells it
converts into dihydrotestosterone which binds to
intracellular receptors
It matures the spermatozoa within the testis & promotes
the development & function of male accessory sex organs
causes development of secondary sex characteristics &
promotes male sexual behavior
For normal libido (sex desire) is necessary develop by the
testosterone which affects neurons within the brain
In castrated male, libido may continue, because within
neurons, testosterone converts into estradiol
Accessory sex glands: Semen provides favorable conditions
for nutrition of sperm & acts as a buffer against the acidity
of the female genital tract
Ampullae- These are glandular enlargements associated with
the terminal parts of the ductus deferentia. They contribute
volume to the semen & well developed in stallion, bull &
ram. It is absent in boar
Vesicular glands (Seminal vesicles)- These are paired glands
associated with the genital fold. These gland merges with
the ductus deferentia creating the ejaculatory duct
Prostrate gland- This is a paired gland surrounds the pelvic
urethra under cover of the urethral muscle. The prostrate
produces an alkaline secretion which gives semen its
characteristics odor. In older animals, the prostrate gland
may become enlarged & interfere with urination
Female Reproduction
System
Female reproductive system:
The reproductive organ of female consists of two ovaries,
two uterine tubes (oviducts), the uterus, vagina & vulva
The ovum is released from the ovary & enters into the
uterine tube
Fertilization generally occurs in the uterine tube & the
development of fertilized ovum or zygote takes place in
uterus
The fetus finally comes out through the vagina & vulva as a
newborn (neonate)
Fertilized ovum- Zygote- Embryo- fetus Newborn (neonate)
Ovaries-
These are paired glands found in the lumbar region of
abdominal cavity
They are primary reproductive organ of females like testes
in male
The ovaries are suspended from the body wall by serous
membrane called mesovarium
 The medulla of the ovary is highly vascular while cortex
consists of irregular connective tissue interspersed with
follicles & having endocrine functions
Uterine tubes- Each uterine horn or infundibulum is attached
to their respective ovaries & the uterus to serve the
progression & fertilization of ova acts in this part. The wall
includes a CT sub-mucosa & smooth muscle layer. They are
supported by mesosalphynx
Uterus- It consists of a body, a neck (cervix) & two horns. The
uterine wall consists of lining of mucous membrane & outer
serous layer of peritoneum and are suspended & supported
by the mesometrium
The mesometrium, mesosalphinx & mesovarium collectively
constitute the broad ligament
Functions of the uterus-
The endometrium & fluids acts as sperm transportation from
the ejaculation site to fertilization site of oviduct
It regulates the function of C.L.
It also initiates the process of implantation, pregnancy &
parturition by contraction of endometrium & stimulation
and regression of C.L.
The uterine glands are branched, coiled tubular glands
throughout the endometrium of the uterus except in
ruminants where they are in the form of mushroom like
projection called carruncles for the attachment of the fetal
membranes
The cervix tends caudal to the vagina
It is a heavy smooth muscle sphincter having rings in inner
surface also called annular folds are tightly closed except
during estrus for sperm mobilization & parturition for the
expulsion of fetus
The tunica muscularis (myometrium) of the uterine wall is
separated by the outer longitudinal smooth muscle by a
vascular layer increases the amount of muscle during
pregnancy as in cell size (hypertrophy) & in cell number
(hyperplasia)
Vagina-
It lies within the pelvis between the cranially to the uterus
& caudally to the vulva
It consists of serosa on cranially & pelvic fascia (CT) caudally
It generally acts as the birth canal for delivery of the fetus &
the act of breeding or service (for the penis of male during
copulation)
Vestibule & vulva-
The vestibule lies between the vagina & vulva
This part consists of external urethral orifice
The vulva is the external genitalia comprises lt. & rt. labia
which meet on the midline at the dorsal & ventral
commissures
The ventral commissure is usually pendulous or clitoris an
erectile tissue which has sensory nerve endings
The clitoris has specific similarities with the penis of the
male having two crura or rods, a body & a glans (visible
externally)
It is concerned by stratified squamous epithelium
Blood & nerve supply of the female reproductive tract-
The ovaries are supplied by the ovarian artery
The uterine tube & uterine horn are supplied by the uterine
artery & branch of ovarian artery
The uterine artery is derived from the umbilical artery
except in horse from internal iliac artery
Vaginal artery, the branch of the internal pudendal supplies
the blood to caudal part of the uterus, its cervix & vagina
The distal branches of internal pudendal artery supplies
blood to the caudal vagina, vulva & anus & all these vessels
are mainly bilateral
The venous drainage runs close to the arteries & drain to
the caudal vena cava
Sympathetic innervations arrives from the caudal mesentric
ganglia via hypogastric nerves
Parasympathetic fibres emerges from the sacral spinal cord
segments & travel to the reproductive organs in the pelvic
nerves
The pudendal & perineal nerves provide motor & sensory
innervations to the external genitalia respectively
Functions & structure of graffian follicle cycle-
The oocytes are surrounded by the granulosa (epithelial)
cells called primordial follicle
Ovarium stroma separates the various primary follicles lies
in the periphery (cortex) of ovary
Development of primordial follicles involves transformation
of follicular epithelial cells into a single layer of cuboidal
cells surrounding the oocyte & this composite structure is
k/a primary follicles
After getting puberty, few primary follicles develop into
secondary follicles involving ↑ in size of the oocytes & no.
of granulosa cell layers
During the development of secondary follicles, the
granulosa cells secrete glycoprotein as a protective shell
Zona pellucida around the oocyte
Cytoplasmic process of granulosa cells penetrate the zona
for exchange & communication between oocyte & them
In later stage, development of secondary follicles and
granulosa cells are surrounded by a layers of cells; Theca
In monotocus animals horse & cow (one offspring per
gestation), one follicle usually develops & only one ovum is
released at ovulation
While in polytocus animal sow, bitch & ewe (more than one
offspring per gestation) develops more follicles & ova
comes from one ovary or either from both ovaries. Up to
this point the development is independent of hormones
After this stage, ovary (granulosa & theca of secondary
follicles) develop cellular receptors for FSH & LH & it is also
useful for the normal follicular development
On influence, androgens (androstemedione & testosterone)
that diffuses into granulosa
FSH acts as proliferation of granulosa cells which connects
androgens to estrogens (estradiol) by developing cellular
enzymes
These cellular enzymes accumulates among the granulosa
cells and looks like a fluid filled cavity also called as Antrum
Then these follicles are identified as Tertiary or graffian
follicles
The theca has now two layers theca externa and interna
The internal layer is highly vascularised and consists of
steroid producing cells while theca externa consists of
connective tissue
The granulosa cells produced estrogen acts on the
granulosa cells to ↑ FSH & LH receptors
By a local +ve feedback effect the estrogen promote the
development of the follicle from which they are being
produced
The developing follicles ultimately produce the ovum &
ovulate is the +ve feedback while it has also a –ve feedback
with FSH secretion from the adenohypophysis
During this period FSH ↓es causing atresia of slowly
developing follicles
Within the ovary, estrogens promote an ↑ in LH receptors
in theca cells for production of androgens for responding
LH at the time of ovulation
The ovum is provided by the dominant follicle & is possess
after the corpus luteum from the previous estrous cycle has
regressed (luteolysis)
The estrous phase during which there is no corpus luteum
& the dominant follicles is developing in follicular phase of
estrous cycle
The luteal phase is the part of cycle when C.L. intacts with
dominant follicles & secreting progesterone
Mature follicles does not ovulate rather undergo atresia, if
C.L. remains intact
At that point, another dominant follicular begins to develop
rapidly, so that ovulation can occur soon after luteolysis
Because dominant follicles may develop while a C.L.
remains intact, so large domestic animals have always the
overlapping of follicular & luteal phases
Inhibins; peptide hormones secreted by granulosa cell of
developing follicles ↑ with follicular development & have a
–ve feedback effect on FSH release
 In litter bearing animals, inhibins suppress other follicles to
control the litter size but do not suppress LH secretion
which is necessary for ovulation
Luteinizing hormone surge- Generally, LH releases from
adenohypophysis ↑es during 24 to 36 hrs prior to ovulation
is the LH surge.
After reaching peak, LH ↓es so that the plasma levels return
to preovulatory levels
LH surge depends on changes in the hypophyseal-
adenohypophysis axis & an ↑ in adenohypophysis content
of LH induced by the rapid rise in estrogen production by
large mature follicles
The high level of LH promote the final development of the
primary oocyte & prepares the oocyte for ovulation
Granulosa cells respond to LH surge by transforming from
estrogen producing cells to progesterone producing cells
Also transformation of granulosa cells to luteal cells prior to
ovulation, this process occurs & ↓ the estrogen level by
↑ing the progesterone level
 Under the influence of LH surge, granulosa cells synthesize
leukotreienes
These agents combindely weakens the follicle wall &
promote its rupture
Spontaneous ovulators- The preovulatory ↑ in estrogen from
developing follicles is the primary event for ovulation takes
place. It occurs in almost all domestic animals.
Induced ovulators- They have a characteristic estrous cycle &
follicular development, mature follicles regress if
copulation does not occur. The final preovulatory surge of
GnRH & LH surge is depend on neural reflex elicited by
vaginal stimulation during copulation.
Corpus luteum- It is the endocrine gland which primary
secretes progesterone.
It forms or develops after the collapse of the follicle at
ovulation
Under the influence of LH, the granulosa cells lining the
empty follicular cavity begins to multiply and form corpus
luteum
So corpus luteum cells derived from the granulosa cells &
some cells from theca interna
The size of the CL is almost same as of graffian follicle, the
difference is only that CL feels solid while mature follicle
filled with fluid feels as blister
After ovulation as CL grow the plasma progesterone level
↑es
If the fertilization of the ova doesn`t occur (pregnancy not
established), the CL regresses
The CL regression consists of death of luteal cells removal &
replacement of CL occurs forming corpus albicans
Regression of CL prevents, if pregnancy occurs or develops
The progesterone acts as preparation of pregnancy
The progesterone level ↑es uterine gland secretion and
inhibits uterine mortality to promotes implantation &
maintain pregnancy
The progesterone acts on hypothalamic adeno-hypophyseal
axis to inhibit LH secretion
It also promotes mammary gland development
Schematic of the major steps of oogenesis:
 Luteolysis stimulation occurs in non pregnant uterus by
secretion of PGF2α i.e., the humoral sign
PGF2α secretion ↑es after ovulation & luteolysis shortly
occurs
Phases of the estrus cycle: The estrus cycle is divided into
several phases based on structural & behavioral changes in
external & internal genitalia
 Proestrus-
 It is the 1st phase of estrus cycle consists of building up
phase
 It usually begins after the regression of C.L. from the
previous cycle
 This phase includes enlargement of ovarian follicle (under
the influence of FSH & LH) & estrogen secretion
 Estrogen comes into the blood stream from follicles to ↑
vascularity & cell growth of genitalia for preparation of
estrus & pregnancy
 In later stage of this phase vaginal wall thickens &
vascularized (redness & swelling) prepare for copulation
 Estrus-
 Just before ovulation, mature follicles secrete estrogen in
high amount preparing for sexual receptivity
 In almost all domestic animals, ovulation occurs within a
day or two after the onset of behavioral estrus (swollen
vulva, mucus discharge, mounting, micturition, bellowing
etc.)
 Metestrus-
 This is post ovulatory phase begins with end of the sexual
receptivity & dominated by the function of corpus luteum
 During this phase estrogen level ↓ed with the ↑es in
progesterone level
 The endometrium get thickens, uterine gland enlarges &
have developed uterine muscles
 Diestrus & anestrus-
 This is the short inactive phase prior to proestrus
 The animals (seasonal breeders) have long period of
inactivity termed anestrus
Average length of various parts of reproductive cycle:
 During this phase; the vulva, vagina, uterus & uterine tubes
shrink & small until the next breeding season
 It is the time for initiating follicular development in
polyestrus animals
Puberty- It may be defined as the very first estrus
accompanied by ovulation. It is affected by inter & intra
species depending upon climate, nutrition and hereditary.
Pregnancy-
It is the physiological condition of a female animal after
fertilization & implantation in which their young ones are
developing within her uterus.
The pregnancy interval or gestation period includes of
fertilization (ovums to the birth of offspring), early
embryonic development (in uterus), implantation (in the
uterine wall), placentation (development of fetal
membranes) and growth of the fetus
Fertilization-
After the meiotic division of ovum (1st meiotic division
completed of full term or ovulation in fox, horse & dog to
become zygote whereas commonly it takes 2nd meiotic
division to become folliculogenesis & ovulation for zygote)
to become zygote on maturation is essential for fertilization
Same as the condition with sperm
Sperm capacitation is needed which is just capability of
attaching to and penetrate the ovum
The hydrolytic enzymes (hyaluronidase & aerosin) of
acrosome plays a vital role in penetration of ovum
There is interaction of sperm & ovum in the ampulla
The sperm head is attached to the zona pellucida regulated
by zona receptors
Proteolytic enzyme (trypsin) blocks sperm attachment
The sperm penetration occurs within 5 to 15 minutes after
its attachment
 Acrosin enzyme acts as zona lysin & helps in penetration
The acrosome reaction is a pre-requisite for fusion between
ova & spermatozoa in the vitelline membrane covered by
dense micro villi at the equatorial segment
Immediately after fertilization the ovum surface changes to
prevent fusion of additional spermatozoa
Fertilization failure between different species is due to
genetically determined difference in the physiologic
constitution of the genital tract not due to genetic
constitution of sperm or egg
Cleavage- Embryos goes under several mitotic divisions but to
attain a similar somatic cells, cell divisions occur without an
↑ in cell mass referred as cleavage
The site of fertilization is the lower region of ampullae
Implantation- It is the attachment of a blastula to the uterine
epithelium
Placentation-
It is development of placenta or extra-embryonic
membranes
This is exchange site between fetal and maternal
circulations for nutrition from the dam & waste products
from the fetus
Decidua- The maternal placenta
The fetal placenta consists of chorion, allantois, amnion &
vestigial yolk sac
The chorion, outermost membrane always contact with
maternal uterus outermost to inner
Allantois is a continuous layer consist of a sac, allantoic
cavity
The amnion inner most membrane nearest to fetus is a
fluid filled cavity contains fetus
The allantoic cavity consists water bag is called 1st water
bag while the amniotic cavity or sac terms 2nd water bag
which expelled 1st & then 2nd during parturition
The umbilical arteries & veins run through the CT between
the allantois & chorion
 Umbilical arteries carry un-oxygenated blood from the fetus
to the placenta while umbilical veins carry oxygenated
blood from the placenta to the fetus
Ruminants have a cotyledonary type of placental
attachment also k/a placentomes
These cotyledons are mushroom like projection, caruncles
The size of caruncles ↑ with progress of pregnancy & are
larger in the gravid horn than in the non-gravid horn
Hormones of pregnancy:
 Progesterone- To maintain normal pregnancy it serves as
• It provides –ve feedback to the hypothalamus to inhibit any
further estrus cycle
• By inhibiting uterus smooth muscle to permit the
attachment & development of fetus
• It maintains the cervix contraction to protect the uterine
environment
Progesterone plasma level maintains initially by corpus luteum
& secondary sources are placenta
Equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG) or PMSG-
• Equine placenta secretes the protein hormone eCG after 1st
month of gestation until about 4 months of gestation which
is similar to the L.H
• During this period follicular development occurs on the
ovary & eCG promotes its luteolization & accessory corpora
lutea secretes progesterone for maintain pregnancy
• eCG are produced by the trophoblastic cells of fetal origin
in endometrial cups
Structural organization of mammary gland:
These glands are modified sweat glands produce milk for
their offspring's
Each gland consists of ducts connect with mass of secretory
epithelium surrounded by CT & fat and supported in a
fibroelastic capsules
The secretory parenchyma to CT is proportionally hormonal
regulated
During lactation, the secretory tissue ↑es in volume due to
the proportion of estrogen & progesterone presence
When the animal becomes dry the progesterone level
cause the regression of secretroy tissues & CT constitutes a
greater percentage of the gland
These glands (mammary) develop from bilateral thickening
of ventro-lateral ectoderm of embryo also called milk lines
or mammary ridges
Mostly in domestic animals these glands are situated
inguinal usually two or four quarters but in case of
carnivores & sows they develop throughout axillary to
inguinal extent of the ridges
In case of monkey & elephant, these glands develop in
pectoral region
Each glands referred as quarters and they are independent
from each other in so far as blood supply, nerve supply &
suspensory apparatus concerned
The secretory units, alveoli are lined by a simple epithelium
The various small ducts cover to form large ducts &
terminate into a single large sinus (basin, cavity) lactiferous
sinus
The lactiferous sinus is divided into two cavity gland cistern
(pars glandularis) & teat cistern (pars papillary)
The teat cistern continues through a narrow opening in the
end of the teat, papillary duct (streak canal) which opens
at the ostium papillae
Sphincter of smooth muscle fibres surrounds the streak
canal at the distal end of the teat
The udder is supported by a dense system of fibroelastic
ligaments called suspensory approach consists of medial
laminae & lateral laminae
The blood supply to the udder is primarily through external
pudendal artery continues to ventral perineal artery for
supplying each teats
Where external pudendal vein receives blood from the
quarters continuing with perineal vein & caudal superficial
epigastric vein drains blood to cranial vena cava
Relaxin-
This protein hormone secretes from the corpus luteum & in
some species from the placenta also
It acts in opening of the cervix & relaxation of the muscle &
ligaments associated with birth canal during parturition
It’s secretion also ↑es during last gestation to facilitate
mammary gland development to prepare for lactation
Parturition- It is the termination of pregnancy. It is the act of
giving birth to young. It may be divided into three stages-
The 1st stage consists of uterine contraction to force the
fetus & fetal membrane to the cervix
The 2nd stage consists of the delivery of fetus to vagina with
rupture of one or both water bags
It consists the contractions of uterine & abdomen to fetus
through the birth canal while the 3rd stage consists of the
delivery of the fetus or placenta
Attaining parturition, there is several changes occur
physically & chemically in the body
The vulva swells & discharge mucus, mammary gland
enlarges & redness, animals may become restlessness,
micturition etc.
While there is hormonally change also occurs
When fetus enters into the birth canal reflex acts on
neurohypophysis & oxytocin releases to enhance uterine
smooth muscle contraction & promote delivery
Prior to parturition, level of glucocorticoids ↑es through
fetal adrenal cortex
The rising fetal glucocorticoids affect the placenta &
maternal uterus
Placenta secretes estrogen which ↑ relative to
progesterone
Glucocorticoids & estrogens act synergistically for uterine
synthesis & secretes PGF2α
PGF2α releases & initiating parturition by acting as
luteolytic factor which remains the progesterone source
 Since, progesterone acts as tone of cervix now reduce &
level of PGF2α ↑es which acts as contraction of uterine
smooth muscle to move the fetus into the birth canal &
promotes the dilation of cervix to act of parturition
Lactogenesis-
It is the establishment of milk secretion
It includes the growth & development of the secretory
epithelium & the ductile network of the mammary gland
Since, Estrogen promotes the growth of the ductile system
at each estrus while progesterone promotes the anatomic
development of secretory alveoli not the functional
development
Normal secretion of growth hormone & glucocorticoids
also required for complete development (anatomically &
functionally) of mammary gland
During pregnancy, prolonged exposure of progesterone
promotes the anatomic development of mammary gland
secretory alveoli but inhibits functional growth &
production of intracellular enzymes necessary for normal
milk secretion
 During late gestation, prolactin receptors ↑ in mammary
gland releases from the adenohypophysis & regulated by
humoral inhibitor factor from the hypothalamus
Prolactin promotes the anatomic & functional development
of the secretory epithelium of mammary glands
It`s ↑ed level helps alveoli to produce intracellular enzymes
necessary for milk production & secretion
The ↑ed level of glucocorticoids also helps in functional
development of the alveolar secretory cells
The placenta of ruminants produce a protein hormone,
placental lactogen or chorionic somatomammotrophin
similar in structure & function to prolactin is believed to be
more responsible for mammary gland development in
these species
The level of placental lactogen ↑ in late gestation
Galactogenesis- It is the continued production of milk by the
mammary glands.
Stimulation of the nipples or suckling elicits an abrupt ↑ in
prolactin
 The ↑ in prolactin results a neural reflex to prolactin
release from adenohypophysis
The surge of prolactin is essential to maintain normal
lactation in host species
But for maintenance & level of milk production in cows,
growth hormones appears to be more important
Growth hormone supplementation in cattle is associated
with a variety of physiologic changes that promote milk
production
It include ↑ed mobilization of stored energy (body) to milk
production, ↑ed food intake, ↑ed nutrient absorption &
conversion of nutrients to milk by the mammary gland
When milking is stopped, abruptly a no. of changes occurs
in the udder like
o At the end of 24 hrs, the alveoli become distended &
capillaries are full of blood
o Between 36 to 48 hrs, there is ↓ in patent (open)
capillaries & alveoli don’t respond to I/V oxytocin
The protein that inhibits milk production, (inhibitor of
lactation) is apparently produced in the mammary gland
Milk ejection or Letdown-
 This is the emptying of cisterns & largest ducts of the udder
 The myoepithelial cells surrounds the alveoli when
stimulated by oxytocin cause contraction of the cells
release from neurohypophysis of the pituitary
 The nipples or teats must have sensory nerves which when
stimulate & signals reach to hypothalamus regulates &
release of the oxytocin from the neurohypophysis suckling
the teats by the young is the usual stimulus for the milk
ejection reflex
 Oxytocin is given I/M in the animals for letdown of milk in
emotionally disturbed animals such as dog barking, unusual
noisy pain, demise of their young unconditionally etc
Colostrum-
The first milk produced upon delivery of the newborn
It is important for the survival & vitality of newborns
Mainly it consists of milk proteins & lipids having high
concentration of immunoglobulin's needed by the neonate
to provide temporary immune protection against infectious
agents
It is the high source of energy for the newborn
Composition of milk-
Milk contains all the nutrients necessary for survival &
initial growth of neonates
The nutrients include source of energy (lipids & CH2O),
proteins to provide amino acid, vitamins, minerals (ash),
water & electrolytes
The relative amount of these nutrients in milk vary among
species
Typical values of constituents of milk in grams/litre
Species Lipids Lactose Protein Total Minerals (Ash) Calcium

Cow 38 48 37 7.0 1.3

Mare 16 50 24 4.5 1.0

Ewe 70 40 60 8.0 1.9

Sow 80 46 58 8.5 2.0

Doe 40 45 35 7.8 1.2

The principal carbohydrate in milk is Lactose

The major milk proteins are the Caseins
Milk composition of different species:
Dr Bhavna
Asstt. Prof.
Deptt. Of VGO
An animal has reached puberty when it is able to
release gametes (sperms in males and ovum in
females) and to manifest complete sexual behaviour.

Age of first appearance of estrus.

At puberty, secondary sexual characters becomes

quite conspicuous and animal is able to reproduce.
Reproductive organs increases in size and are able
to show external symptoms in one way or other
depending upon the species of animal.

Gonads also shows specific or characteristic

functions i.e. hormone production and formation
of gametes.

Enhanced gonadal functions are stimulated by

anterior pituitary gonadotrophins and thus,
affecting the reproductive cycle.
Age at puberty

Rabbits – 3-4 months

Sheep, Goat and Swine – 6-7

months

Cattle – 12 months

Horses – 15-18 months

Early conception

Early lactation/production

Increased lifetime reproductive rate

 Factors affecting puberty

1. Breed

2. Climatic conditions

3. Season

4. Sex of animal

5. Level of nutrition

6. Management
Generally species of smaller size experience puberty
at early age as compared to species of larger size.

Genetic makeup do affects the age of puberty,

particularly in exotic breed animals.

Zebu cattle generally comes in estrus at later stage

as compared to exotic and crossbred animals.
Climatic conditions like temperature,
relative humidity, day length etc affects
the age of puberty in all species.

Puberty in tropics occurs generally

earlier as compared to animals which
live in cold conditions.
There are seasonal variations in some species
of animals with respect to occurrence of
puberty and reproductive cycle.

Short day breeders shows estrous when day

length is short (winter) where as other species
are long day breeders (summer).
Generally, females of all species of animals show
puberty earlier as compared to their male
counterparts.

Gonadal as well as anterior hypophysis

hormones are comparatively more active in
females as compared to the males of same age.
Animals maintained on high plane of nutrition
show puberty at early age as compared to poorly
fed animals.

Imbalanced ration can affect the reproductive

cycle in both males as well as females resulting in
loss of reproductive cycle, thus delayed puberty.
Maintenance/up keep of animals, feeding
etc.

Detection of estrus at proper time.

* Lack of proper estrus detection in
animals will result in great financial loss.
Reproductive pattern of animals varies greatly
in their natural habitat as compared to highly
accustomed and protected environment.

Under domestic environment, tends toward a

pattern which causes the young one to be
delivered at the time of year, when
temperature and feed availability is optimum.
All females show seasonal cyclic
changes in the ovarian activity but the
degree of ovarian activity or inactivity
is influenced by many factors like day
length, environmental temperature,
nutrition, presence of male etc.
Deliver young ones at the optimum time
of year

Seasonally polyestrous, breeding season

length is such that young ones are born
in spring.
 Seasonally monoestrous

•Estrus occurs regularly

throughout the year.

•Seasonality is discrete.

•In cattle, minimal fertility

occurs in June and
maximum in November.

•In sow, fertility is lower in

summer and also, the litter
size is smaller.
The influences of season, feed supply and other
environmental factors on reproductive pattern of
animals are more pronounced in females.

There is quiescence/inactivity of male gonads and

sometimes leading to cessation of spermatogenesis
and also gonadal hormonal production.

Wild animals show a marked breeding seasonal

activity and have a quite prominent breeding activity
during such period, often called as rutting.
Silent ovulatory cycles always occur at the
beginning as well as end of the breeding
season.

Goats have a very well defined sexual

season in temperate climates.
1. Light

2. Temperature

3. Feed supply

4. Psychological factors
Seen mostly in short (sheep) and long (mare) day
breeders.

In northern hemisphere of USA, ewes breed in the fall

months such as September to November and five
months later delivers the lamb in spring season.

If these ewes are transported to southern hemisphere,

most of these will reverse their breeding pattern and
start breeding during March to April.
Artificial manipulation of light in a closed
environment will cause the ewes to breed
when the length of day light hours are
declining.

Birds and mares respond to lengthening of

day light hours.
 Light stimulus
↓
Retina
↓Optic nerves
Hypothalamus in CNS
↓
GnRH
↓
Anterior pituitary
↓
Gonads
Less clear than light.

Plays a major role in the regulation of sexual

function in lower vertebrates, particularly reptiles.

Protection of ewes from higher summer temperature

favours an early onset of breeding season.

Sperm output, sperm motility and farrowing rate are

severely lowered when boars are submitted to
summer temperatures (35°C).
An enhanced diet increases vigour particularly in herbivorous
and omnivorous animals.

Ovaries show increased activity regardless of state of

reproduction.

Monotoccous species (cow and mare) experience same ovarian

response but the polytoccous species (sow) respond to
increased nutrient intake by shedding more ova.
* Flushing (providing increased quantity and good quality of
nutrients) litter size can be increases the chances of twinning
and triplets.
Closely related.

Male may refuse to copulate in an unnatural environment

New environment often increases its reproductive potential.

Addition of a ram to a flock of ewes in the late summer will

hasten the onset of breeding by several days.

Recorded voice of boar is found to be quite effective in sows.

 Spontaneous ovulators

Seasonal breeders Non-seasonal breeders

Polyestrous
Eg. Mare, Ass Monoestrous
Eg. Bitch Continuous breeeders
(spring) Eg. Cow, Sow, Guinea
Ewe, Goat (onset of pig, Monkey, Rat
winter)
 Induced ovulators

Seasonal breeders Non-seasonal breeders

Eg. Cat, Ferret and

wild rabbit Eg. Lab rabbit