Module-1
Human Factors Engineering and Ergonomics
Human factors engineering and ergonomics are fields focused on improving the design of systems,
products, and environments to optimize human well-being and overall system performance. Here are
illustrations and explanations of key concepts within these disciplines:
1. Human-Machine Interface (HMI)
Concept: Design interfaces that facilitate effective interaction between humans and machines.
Illustration: Imagine a car dashboard. Human factors engineering ensures that the layout of the controls
(steering wheel, pedals, buttons) is intuitive, minimizing driver distraction and maximizing safety.
2. Cognitive Ergonomics
Concept: Optimize the mental processes involved in perception, memory, reasoning, and motor response.
Illustration: A computer workstation designed with ergonomic principles, such as an adjustable chair and
monitor at eye level, reduces cognitive strain and increases productivity.
3. Physical Ergonomics
Concept: Focus on human anatomical, anthropometric, physiological, and biomechanical characteristics.
Illustration: An office chair with adjustable height, lumbar support, and armrests helps prevent
musculoskeletal disorders by supporting proper posture.
4. Environmental Ergonomics
Concept: Design work environments that enhance comfort, safety, and performance.
Illustration: A well-lit factory floor with noise control measures and climate control ensures a comfortable
and safe environment for workers, reducing fatigue and improving efficiency.
5. Organizational Ergonomics
Concept: Optimize organizational structures, policies, and processes to improve human well-being and
performance
Illustration: Implementing flexible work hours and telecommuting options to improve work-life balance
and employee satisfaction.
6. Usability Testing
Concept: Evaluate how effectively a user can interact with a product or system.
Illustration: Conducting usability tests on a new smartphone app to identify and address issues that users
might face, ensuring a smooth and intuitive user experience.
7. Safety Engineering
Concept: Design systems and processes to prevent accidents and injuries.
Illustration: Designing emergency stop buttons on machinery that are easily accessible and clearly marked
to ensure immediate shutdown in case of an emergency
8. Biomechanics
Concept: Study the mechanical aspects of living organisms to improve design
Illustration: Designing athletic shoes that support natural foot movement and reduce the risk of injury
based on an understanding of human gait and movement patterns.
Human factors engineering and ergonomics strive to create systems, products, and environments that
support human health, safety, and performance. By considering the physical, cognitive, and organizational
needs of users, these fields aim to enhance the interaction between people and their surroundings.
Energy expenditure rate in physical work refers to the amount of energy a person uses to perform a
specific physical task over a certain period. This rate is typically measured in kilocalories per minute
(kcal/min) or watts, and it varies based on factors such as the intensity and type of activity, the individual's
body weight, age, sex, and fitness level. Here are some key points about energy expenditure rate in
physical work
Energy Expenditure Rate in Physical Work
Energy Expenditure: The energy cost of physical activities, which can be measured directly using
calorimetry (measuring heat production) or indirectly through methods like heart rate monitoring and
oxygen consumption (VO2).
Units: Energy expenditure is commonly measured in kilocalories (kcal) or joules. When considering the
rate, it’s often expressed in kcal/min or watts (1 watt = 0.0143 kcal/min).
2. Factors Influencing Energy Expenditure
Intensity of Activity: More vigorous activities, such as running or heavy lifting, result in higher energy
expenditure rates compared to moderate activities like walking or light household chores.
Body Weight: Heavier individuals tend to have higher energy expenditure rates for the same activity
compared to lighter individuals due to the increased energy required to move a larger mass.
Age and Sex: Typically, younger individuals and males have higher basal metabolic rates, which can
influence overall energy expenditure during physical work.
Fitness Level: Individuals who are more physically fit may have more efficient energy usage, sometimes
leading to lower energy expenditure for the same activity due to improved muscular efficiency.
3. Applications and Importance
Workplace Design: Understanding energy expenditure is crucial for designing ergonomic workplaces and
setting appropriate work-rest cycles to prevent fatigue and overexertion.
Health and Fitness: Monitoring energy expenditure helps in designing exercise programs, managing
weight, and ensuring that individuals meet their daily energy needs.
Occupational Health: In physically demanding jobs, knowing the energy expenditure rate can help in
assessing the physical demands placed on workers and in implementing measures to prevent
musculoskeletal disorders and other health issues.
4. Examples of Energy Expenditure Rates
Sedentary Activities: Sitting and reading might have an energy expenditure rate of around 1.2 kcal/min.
Moderate Activities: Walking at a moderate pace can expend around 3-4 kcal/min.
Vigorous Activities: Running at a fast pace can have an expenditure rate of 10-12 kcal/min or higher.
Conclusion
The energy expenditure rate in physical work is a critical measure for understanding the physical demands
of activities and ensuring that individuals can perform tasks safely and efficiently. By considering the
factors that influence energy expenditure, ergonomists and health professionals can design better work
environments, exercise programs, and health interventions.
Man-Machine System in Ergonomics
A man-machine system (or human-machine system) refers to the interaction between humans and
machines, where both components work together to achieve a specific goal. This concept is central to
ergonomics and human factors engineering, which aim to optimize this interaction for safety, efficiency,
and user satisfaction. The main components of a man-machine system include:
Human Operator: The person who interacts with the machine or system. They provide input, make
decisions, and perform actions based on the feedback received from the machine.
Machine/System: The device, tool, or software that the human interacts with. It processes inputs from
the user, performs designated tasks, and provides feedback to the user.
Interface: The means through which the human and the machine communicate. This can include visual
displays, control panels, keyboards, touchscreens, etc.
Environment: The physical and organizational setting in which the human-machine interaction takes
place. Environmental factors such as lighting, noise, and temperature can significantly affect the
performance and well-being of the human operator.
Design Philosophy in Ergonomics
The design philosophy in ergonomics is centered around creating systems, products, and environments
that are tailored to human capabilities and limitations. Key principles include:
User-Centered Design:
Focuses on the needs, preferences, and limitations of the end-users throughout the design process.
Involves users early and continuously through methods like interviews, observations, and usability testing.
Usability:
Ensures that products are easy to use and efficient in accomplishing their intended tasks.
Strives for intuitive interfaces that minimize the learning curve and reduce the potential for errors.
Safety:
Prioritizes the prevention of accidents and injuries.
Incorporates fail-safes, warnings, and error-tolerant designs to protect users from harm.
Comfort:
Aims to reduce physical and mental strain.
Designs products that fit the user’s body and work habits, such as ergonomic chairs and workstations.
Performance:
Enhances productivity and effectiveness by designing tools and systems that support the user’s tasks.
Reduces unnecessary effort and simplifies complex tasks.
Accessibility:
Ensures that products and systems are usable by people with a wide range of abilities and disabilities.
Incorporates features like adjustable settings, alternative input methods, and clear visual/auditory
feedback.
Examples of Man-Machine Systems and Ergonomic Design
Aircraft Cockpit:
Human Operator: Pilot
Machine/System: Aircraft controls and instruments
Interface: Control yoke, throttle, instrument panel, heads-up display
Environment: Cockpit design, seating, visibility, and accessibility of controls
Design Philosophy: Cockpit design is focused on situational awareness, ease of access to controls, and
minimizing pilot fatigue.
Computer Workstation:
Human Operator: Office worker
Machine/System: Computer, keyboard, mouse, monitor
Interface: Input devices and software interface
Environment: Desk setup, chair, lighting, noise levels
Design Philosophy: Ergonomic design aims to prevent repetitive strain injuries, optimize comfort, and
improve productivity through adjustable chairs, monitor stands, and ergonomic keyboards.
The man-machine system and design philosophy in ergonomics are integral to creating safe, efficient, and
user-friendly interactions between humans and machines. By focusing on user-centered design principles,
ergonomics strives to enhance human well-being and performance in various contexts, from workplace
settings to consumer products.
Ergonomic Workstation
Creating an ergonomic workstation involves optimizing the setup to promote good posture, reduce strain,
and enhance comfort and productivity. Here's a sketch and an explanation of the key elements of an
ergonomic workstation:
Key Elements and Explanations
Chair
Adjustable Height: The chair height should allow your feet to rest flat on the floor or on a footrest, with
your thighs parallel to the ground.
Lumbar Support: Proper lower back support maintains the natural curve of the spine, reducing the risk of
back pain.
Seat Depth and Width: The seat should be wide and deep enough to support any user comfortably. Adjust
the seat depth so that the backrest supports your lower back while leaving a small gap between the front
edge of the seat and the back of your knees.
Armrests: Adjust the armrests so your arms rest comfortably, with shoulders relaxed.
Desk
Height: The desk should be at a height that allows your elbows to be at a 90-degree angle when typing.
Surface: The desk should have enough space to accommodate your computer, keyboard, mouse, and
other necessary items while keeping them within easy reach.
Monitor
Position: The top of the monitor screen should be at or slightly below eye level. The screen should be
about an arm's length away from your eyes.
Tilt and Angle: The monitor should be tilted slightly upward, reducing glare and neck strain.
Dual Monitors: If using dual monitors, they should be positioned next to each other at the same height
and distance to avoid excessive head movement.
Keyboard and Mouse
Position: The keyboard and mouse should be on the same surface and at the same level, directly in front
of you. Your wrists should be straight and your hands at or slightly below elbow level.
Keyboard Tray: If possible, use a keyboard tray that can be adjusted for height and tilt.
Footrest
Usage: If your feet do not rest flat on the floor, use a footrest to support your feet and maintain proper
posture.
Lighting
Position: Ensure that there is adequate lighting to prevent eye strain. Position the light source to avoid
glare on the screen.
Task Lighting: Use a desk lamp for additional lighting if necessary.
Accessories
Document Holder: Place documents you are working with close to the monitor and at the same height to
reduce neck strain.
Phone and Other Equipment: Keep frequently used items within easy reach to minimize unnecessary
movements.
An ergonomic workstation setup is essential for maintaining comfort, preventing strain, and enhancing
productivity. By adjusting your chair, desk, monitor, keyboard, and other accessories to fit your body and
work habits, you can create a workspace that supports your health and well-being.
Blood Pressure and Pulse Rate
Blood pressure and pulse rate are key physiological parameters that provide insight into an individual’s
cardiovascular health and physical condition, especially during physical work. They play crucial roles in
understanding the body's response to physical exertion and can be used to monitor and manage workload
to prevent overexertion and related health issues.
Blood Pressure
Definition: Blood pressure is the force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels. It is
measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and is expressed as two numbers: systolic pressure (the
pressure during heartbeats) over diastolic pressure (the pressure between heartbeats).
Role in Physical Work:
Indicator of Workload: Blood pressure typically increases during physical activity due to the heart pumping
more blood to deliver oxygen and nutrients to the muscles. Monitoring blood pressure can help assess
the intensity of physical work and determine if it is within a safe range.
Health Monitoring: Regular monitoring of blood pressure during physical work can help identify
individuals at risk of hypertension or cardiovascular diseases. High blood pressure during or after work
can indicate excessive physical strain or underlying health issues.
Guideline for Physical Activity: Understanding blood pressure responses can help design appropriate
physical work regimens and exercise programs. For individuals with hypertension, it is crucial to manage
physical workload to avoid dangerous spikes in blood pressure.
Pulse Rate
Definition: Pulse rate, or heart rate, is the number of heartbeats per minute. It is a direct indicator of heart
function and overall cardiovascular workload.
Role in Physical Work:
Measure of Exercise Intensity: Pulse rate increases with physical activity as the heart works harder to
supply the muscles with oxygen-rich blood. It is a primary measure of exercise intensity, helping to ensure
that the work is within a safe and effective range.
Fitness Level Indicator: Lower resting pulse rates generally indicate better cardiovascular fitness. During
physical work, a lower increase in pulse rate suggests better physical conditioning, while a higher increase
might indicate lower fitness or excessive workload.
Fatigue and Recovery Monitoring: Tracking pulse rate can help identify signs of fatigue. A consistently high
pulse rate during and after physical work can indicate overexertion, while a rapid return to resting pulse
rate after work suggests good cardiovascular recovery.
Personalized Work Plans: By understanding individual variations in pulse rate responses, work and
exercise plans can be tailored to fit personal fitness levels and health conditions, promoting safer and
more effective physical activity.
Practical Applications
Ergonomic Assessment: Ergonomists use blood pressure and pulse rate measurements to evaluate the
physical demands of different tasks and design jobs that align with workers’ cardiovascular capacities.
Occupational Health: Regular monitoring helps in the early detection of cardiovascular problems among
workers, enabling timely interventions.
Exercise Prescription: Fitness professionals use these metrics to prescribe appropriate exercise intensities,
ensuring safety and efficacy, particularly for individuals with pre-existing health conditions.
Safety Protocols: For physically demanding jobs, establishing safe limits for blood pressure and pulse rate
can prevent overexertion and related health risks, ensuring that workers remain within safe physiological
limits.
Blood pressure and pulse rate are vital indicators of cardiovascular response to physical work. Monitoring
these parameters helps in assessing workload intensity, fitness levels, and overall health, thereby ensuring
safe and effective physical activity. Proper understanding and management of these physiological
responses are essential in occupational health, fitness training, and ergonomic design to promote well-
being and prevent health issues related to physical exertion.
The Total Daily Metabolic Rate (TDMR)
The total daily metabolic rate (TDMR), also known as total daily energy expenditure (TDEE), is the
amount of calories a person needs to maintain their current body weight, considering all activities they
perform throughout the day. This includes their Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR), the energy expended
through physical activity, and the thermic effect of food (TEF).
Components of TDMR
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): The number of calories the body needs to perform basic life-sustaining
functions, such as breathing, circulation, cell production, and nutrient processing, while at rest.
Physical Activity Level (PAL): The energy expended through all forms of physical activity, from exercising
to daily movements like walking and cleaning.
Thermic Effect of Food (TEF): The energy required for digestion, absorption, and metabolism of food,
typically about 10% of the total caloric intake.
Estimating BMR
The Harris-Benedict Equation is a commonly used method to estimate BMR:
For men:
𝐵𝑀𝑅=88.362+(13.397×weight in kg)+(4.799×height in cm)−(5.677×age in years)BMR=88.362+(13.397×w
eight in kg)+(4.799×height in cm)−(5.677×age in years)
For women:
𝐵𝑀𝑅=447.593+(9.247×weight in kg)+(3.098×height in cm)−(4.330×age in years)BMR=447.593+(9.247×w
eight in kg)+(3.098×height in cm)−(4.330×age in years)
Physical Activity Level (PAL) Factors
To calculate TDEE, BMR is multiplied by an activity factor based on the individual's lifestyle:
Activity Level PAL Factor
Sedentary (little to no exercise) 1.2
Activity Level PAL Factor
Lightly active (light exercise/sports 1-3 days/week) 1.375
Moderately active (moderate exercise/sports 3-5 days/week) 1.55
Very active (hard exercise/sports 6-7 days a week) 1.725
Extra active (very hard exercise/physical job) 1.9
Example Calculation
Let's calculate the TDEE for an average 30-year-old man and woman:
Man
Age: 30 years
Weight: 70 kg
Height: 175 cm
Activity Level: Moderately active (PAL = 1.55)
Step 1: Calculate BMR
Here is the completion of the example calculation for the total daily metabolic rate (TDEE) for an
average 30-year-old man and woman:
Example Calculation
Man
Age: 30 years
Weight: 70 kg
Height: 175 cm
Activity Level: Moderately active (PAL = 1.55)
Step 1: Calculate BMR
𝐵𝑀𝑅=88.362+(13.397×70)+(4.799×175)−(5.677×30)BMR=88.362+(13.397×70)+(4.799×175)−(5.677×30)
𝐵𝑀𝑅=88.362+937.79+839.825−170.31BMR=88.362+937.79+839.825−170.31
𝐵𝑀𝑅=1695.667 kcal/dayBMR=1695.667kcal/day
Step 2: Calculate TDEE 𝑇𝐷𝐸𝐸=𝐵𝑀𝑅×𝑃𝐴𝐿TDEE=BMR×PAL 𝑇𝐷𝐸𝐸=1695.667×1.55TDEE=1695.667×1.55
𝑇𝐷𝐸𝐸=2628.28 kcal/dayTDEE=2628.28kcal/day
Woman
Age: 30 years
Weight: 60 kg
Height: 165 cm
Activity Level: Moderately active (PAL = 1.55)
Step 1: Calculate BMR
𝐵𝑀𝑅=447.593+(9.247×60)+(3.098×165)−(4.330×30)BMR=447.593+(9.247×60)+(3.098×165)−(4.330×30)
𝐵𝑀𝑅=447.593+554.82+511.17−129.9BMR=447.593+554.82+511.17−129.9
𝐵𝑀𝑅=1383.683 kcal/dayBMR=1383.683kcal/day
Step 2: Calculate TDEE 𝑇𝐷𝐸𝐸=𝐵𝑀𝑅×𝑃𝐴𝐿TDEE=BMR×PAL 𝑇𝐷𝐸𝐸=1383.683×1.55TDEE=1383.683×1.55
𝑇𝐷𝐸𝐸=2144.71 kcal/dayTDEE=2144.71kcal/day
Summary Table
Demographic BMR (kcal/day) PAL Factor TDEE (kcal/day)
30-year-old man 1695.67 1.55 2628.28
30-year-old woman 1383.68 1.55 2144.71
Conclusion
The total daily metabolic rate, or TDEE, represents the total number of calories an individual needs per
day to maintain their current weight, considering their basal metabolic rate and their level of physical
activity. For a moderately active 30-year-old man weighing 70 kg and standing 175 cm tall, the TDEE is
approximately 2628 kcal/day. For a moderately active 30-year-old woman weighing 60 kg and standing
165 cm tall, the TDEE is approximately 2144 kcal/day. These calculations help in designing appropriate
dietary and exercise plans tailored to individual energy needs.
Heat stress
Heat stress can have a significant impact on the average human being working in a thermal power plant.
Here's how it affects them:
Physiological Effects:
Increased heart rate and blood pressure: The body works harder to pump blood to the skin's surface to
promote heat loss, leading to strain on the cardiovascular system.
Dehydration: Sweating is the primary way the body cools itself. In hot environments, sweating increases,
leading to dehydration if fluids aren't replenished. Dehydration can cause fatigue, dizziness, and even heat
stroke.
Heat exhaustion: This occurs when the body loses an excessive amount of fluids and electrolytes.
Symptoms include headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps, and weakness.
Heat stroke: This is a medical emergency where the body can no longer regulate its temperature. It can
lead to organ damage, coma, and even death.
Performance and Cognitive Effects:
Reduced work capacity: Heat stress can lead to fatigue, making it difficult to perform physical tasks
efficiently.
Decreased alertness and concentration: Heat can impair cognitive function, leading to mistakes and
increased risk of accidents.
Reduced reaction time: Heat can slow down reaction times, which can be dangerous in a power plant
environment.
Overall Impact:
Increased risk of accidents and injuries: Heat exhaustion and impaired cognitive function can make
workers more susceptible to accidents.
Reduced productivity: Workers who are hot and uncomfortable will not be able to work as efficiently.
Increased healthcare costs: Heat-related illnesses can lead to hospitalizations and other medical expenses.
Mitigating Heat Stress:
Thermal power plants take various measures to protect workers from heat stress. These include:
Engineering controls: Improving ventilation, using air conditioning, and providing cooling vests can help
to lower the ambient temperature.
Work practices: Implementing shorter work shifts, providing cool down periods, and encouraging breaks
for hydration are crucial.
Personal protective equipment (PPE): Providing loose-fitting, breathable clothing and ensuring proper
hydration can significantly reduce risk.
By following these measures, thermal power plants can create a safer and more productive work
environment for their employees.
Work Posture and Repetitive Motion
Work posture and repetitive motion are critical aspects of ergonomics that significantly impact worker
health, comfort, and productivity. Poor posture and repetitive motions can lead to various
musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) and other health issues. Here's a detailed look at their effects:
Effect of Work Posture
Good Work Posture
Neutral Spine Alignment: Maintaining the natural curve of the spine reduces strain on the back muscles
and spinal discs.
Optimal Joint Positioning: Proper alignment of joints (e.g., wrists, elbows, shoulders) minimizes the risk of
strain and injury.
Reduced Muscle Fatigue: Proper posture ensures even distribution of body weight and muscle use,
preventing overexertion of specific muscle groups.
Poor Work Posture
Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs): Incorrect posture can cause or exacerbate conditions like back pain,
neck pain, and carpal tunnel syndrome.
Increased Fatigue: Slouched or awkward postures require more energy to maintain, leading to quicker
fatigue.
Circulation Problems: Poor posture can impede blood flow, leading to discomfort, swelling, and long-term
cardiovascular issues.
Decreased Productivity: Discomfort and pain from poor posture can reduce concentration and efficiency,
impacting overall productivity.
Chronic Pain: Over time, consistently poor posture can lead to chronic pain conditions, reducing quality
of life and potentially leading to long-term disability.
Effect of Repetitive Motion
Repetitive Motion Injuries
Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTDs): Repetitive motions can lead to micro-traumas in muscles, tendons,
and nerves, resulting in conditions like tendinitis, tenosynovitis, and epicondylitis (e.g., tennis elbow).
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: Repetitive hand and wrist movements can compress the median nerve, causing
pain, numbness, and weakness in the hand.
Trigger Finger: Repeated gripping can cause inflammation in the tendons, leading to difficulty in bending
or straightening the finger.
Factors Contributing to Repetitive Motion Injuries
High Frequency: Performing the same motion frequently increases the risk of injury.
Force: Using excessive force in repetitive tasks can accelerate wear and tear on muscles and tendons.
Duration: Prolonged periods of repetitive motion without adequate rest increase the likelihood of
developing injuries.
Lack of Variation: Performing the same task without variety can strain the same muscle groups repeatedly.
Preventive Measures in Ergonomics
For Work Posture
Ergonomic Workstations: Design workstations to promote neutral postures (e.g., adjustable chairs,
monitor stands, keyboard trays).
Education and Training: Teach workers about the importance of good posture and how to achieve it.
Regular Breaks: Encourage breaks and changes in posture to prevent prolonged static positions.
Supportive Equipment: Use lumbar supports, footrests, and other aids to maintain proper posture.
For Repetitive Motion
Task Rotation: Rotate tasks among workers to vary motions and reduce repetitive strain.
Ergonomic Tools: Use tools designed to minimize force and awkward movements (e.g., ergonomic
keyboards, anti-vibration gloves).
Rest Breaks: Implement regular rest breaks to give muscles and tendons time to recover.
Exercise and Stretching: Encourage exercises and stretching routines to strengthen muscles and improve
flexibility.
Ergonomics plays a crucial role in mitigating the adverse effects of poor work posture and repetitive
motion. By designing work environments and tasks that promote good posture and minimize repetitive
strain, employers can enhance worker health, reduce the incidence of musculoskeletal disorders, and
improve overall productivity. Educating workers and providing them with the right tools and support are
essential steps in achieving these goals.
