MODULE-2

Introduction to Ergonomics:
Ergonomics is the word coined from Greek, “Ergo” means “work” and “Noms” mean “natural
laws”. The study of Ergonomics is a multidisciplinary with a combination of Physiology, Anatomy,
medicine with Physiology, engineering and psychology combined.
Ergonomics is the study of the interaction between people and machine and factors that affect the
interaction Purpose is to improve the performance of the systems by improving human machine interaction.
This can be done by “designing-in” better interface or by designing – out factors in the work environment,
in the task or in the organisation of work that degrade human machine performance.
The Science involved in designing of the workplace is known as the Ergonomic process. A designer
while working on the workplace process, should keep in mind the capabilities and limitations of the
worker, workplace space and the employer setbacks. The systematic ergonomics plan in the improvement
of designing the workplace will remove the risk factors involved at productivity level.
Ergonomics is defined as “that branch of science that is concerned with the achievement of
optimal relationships between workers and their work environment”. It is also called as human
engineering or human factors. It is a discipline concerned according to human needs. It deals with the
assessment of the human’s capabilities and limitations such as from anatomy and physiology we learn
about the structure and functioning of the human body. Anthropometry gives information on body size.
Physiological psychology deals with the functioning of the brain and the nervous system.
Ergonomics deals with study of human and machine interface. Machine does not mean electrical
devices but all devices. This is designed in order to create a comfortable working environment. One has to
adapt both physically & psychologically to his work environment. Because of non-conclusive environment
nowadays people face many health issues.

Ergonomics is beneficially applied in subsequent three areas:

1. Design of Man-Machine Systems: A man-machine system is a system where one or more

workmen/ human beings work in relation with one or more machines, devices or equipment. Thus, a
worker drilling a hole in a job or a person using a hammer to drive a nail in a wooden job / an article
being manufactured is an example of a man- machine system as far as ergonomics is concerned.
Such systems could be productive systems as well as service systems such as a post office or
firefighting system or a dispensary etc. Ergonomics is applied to adapt such systems so as to provide
maximum job satisfaction and comfort and minimum physiological and mental load to the operator
of the system.
 2. Design of Consumer Goods and Service Systems: Ergonomics is applicable in the design of
consumer goods starting from design of tooth brush and other items such as dinning set; sofa set;
kitchen ware, house hold fittings table and shoes etc. Similarly, protective equipment such as safety
goggles, adverse weather and space clothing, gloves, crash helmets, firefighting and industrial hazard
protection and appliances etc. should also be economically sound.
3. Design of Working Environment: While designing a proper working environment for work
force/workers at work, the various factors related with ergonomics such as human endurance of
illumination, pollution, noise, heating and ventilation should be taken into consideration. This aspect
should be taken into consideration at each stage right design up to real utilization or actual service.
All factors concerned with environments such as design of work benches, public transport, road
systems, town and country planning, personnel, neighbourhood, as well as airports etc. should be
subjected to ergonomic analysis.

Principles of ergonomics in the workplace include the following:

• Identifying correct postures for tasks (keeping in mind the lower back, neck, shoulder, wrists, hips
and feet). This includes trying to maintain neutral postures of joints where possible.
• Eliminating strenuous tasks where possible including heavy lifting, forceful movements, twisting
(e.g. using machinery where possible)
• Taking rest breaks from repetitive tasks
• Identifying risks within the workplace (including educating staff to independently identify risks and
avoid these postures)

Benefits of implementing good ergonomics in the workplace:

A well-designed workplace can result in better outcomes for your workers and puts less strain on their
health and safety. Whilst a poor design can result in injury to workers and be less work efficient. Some
benefits include.
• Can reduce the cost of work-related injuries.
• Ergonomics reduces costs.
• Can reduce time spent off work.
• Ergonomics improves productivity.
• Ergonomics improves quality.
• Ergonomics improves employee engagement.
• Ergonomics creates a better safety culture.
• Your employees know that you have their best interest in mind
• Allowing employees to be able to independently identify risks and implement appropriate
strategies and techniques
 • Improved worker safety.
• Increased worker comfort.
• Reduced worker fatigue.
• More productive and sustainable employees
• Increased morale
• Reduced absenteeism
• Ergonomics leads to healthy and pain-free workers who are more likely to be engaged and
productive.

MAN –MACHINE SYSTEM (MMS):

Man –machine system (mms) always has a human subsystem, and a user interface (UI). These
subsystems can further be divided into smaller and even smaller elements as necessary. Depending on the
particular aim of the analysis, Human factor is a system concerned with the relationship between human
beings, machines and the work environment. The objective is to obtain the optimum balance between the
human capabilities and the demands of the task.
Man-Machine System has been defined "As the scientific study of the relationship between Man-
Machine Systems man and his working environment. The word environment includes the tools; materials;
methods of work; organisation of his work. These are related to the nature of man himself to his abilities,
capabilities and limitations."
A man-machine system is defined as an operating combination of one or more men with one or more
equipments interacting to bring about from given inputs some desired output with in constraints of a given
environment. A simple form of man-machine system can be a man with some common tools or device, e.g.
a data entry operator with a personal computer system; driver and a car or an automobile; conveyor with
the man unloading; a checkout counter of a grocery store and the cashier; manned aircraft; A guided
missile system, etc. Ergonomics through the man-machine system aims to perfection of the system or to
improve the efficiency of human.
The man-machine relationship is the central core of human factors: the man and the machine may
perform similar functions. Both have certain capabilities and limitations.
Both the words i.e., man and machine, which benefits the human operator and enhances the overall
system performance is a primary aim of the human factors/ergonomics discipline
A few examples of man- machine systems are:
a) A key-board operator and the computer
b) A pilot flying an aircraft
Reviewing these simple systems, it is obvious that a system must have some purpose and the following
components also necessary (Refer Figure). (a) Input (b) Processing and Decision Making (c) Output
(d) Feedback device for corrective action.
 Fig 1: A Simple Model of Man-Machine System

Fig 2: A Man-Machine System with Computer Operator – Computer

lnput of Information: It is the first and foremost feature and is very essential. The input information
consists of various ingredients which are necessary to achieve the desired outcome. The input information
may consist of physical objects or materials in the form of information and/or energy. For example, in a
system of sawmill, the input is in the form of physical material, i.e. lumber whereas the input at a data entry
operator on a personal computer is information.
Information Processing and Decision: This subsystem covers the functions of sensing (information
receiving), storage, processing and action. Sensing or receiving the information is a quite important sub-
component. If there is no proper sensing i.e. receiving of the information, sometimes some information
may enter from wrong direction from an outside System. For example, a virus may be sent to a computer
by a hacker. Hence this sub component (receiving information) becomes quite important. There are various
types of sensing devices such as electronic device mechanical device, etc. Other subcomponent of this
subsystem is the storage of information. Storage of information is synonymous with memory of learnt
material. Information can be stored in many ways as on manually maintained record, punch cards,
magnetic tapes, floppy, compact diskettes, etc. Most of the information is stored in coded or symbolic
form, and the nature of the coding system can have bearing on the efficiency of storage or other processing
devices. Information processing means, the sensed information along with stored information undergo
various types of operation.
Output Output is the result of a system after processing. It may bring a change in product; or a
communication is transmitted; a service is rendered.
Feedback Device It is not necessary that all man-machine systems should have a feedback device. It is
necessary only in the case of closed loop systems. It is essentially needed for corrective action.

MAN – MACHINE INTERFACE:

Interface between Man –Machine: When use a tool or machine we interact with it through interface
(handle, steering wheel). We get a feedback via an interface (Compaq Screen). This way the interface
determines how easily and safely we can use the machine.
Human machine system: System is a set of elements and there is relationship between these
elements and boundary around them. System comprises of people and machine that perform a function in a
specified combo and get some form of output. In ergonomics, human is a part of the system and should be
fully taken into consideration at the design state. So human requirement is prime, and their requirements in
general are as follows: Equipment should be usable and safe. Tasks are compatible with people
expectation, limitation and training. Environment should be comfortable and appropriate for the task. Work
organisation should recognise people’s social and economic needs.
Man, and Machine Interaction: The performance of the worker in an industry depends upon the
interaction and interrelationships of the worker with the machine/equipment and the environment. A
production unit is usually a man-machine integrated system performing under an environment envelop. The
environment refers to not only the ambient conditions of temperature, humidity, noise, etc.., but also the
arrangement of layout facilities, display and controls. Thus, human factor engineering is that endeavour
which seeks to match human with the machine, equipment and facilities so that their combined output will
be efficient, comfortable and safe. Complex information is processing and decision-making efforts for
effective control. It calls for the interaction of equipment designers with specialists in the field of work
design, Physiology and biological sciences. The human subsystem, for example consists of anthropometric,
physiological, perpetual, cognitive, and emotional. Sub-systems that can further are divided into even
smaller elements if necessary.

DETERMINANTS OF MMS SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

The objective of every organization to introduce ergonomics is to increase the performance at

required level of quality and safety. There are several factors that determine the man-machine system
performance, which are briefly described as under
(a) Operator’s ability: it is based on two factors –selection and training of the personnel
(b) The system design: it is also based upon two things –equipment and display and control
(c) The system operation: it is based on three parameters that include workload, communication
channel and maintainability.
A SIMPLE MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM

After starting the machine, the man will receive certain information from the machine, either from
dials, displays, etc…, designed for that purpose, or by observation of the machine itself. The man will then
process this information and make decisions with regards to the actions he should take. He may manipulate
controls or attend to the machine in some other way so as to affect its behaviour in the desired manner.
Both man and machine are subject to certain inputs. The efficiency with which the man functions depends
on environmental factors and on his own characteristics such as age, motivation, training and his
experience, as well as on the efficiency with which the machine provides the information feedback and
accepts control measures.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM

The man machine system may be categorized on the following basis:

1. Nature of man’s involvement in the system
a) A closed loop system
b) An open loop system
2. Degree of man versus machine control
a) A manual system
b) A semiautomatic (mechanical) system, and
c) An automatic system
A closed loop system requires continuous control and feed back to function successfully, e.g., a man
flying a bomber plane or a fighter plane. Feedback is essential in order to correct errors, if any through
continuous control.

An open loop system is one which is once initiated or started needs no further controlled by man or at
least cannot be further controlled, e.g.., firing a bullet from a revolver. The path of the bullet cannot be
continuously controlled.
 A manual system is essentially a man directed system e.g., a worker cutting a mild steel bar using a
(hand) hacksaw. A large variability is possible in a manual system as every worker may select a different
method or motions to do the same job. A mechanical system is more complex and inflexible in nature than
a manual system because it has components which are well integrated. The machine component which is
power-driven and human activity is information processing decision making and controlling. An example
of mechanical system is a driver driving a car.
In Semi-Automatic System certain functions are performed by a machine component under human
control. It may have a feedback information component, but it is not always necessary. It is a relationship
between some standards that provide a basis for the operator to make appropriate adjustments or
corrections. The operator then makes the decision about the corrective actions to be taken. The corrective
action is taken by the operator through certain control mechanisms such as wheels, levers, switches, knobs,
buttons, etc.
An automatic system is a still more complex system in which all operational functions are performed
by automatic devices. Operational functions are sensing, information processing and decision making and
action. The man does the tasks of monitoring, programming the function, maintenance and upkeep. An
automatic telephone exchange is an example of this system. A perfectly reliable automatic system does not
exist at present. Automatic System is essentially a closed loop system and is designed in such a manner that
it should perform all required operational functions. These systems must possess two characteristics. (a) A
built-in mechanism for sensing the existing state of affair, i.e. the sensing function must be able to detect
the error or difference between the desired output and the actual output. (b) A self-correcting mechanism,
i.e. the error should be minimised to have more accurate control in terms of desired output.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A MAN –MACHINE SYSTEM

1. The man machine system consists of the man, the machine and the environment.
2. This system is artificial and is specifically developed to fulfil specific purpose
3. It has specific inputs and outputs which are appropriately balanced
4. It is variable in size and capacity and is dynamic in performance
5. Subsystems of man machine system interact and affect each other.
6. The man machine system becomes more efficient when output results are fed back to the system.
7. Environmental factors influence the performance of the system
MAN, VERSUS MACHINE:

Man is generally better in his abilities to:

1. Be creative
2. Develop entirely new solutions
3. Make subjective estimates and evaluation
4. Apply principles to solutions of varied problems
5. Reason inductively, generalizing from observation
6. Select alternative modes of operation if certain modes fail
7. Draw upon varied experience in making decisions. Adapt decisions to situational requirements
and act in emergencies
8. Store large amounts of information over long periods of time
9. Sense unusual and unexpected events in the environment
10. Sense very low levels of certain kinds of stimuli; visual, auditory, taste etc.
11. Recognize pattern of complex stimuli which may vary from situation to situation

Machines are generally better in their abilities to:

1. Machines can perform many different operations simultaneously

2. They can apply huge amounts of force suddenly or smoothly
3. Be extremely precise
4. Sense stimuli that are outside man’s normal range of sensitivity such as X-rays radar wavelengths
and ultrasonic vibrations
5. Store coded information quickly and in substantial quantity.
6. Retrieve coded information quickly and accurately when specifically requested
7. Make rapid and consistent responses to data input
8. Perform repetitive activities reliably
9. Maintain performance over extended periods of time
10. Maintain efficient operations even in those environment under which man cannot work

MACHINE - AS A COMPONENT OF MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM - Machine receives instructions

from the man and it carries them out and usually indicates its progress to the man by a display of
information. Therefore, as many ergonomic measures as possible should be introduced at the design stage
of a building, appliance or machine, or when equipment is being installed. A machine user should
incorporate ergonomic standards in the clauses of his contract with the machine manufacturer. It must
cover safety colours, warning signals and controls that have already been standardised by International
Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) and the International Electro-technical Commission, in particular
display panels and dials. It is, therefore, obvious that machine is totally dependent on the understandability
and reliability of the operator. Thus, the information to be displayed must be clearly understood and
perceived by the operator for which universally acceptable, standard and good display instruments must be
attached to the machine.

MAN - AS A COMPONENT OF MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM Man plays a vital role in the success of
man-machine system. The sequence of events generated from the receipt of the external stimulus to the
completion of a response is very complicated one. It involves the transduction of the external or internal
stimuli, the perception of the signals and their meaning, the making of judgment (mental process), Man-
Machine Systems the placing of information into temporary or permanent storage (memory) and recall as
and when necessary, finally leading to a decision making. When a man is acting as a controller in a man-
machine system, a large number of human qualities play an important role, some of which make him
outstandingly useful while others put limitations on his performance. All these qualities should be
considered in relation to functions which are well done by man or not so well done by a machine. The most
exciting and useful quality of the man component is his flexibility and hence the adaptability. Unlike a
machine, which is designed for a specific purpose, a person can change his role rapidly and frequently,
moreover he has a multiplicity of channels which he can select as and when required.

KINDS OF MUSCULAR ACTIVITY

There are two kinds of muscular activities:
a) Dynamic muscular work (Rhythmic work), and
b) Static muscular work (Postural work).

Dynamic Muscular Work: In dynamic work, expansion (tension) and contraction (relaxation) of a
muscle follow one after the other rhythmically. Thus, work be measured as a product of shortening of the
muscle and the force used (work = height of rising X weight). During dynamic muscular work, a muscle
operates like a motor pump for the circulation of the blood. Contraction causes an expulsion of blood and
subsequent relaxation allows a renewed flow of blood into the muscle. Thus, the blood circulation
increases and a muscle receives the blood about fifteen to twenty-five times during dynamic work. So, the
muscle receives plenty of sugar and oxygen and the waste products are readily removed. Because of this is
the reason the dynamic work on a suitable rhythm can be executed for a long time without fatigue. The best
example goes with the Heart muscles that work dynamically all through life without 'fatigue'. Cranking of
wheel is another classic example of dynamic work. Therefore, it is recommended that the work can be
efficiently carried out if it is carried out on a rhythmic scale.
Fig: Dynamic Muscular Work: Relaxation Removal of Waste by Blood Fig: Muscular Movements while Working

Static Work: Holding of a weight with an extended arm can considered as static work where the muscle
remains in a state of contraction for some time, and thus does not extend its length. Hence, no visible work
is achieved and it cannot be defined as force multiplied by weight. During standing in a fixed posture, the
muscles of legs, hips, back and neck, etc. are in continuously in the state of contraction; so the blood
vessels are compressed by the rise of pressure within the muscles and this reduces the blood supply. Thus,
a muscle which executes a long static contraction receives neither sugar nor oxygen from the blood. As a
result, it has to consume its reserves. Moreover, the waste products are not carried off but accumulate
which in turn produce acute muscular pain and fatigue. It also follows that static muscular stress. Hence
this type of work postures should be avoided or at least reduced to a minimum.

Fig: Reduced Blood and Oxygen Supply and Maximum Duration of Muscular Contraction in Minutes (Effect of
Static Work)
 WORK AND WORKSTATION DESIGN

Work

The body’s physiological responses to physical workload involve the musculoskeletal and
cardiovascular systems. Muscular forces are required to perform the physical work, that is, to hold and
move the load from one point to another. Muscular activities during physical work require energy.
Supplying the demanded energy creates loads on the cardiovascular system and respiratory system. The
heart must pump faster to deliver the increased oxygen demand through blood vessels to the involved
muscles.
Ergonomists typically examine energy expenditure rates to assess physiological demand on workers. In
theory, if workers are required to exit less 50% of their energy expenditure capacity during the work day,
then they should not become physiologically strained during the work day.
In order to provide a margin of safety, many companies and ergonomists recommend that the workload
should not exceed 33% of the worker’s capacity for the work day.
According to world health organization (1974), the energy expenditure (kcal per hour) by men and
women for
• Light work 140 and 100;
• Moderately active work is 175 and 125;
• Very active work is 240 and 175; and
• Exceptionally heavy work is 300 and 225, respectively.
A planning of energy expended or needed for a task and its management is not possible if one does not
consider the factor of fatigue. Fatigue lessens one’s capacity to perform subsequent work hence one must
plan to avoid wastage of precious energy in energy management Fatigue or tiredness results normally if the
activity undertaken is beyond one’s capacity. The capacity to work without fatigue varies from person to
person. It is also largely dependent upon one’s response to work being done. One tires more easily at work
disliked. Fatigue is largely dependent upon one’s approach, postural and muscular strain, concentration
involved, skill required, and equipment being used. Fatigue is mainly of two types:

Physiological Fatigue: This result due to the effect of activity on the muscular and nervous system. Any
activity undertaken calls for energy, which is provided by the oxidation of nutrient. When there is intense
muscular activity the demand for oxygen is higher and the nutrients are reduced to lactic acid (due to
incomplete breaking down) and the accumulation of excessive lactic acid in the muscles results in
physiological fatigue.

Psychological Fatigue: Psychological fatigue is more concerned with the mental attitude of the
worker’s aversion to work. Lacks of interest, boredom are some of the causes of psychological fatigue.
Frustration or failure to achieve a goal could also be one of the reasons for this type of fatigue.
 There are several ways to reduce both physiological and psychological. Some of these are:
• Providing periods of rest depending upon duration and frequency.
• Undertaking activities as per one’s capacity (both physical and mental).
• Use of energy saving equipment.
• Working in pleasant environment boredom by looking out for ways of making routine,
monotonous.
• Avoiding nous and repetitive jobs interesting.
• Motivation to achieve goals involved.
• Avoiding interruptions and unexpected demands.
• Mastering work simplification techniques.
• Including recreation in the work plan.
• Appreciation and feeling of satisfaction.

Categories of Work

Work may be categorized into prolonged or intermittent work, as described below.

Prolonged Work: Prolonged or continuous work typically involves submaximal efforts for a relatively
long period of time (maintained for a few minutes to several hours). During such type of work the oxygen
consumption reaches a steady-state level.
Intermittent Work: Intermittent work usually consists of sustained effort for short periods of time
followed by periods of rests. There is change in oxygen consumption during typical high-effort intermittent
work. During this type of work the level of oxygen consumption does not reach a steady-state condition
(does not level off).

Maximum power when sitting at work

1. Hand is more powerful when it turns inwards than it turns outwards
2. Rotation force is greatest if the hand is grasping 30cm in front of the axis of the body.
3. Hands is more powerful when it is pulling downwards than pulling upwards
4. More powerful when pushing than pulling
5. Pushing power is greatest – grasping 50cm in the front
6. Pulling power is greatest – grasping 70cm

While standing
1. Pushing power is greater than pulling
2. Pulling and pushing power greater in vertical plane and lowest in horizontal plane
3. Both powers are same when arm held out sideway and forwards
4. Pushing power in horizontal plane for men 16 to 17kg and women 8 to 9kg
 The total energy spent on an activity is largely dependent on the following factors:
• The number of the part of the body involved in the activity. The energy consumption increases as
more parts of the body are involved.
• Sex of the worker: men expend more energy than women for an activity.
• Surface area of the body: larger surface area involves larger expenditure of energy.
• Posture of body at work: bending requires more energy than reaching.
• Height of working surface: this greatly influences energy expenditure.
• Sequence of activity: energy spent is influenced by the sequence of activity.
• Age influences the amount of energy expended. Older people spend more energy than the younger
ones.
• Individual differences are also responsible for the amount of energy expended for an activity
• The concentration required for an activity.
• Weather – tropical climates can increase energy expenditure by 5 – 20% (shivering in cold can
increase).

Guidelines for work layout – principles

1. Avoid any kind of bent or unnatural posture
2. Avoid keeping an arm outstretched
3. Work sitting down as much as possible
4. Arm movement should be symmetrical or opposition to each other
5. Working field should be at the best distance from the eyes of the operator
6. All tools and materials should be in normal work area
7. Hands should be supported

Workstation
A workstation is the place a worker occupies when performing a job. The workstation may be
occupied all the time or it may be one of several places where work is done. Some examples of
workstations are work stands or work tables for machine operation, assembly or inspection; a work table
where a computer is operated; a control console; etc.
A well-designed workstation is important for preventing diseases related to poor working conditions,
as well as for ensuring that work is productive. Every workstation should be designed with both the worker
and the task in mind so that work can be performed comfortably, smoothly and efficiently.
If the workstation is properly designed, the worker should be able to maintain a correct and comfortable
body posture. This is important because an uncomfortable work posture can cause a variety of problems,
such as:
• back injury;
• development or aggravation of RSIs;
 • circulatory problems in the legs.
The main causes of these problems are:
• poorly designed seating;
• standing for long periods;
• reaching too far;
• inadequate lighting forcing the worker to get too close to the work.
• A general rule of thumb is to consider body size information, such as height, when choosing and
adjusting workstations. Above all, workstations must be adjusted so that the worker is comfortable.

Workstation Design
A strong relationship exists between the comfort of workers and their productivity. This fact has not
yet been accepted by many industrial organizations. This is an indication of a lack of understanding of the
concepts of ergonomics and the roles of its principles for designing an effective workplace. Management
should understand that worker discomfort due to long standing instead of sitting, for example, puts
additional energy demands on the employee that by no means contribute to the worker’s productivity. The
goal of ergonomics is not just to reduce effort; it is rather to maximize the worker’s productivity at a level
of effort which is not harmful to the worker. For example, the dimensions of the desktop computer table
should provide adequate space for keyboards and displays. If sufficient space cannot be provided, an
under-table keyboard holder should be used. Use L-shape or cut-in workstations or a special pull-out
mouse holder to keep the elbow as close to the body as possible during the use of computer mouse.
Problems results from awkward postures due to poorly designed workstations. The application of
ergonomic principles in the design of workstations has significantly reduced such problem. A good
workstation allows the operator to assume a good posture.
Ergonomics in the Workplace

The term ‘ergonomics’ generally refers to, physical ergonomics as it relates to the workplace (as in
for example ergonomics chairs and keyboards). Ergonomics in the workplace has to do largely with the
safety of employees, both long and short-term. Ergonomics can help reduce costs by improving safety.
Workplaces may either take the reactive or proactive approach when applying ergonomics practices.
Reactive ergonomics is when something needs to be fixed, and corrective action is taken. Proactive
ergonomics is the process of seeking areas that could be improved and fixed the issues before they become
a large problem.
Problems may be fixed through equipment design, task design, or environmental design. Equipment
design changes the actual, physical devices used by people. Task design changes what people do with the
equipment. Environmental design changes the environment in which people work, but not the physical
equipment they use.

Ergonomics Principles for Workplace Design

The ergonomic recommendations for determining the dimensions of the workplace (workstations and
work spaces) are based on the following three factors, with the first two being the most important:
• Anthropometric data;
• The nature of the job;
• Behavioural patterns of employees.
An effective workstation for the human operator involves incorporation of certain established design
principles from the fields of ergonomics and work study. Conducting systems analyses of the job and
function allocations – among operators and between workers and machines – helps determine the types and
number of tools and equipment necessary for the operators to perform their functions in the work system.
Once the required tools and equipment are determined, they must be so arranged or positioned that
operators can effectively perform their functions. In general, the workplace design must satisfy the
following important criteria;
• Be economical;
• Enhance the worker’s efficiency;
• Allow good working postures; Minimize fatigue;
Minimize health-and-safety risks, such as stresses on the musculoskeletal system. Workplace design
based on the dimensions and capabilities of workers can be ergonomically correct. There is no practical to
determine universal design specifications for all work space or work station because their dimensions
depend upon the physical characteristics of their users as well as their intended applications. The following
principles of ergonomics and work study (monition and time study) should be used as general guidelines
for workplace/workspace design.
 Work spaces must be designed for the expected user population. Thus, all dimensions should be
determined based on relevant anthropometric data.
Work spaces must have adequate clearance for the user’s head, torso, arms, knees, and feet.
Bent or unnatural postures should be avoided. Bending the trunk or the neck sideways is more
harmful than bending forwards.
Design the work for more sitting than standing. Prolonged work in the same position should be
avoided, whether seated or standing.
Arm movements should be either in opposition to each other or otherwise symmetrical.
The location of the working field should be at the best distance from the eyes of the operator.
All tools and parts needed by the worker should be placed in the order in which they are to be used so
that the path of the worker’s movement is continuous.
Tools should be prepositioned in such a way that they can be conveniently picked up for use. For
example, a power screwdriver that is repeatedly used in a job can be suspended just above the task area
using a coil spring.
All tools and parts should be placed within a comfortable reaching distance.

Recommendations for Seated Workstations

It is inappropriate to determine design specifications for universal seated workstation since its
dimensions will vary according to its intended purpose and its user’s specific characteristics.

Recommendation for Sitting Postures

• The upper arm and lower leg are vertical The forearms and thighs are vertical
• The feet are flat on the floor
• The seat backrest supports the inward curvature of the lumbar region of the spin
• The weight of the upper body is evenly distributed on a large surface area of the buttocks and
thighs.
 Recommendations for Seat Design Selection
Chairs should be stable and easily adjustable from the seated position. Mobile chairs are not
recommended for use on the shop floor where the risk of tipping over is present.
Where mobility is required wheels or castors should be fitted to the chair. Mobility is not
recommended for a slippery floor, which makes it difficult to keep the chair in the desired position.
Where wheels or castors fitted the chair should have five legs to decrease the risk of tipping over.
The chair should have padded backrest that is at least 18cm high and 33cm wide. The backrest should
be adjustable up and down and forward and backward.
Seat height should be adjustable so that the upper body weight is distributed over the buttocks, not
over the thighs by maintaining the thighs horizontal above the floor accommodations about 90% of the US
civilian population accounting for shoe allowance.
The depth of seat should be about 38-40cm and its width should be 42-46cm respectively.
There should be enough clearance between the front edge of the front edge of the chair and the back
of the knees.
The front of the seat should be of a waterfall shape which provides enough clearance for the flesh of
the thighs, thus preventing reduction of blood circulation.
The seat pan should be slightly slope backward to prevent the ejection effect of seat. The angle
between the backrest and the seat should be about 100°.
Both seat pan and backrest should be upholstered and covered with breathable when compressed.
Torso twisting during the task performance should be avoided. If frequent lateral movements are
required the seat should be swivel.
Where the seat height is fixed and excessive, footrest should be provided to the users to be able to
maintain their thighs horizontally and relieve the pressure under the thighs from the chair front.
If footrest is required it should be slightly angled toward the person. It should support the soles of
both feet; a surface of 27-30cm in depth by 40cm in width should be adequate.
Armrest should be covered with an absorbent nonslip material.

Ergonomic Guidelines For Standing Tasks

It is desirable to design the workplace for sit stand work, in which workers can perform their
assigned job sitting or standing. Due to the nature of the task sometimes sitting is not possible. For such
situation it should be designed for standing.

Recommendations for Standing Postures

Standing still in one place for long periods of time should be avoided. The activity of the leg muscles
acts as pump and assists he vein in returning the blood to heart. Prolonged standing stops this pumping
action and causes swelling of the lower extremities.
 When fully adjustable worktables cannot be provided for standing work or the operating level at a
machine cannot be varied the working heights should be st to suit the tallest operation, while the smaller
operators can be accommodated by giving them something to stand upon.
When the work requires fine or precise manipulations, working heights must be raised to a level at
which operators can see clearly while keeping their back in a natural position.
When the handwork calls for great force or much freedom of movement it is necessary to lower the
working surface.
Mats provided for the standing operator should have feathered edges to minimize tripping hazard.

The Workplace Characteristics

Most workplace has the following five characteristics in common;

The workplace consists of mechanical and electrical equipments. The industrial workplace usually
includes such equipment as lathes, power saws, power presses, grinding machines, and drills the non-
industrial (service) workplace also includes mechanical and electrical equipment. Examples of equipment
used in the non-industrial environment include typewriters, computers, and copy machines.
Manual tools are often required to perform the job, examples of such tools include screwdrivers,
hammers, dollies, pliers, and keyboards.
Jobs are described by standard sets of procedures that must be followed to produce a desired output.
The workers interact with the equipment to perform many necessary tasks that are involved in
producing the desired output.
The workplace is serviced by various other facilities. Example of such facilities are waste removal,
water, and power, which are necessary to carry out the work activities in the workplace.
 ERGONOMICS AND PRODUCT DESIGN

What is Product Design?

Product designing is a strategy implemented by product designers and service providers to meet
consumer demands and incorporate them to make their products and services sustainable for the long term
in the business market. Surreal development of expectations and demand among consumers need to be met
to produce ergonomic designs that are both marketable and customer friendly and this can be made
possible by product design.

What is ergonomics in product design?

Ergonomics in product design is the application of population mindsets, expectations, requirements,

and many other factors in the design of a product or service to make it easy for people to use.
Let us understand ergonomics in product design with an example like furniture. Furniture that is designed
with standardized dimensions, materials, etc doesn’t fit all types of people. But ergonomically designed
furniture analyzes material suitability that offers comfort and reduces back pain, analyzes dimensional data
to provide a proper comfy shape to the furniture, and much more.
Ergonomics and product design should go hand in hand to develop consumer-friendly products and
services that can reign in the relevant market.

Importance of Ergonomics in Product Design

As engineering products and solutions are turning into a competitive market in the global
platform, incorporating ergonomics in product design is very much important to satisfy the
clients and users.

Design factors
The design factors play a significant role in not only designing seats and work-tables, but also in
working area and the plant and equipment layout. While designing the equipment also, the operator cannot
be ignored. Even while designing the equipment also the manufacturer will not overlook the operator and
he designs and manufactures in such a way that its controls can be operated with a great ease, fast and
effective. While laying out and positioning (erection) of these controls of equipment, unfortunately
sometimes are not located at relevant positions. This causes subjection of undue stresses and thereby
operational breakdown or some fault in operation. In such cases the industrial engineers have to take
initiative and look back to study the positioning of such controls through the parameters of work-study
design factors to make necessary modifications.
Ergonomic Design of Display Instruments
While designing any product, a designer has to incorporate the principles of ergonomics, in additions
to the technical and managerial features. The application of the ergonomic features mainly is associated
with the sub-units or components or sub-products of the main products where the humans are directly
connected with them. These sub-units or components (in some cases main products also) include the
display devices and controlling devices. Thus, the ergonomic design of display and controlling units will
automatically ensure ergonomic design of entire product
There are three main types of commercially produced display instruments:
a) Analogue Display system (Type-I) - Round dial with movable pointer.
b) Analogue Display system (Type-11) - Fixed pointer with movable dial.
c) Digital Display system - Open window in which the numerical value can be read directly.

Fig: Dial with Movable Pointer

Fig: Movable Dials with Fixed Pointer

Fig: Counter (Digital)

 Table: Common Display Instruments and their Utility

The effective utility of these display instruments could further be directed by distinctive colour,
font, shape and size of numbers and letters, etc. matching the accuracy of display to the desired accuracy.
Certain rules are recommended in order to have effective use of display on the basis of research carried out
by various investigators. Researches indicate that the shape of the dial may influence reading accuracy. The
frequency of error with very short reading times is shown in below figure. In such cases a digital display
system may be preferred.

Fig: Effect of Different Types of Information Display on Reading Precision

General Guidelines for Designing the Display Devices

a) The degree of accuracy shown on the dial must be in accordance with the required accuracy. If a
dial gives accuracy greater than the required makes reading more difficult and leads to reading
error.
b) The dial should give the correct and needed information to the operator while working on the
machine. Superfluous information may cause error.
c) As far as possible, subdivision should be in multiples of 1,2 or 5, since other sub-divisions may
raise difficulties in putting the correct information.
d) Figures should be attached to the large-scale markings which may be after 1. 2 or 5 sub-divisions.
These numerical figures should be tangential on a moving scale and upright on a fixed scale.
 e) The pointer must have a sharp arrow or tipped point to show the correct numerical value. It should
neither cover the scale nor the numbers. The pointer should move in the same plane so that the
parallax can be avoided.
f) The sizes of letters and figures must be adjusted to the Expected distance between the eye and the
information display. For this, the following formula may be used: Height of letters or figures in
mm. = visual distance in mm/200

ERGONOMIC DESIGN OF CONTROLLING DEVICES

The design of knobs, levers, push buttons, switches, steering and handles should provide ease so as to
control efficiently. The dimensions and forces that can be applied on them should be optimum such that the
operator will not be strained.
Controlling Devices: Push button, Toggle switch, Knobs, Crank and lever, Hand wheels, Pedals.

General Guidelines for Designing the Controlling Devices

a) Location of the controlling devices such as hand grips, levers, switches, dials, knobs, etc. is to be in
such a position that they are clearly and easily readable and comfortably and conveniently operable
because any manipulation of the machine deserves the full attention on these controlling devices.
b) The designer should adhere to the principle of consistency of motion. For example, if turning
increases the input to the machine the knobs or head wheel clock wise, then the needle of the meter
indicating the reading of increase should also move clockwise.
c) As far as possible the scales and knobs meant for the same function should be placed together. Two
methods are found to be most convenient in these designs are:
i) Scales on upper side and controls down, and
ii) Scales on left-hand side and controls on right hand side.
d) The motion of pointer of the scale or dial should be consistent.
e) The sub divisions and numerals on dials or scales should not strain the eyes and should clearly be
visible without causing much mental effort for reading.
f) A control device should be marked with its function, indications of 'on' and 'off positions and the
speed levels or feed levels or steps of inputs, etc. If possible, it is better to use colour codes or
sound tones also so as to make them distinctive. For instance, the speedometer now-a-days is
designed with different colour codes on the dial. We can observe different sound on telephones,
tones for dial tone, phone engaged, line engaged or out of order, cradle, ringing, local or STD call
identification, etc. These are all the outcome of the ergonomic studies only.
g) Shapes or alignment distinctions should be made wherever possible to avoid confusions. The
computer central processing unit (CPU) will have many points to be connected such as power cord,
monitor connection, mouse attachment, server connection, keyboard connection, etc. All these will
have different shapes and distinct in their pin positions by which one will not suit the other except
 in its correct point. Such designs will enable the user to identify soon and be free from
misalignments and confusions.
h) Symbols and icons should be used for controls where ever possible. For example, each function on
a computer especially in Windows is now-a-days symbolized and kept as icons on menu bar or task
bar to make it user friendly.
i) The control devices should be conventional and in the standard sizes which makes a new man also
to operate without any confusion and makes accident free. During late seventies and early eighties
most of the road accidents due to motor bikes have been registered due to confusion in break and
gear control positions.
j) The control positions should be designed in a logical sequence to prevent erroneous operations. If
the operations are sequential but of random in nature, it is preferable to discover the related group
of functions so that there is a set pattern of information, though there is no set pattern of operation.
This enables the operator to locate particular control readily.

FACTORS FOR SELECTION OF CONTROLLING DEVICES

Correct type of control is to be selected with the due consideration of the safety and operational
requirements. The correct choice could be based following factors:
Fit to the Functions: The controls should be so selected as to fit the functions and anatomy of limbs. For
instance, fast and precise operations should be performed by fingers or hands and those requiring force by
arms or feet.
Easy Grasping/Gripping: Hand operated controls must be placed within easy grasping distances between
elbow and shoulder height and be clearly visible.
Anatomic Considerations: Distances between the controls must match anatomic considerations. For
example, if a control is to be operated by finger, the knob of at least 15 mm diameter is ergonomic while
for hand control at least 50 mm diameter is necessary.
Need low Energy: For operations needing low energy expenditure and step or continuous adjustments for
high precision, can be suitably done by manually operated push buttons, toggle switches, knobs. Whereas
operations needing high energy expenditure, moving an element to great amplitude with less precision, can
be carried out be levers, long arms, cranks, hand wheels and pedals, etc.

CONTROLS FOR HIGH PRECISION WORK

Push Buttons: They should be reasonably small. The design of push buttons has the following
distinguished features:
a) Surface should be slightly concave, so that the finger force may be transmitted more effectively.
b) Diameter should be able to accommodate the fingertip without slipping.
 c) It is to be made of such a material which is easily distinguishable and preferably can shine even in
the dark (luminescent colour may be used) so that there should be no problem in locating it.

Toggle Switches: They should be able to be easily identified as they are miniature levers used as switches
or selectors and guarantee high frequency of precision control. The general design guidelines are given
below.

Fig: Toggle Switch

a) The toggle switches have only two positions 'ON' and 'OFF'. These two positions should be clearly
written on the top and bottom, respectively.
b) Recommended dimensions for general (simple) toggle switch L = 50 mm and d = 25 mm if weight
applied (approx) is in the range of 200 - 400 grams.
c) Movement should be vertical.
d) Sometimes they are used for three positions, then the angle of movement in, I vertical direction
between the two sequential positions should be between 30' to 40°, and meaning of each position
should be clearly marked.

Knobs: These are rotary controls that can be operated freely by gripping it on both sides with the fingers of
one hand. They are available in different shapes such as circular, bar-shaped, pointed and so forth. The
general design guidelines for these products are given below.
a) The shape should be in such a manner that must be easy to feel and provide a reliable grip.
b) Any movement required must be clearly visible.
c) They may be used for making fine adjustment when loads are light up to 22 in-lb [Sometimes they
may be in continuous or discrete function and as rotary selector switches for switching operations].
d) Thicker knob allows two or three fingers for more grip and more ease.
e) The gear ratio should be such that it should minimise the force required to operate.
f) Protection of scale against scratching is essential. An arc of 120 degrees can be obtained on a single
rotation. For greater angle grasps have to be changed but this should be avoided.
g) When several knobs are attached to an instrument panel.
CONTROLS THAT REQUIRE CONSIDERABLE FORCE

Cranks: It is a control parallel to the shaft in which the handle is offset from the shaft. This is suitable for
setting or continuous movements which cover a wide range. It can also be used when high turning speeds
are required up to 200 rpm. Further, different gear ratios can be selected to have desired speed. For fast
movement, the handle must be set free to turn on its own axis, while footed handles are more appropriate
for precise movements or adjustments.
The Preferred Position for a Crank:
a) Facing the operator
b) Along a horizontal line at elbow height from the centre line of the body to the width of the shoulder
of the operating hand, and
c) Along vertical line to shoulder height.

Hand Wheel: It is a circular control gripped at the rim preferably with both hands. It is recommended
when large forces have to be exerted as the use of two hands and relatively long lever arms should be
employed. It is useful for low turning speeds (1 rpm or low). Hand wheels are best when the amount of turn
required does not exceed 90" for fine positioning.

Pedals: A pedal is a reciprocating control operated by foot acting independently. When pedals are used for
heavy energy expenditure, it is advised that a high back rest and horizontal position of the legs have to be
adopted. Flexion at the knee joint: 105°--1300. Flexion at the ankle joint: 90". Generally, pedals are used
without heavy expenditure of energy; the recommended arrangement is given in the Figure

Fig: Pedal and Recommended Angles

When using pedals in standing positions, it is advantageous if such pedals are at floor level so that the
operator can change from one leg to the other. However, the use of pedals in standing position is highly
undesirable from the fatigue point view.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONTROLS AND DISPLAY INSTRUMENTS

It is recommended that the controls (knobs, hand wheels, pushbuttons, etc.) are always used in
conjunction with some type of display instruments. This helps in knowing the direction of movement of
control that produces its result in a display. For example, the bed of milling machine moving from left to
right; the movement of tracked vehicle when levers are used to turn it; the turning to knob alters the dial
setting, etc. In equipment design, it happens occasionally that the designer has given very little thought to
the importance of having the control movements compatible with the effects which they produce.
Some important points to be considered are, given below:
a) The display pointer should move in the same direction as the control itself i.e. a knob, hand wheel,
lever, crank etc. should revolve to the right to control the process, if the pointer of display moves to
the right on a circular scale.
b) A clockwise turn of a control should mean an increase in the control process and anticlockwise turn
should mean decreased in flow.
c) Concerned scales and knobs with a given specified function should be placed together. The best
arrangement would be scale above, knob below. All the display instruments and control instruments
should preferably be on the same control board. If the display panel is separate from the switch
board, then the arrangement of the knobs or switches must match that of the dials.
d) The correct Symbols or icons must be specified at appropriate place wherever necessary

ERGONOMICS IN AUTOMATED SYSTEMS:

A Harmonious Blend of Human and Machine
Ergonomics, the science of designing equipment and workspaces to fit the people who use them, is not just
a concern for traditional manufacturing settings. As automation becomes increasingly prevalent, it's crucial
to ensure that these systems are designed with human well-being in mind.

Ergonomics in Automated Systems refers to the design and optimization of automated technologies,
processes, and work environments with a focus on enhancing human performance, comfort, safety, and
well-being. As automation becomes more prevalent in various industries—such as manufacturing,
healthcare, logistics, and customer service—ergonomic principles are essential to ensure that automated
systems work in harmony with human operators and users.
Here are some key areas where ergonomics intersects with automation:
1. Human-Machine Interface (HMI) Design
• Intuitive Controls and Feedback: The design of user interfaces in automated systems
should be intuitive, clear, and easily navigable. This includes designing control panels,
touchscreen displays, and software interfaces that reduce cognitive load and allow for quick
decision-making. For instance, clear visual or auditory feedback helps users know when an
action has been successfully completed.
• Error Prevention and Recovery: Automated systems should be designed to minimize
errors by providing helpful warnings, error diagnostics, and simple recovery options.
 Reducing the potential for mistakes decreases stress on operators and increases overall
system reliability.
2. Automation and Workload Management
• Task Distribution: Automation should be used to offload repetitive, physically demanding,
or dangerous tasks from humans. This reduces fatigue, strain, and the risk of injury while
also improving overall productivity.
• Workload Balance: The role of the human operator often shifts to monitoring and
oversight when working with automated systems. Ergonomics helps ensure that these
monitoring tasks are manageable and that the system provides adequate support, reducing
cognitive load and mental fatigue
3. Physical Ergonomics in Workstations
• Designing for Comfort: When automation is introduced into workplaces, it’s important to
ensure that workstations are designed for comfort. This may involve adjustable seating, desk
height, and monitor positioning to minimize musculoskeletal strain for workers who are
interacting with automated systems.
• Physical Interaction with Robots: In industries where humans work alongside robots (e.g.,
collaborative robots or "cobots"), the ergonomics of interaction—such as the reachability of
controls, safe zones, and ease of maneuvering - must be considered to ensure that workers
are not exposed to excessive physical strain or injury.
4. Mental and Cognitive Ergonomics
• Cognitive Load Reduction: Automated systems should be designed to support human
decision-making without overwhelming the user with excessive information or complex
operations. Systems should also adapt to the skill levels of the user, providing assistance
when needed without unnecessary complexity.
• Alerting and Decision Support: Automated systems should provide operators with alerts
or notifications that are not only timely but also actionable. For example, in a manufacturing
environment, if a machine is malfunctioning, the system should communicate the problem
clearly, potentially suggesting steps to resolve the issue.
5. Safety and Risk Management
• Safe Interaction Design: Safety is a key aspect of ergonomics in automated systems. This
includes designing physical safeguards, emergency stop functions, and fail-safe protocols to
protect humans working in proximity to automated systems. For instance, robots should
have sensors that prevent collisions or other unsafe interactions with human operators.
• Monitoring and Maintenance: Ensuring that operators have easy access to system
diagnostics and maintenance information helps prevent accidents and downtime.
Maintenance tasks should be designed ergonomically so that they are safe, efficient, and
physically feasible for the workers involved.
 6. Human-Automation Collaboration
• Role of the Human Operator: In many cases, humans are not replaced by automation, but
rather work alongside it. The ergonomic design of such collaborative systems—often
referred to as "cobots" - ensures that both humans and machines can perform tasks in a
complementary and efficient manner.
• Autonomy and Control: Striking the right balance between human autonomy and
automated control is critical. Systems should be designed to allow human operators to take
over in critical situations or adjust automated actions when necessary. Clear visualizations
of the system’s state and performance enable operators to quickly understand what the
system is doing and intervene if necessary.
7. Training and Adaptation to New Systems
• User-Cantered Training: Proper training is essential when introducing automated systems.
Training programs should be ergonomically designed to ensure that users can learn how to
operate, troubleshoot, and interact with the system effectively without feeling overwhelmed.
• Adaptation Over Time: As automation evolves, workers may need to adapt to new
technologies and processes. An ergonomic approach to change management involves
considering how these changes are communicated, how systems are gradually introduced,
and how operators can be empowered to grow their skills.
8. Impact on Employee Well-Being
• Reducing Stress and Fatigue: Automation can potentially reduce stress and fatigue by
automating tedious or physically taxing tasks. However, poorly designed systems can create
new sources of stress, such as technical glitches or overly complex interfaces. Ergonomic
design can address these concerns by ensuring that automated systems are reliable and easy
to understand.
• Job Satisfaction: Well-designed automated systems that improve efficiency and reduce
physical strain can enhance job satisfaction, leading to greater employee engagement and
lower turnover.

Why Ergonomics Matters in Automation

While automation can significantly reduce physical strain and repetitive tasks for workers, it can also
introduce new ergonomic challenges:
• Prolonged Screen Time: Operators may spend extended periods monitoring automated systems,
leading to eye strain and potential musculoskeletal disorders.
• Cognitive Load: Complex automated systems can demand high levels of attention and decision-
making, increasing cognitive fatigue.
• Unnatural Postures: Poorly designed workstations or control panels can force operators into
awkward positions.
Key Ergonomic Considerations in Automated Systems
1. Human-Cantered Design:
• Intuitive Interfaces: Design user interfaces that are easy to understand and navigate, reducing
cognitive load.
• Clear Visual Displays: Ensure that screens are at the correct height and angle, with clear and
readable information.
• Comfortable Workstations: Provide adjustable chairs, desks, and keyboard trays to
accommodate different body sizes and postures.
2. Task Allocation:
• Optimized Workload: Carefully distribute tasks between humans and machines to avoid
overloading either.
• Meaningful Work: Assign humans tasks that require creativity, problem-solving, and social
interaction.
3. Environmental Factors:
• Lighting: Ensure adequate lighting to prevent eye strain and fatigue.
• Noise Control: Reduce noise levels to minimize distractions and hearing damage.
• Temperature and Humidity: Maintain a comfortable working environment.
4. Training and Support:
• Comprehensive Training: Provide thorough training on how to use automated systems safely
and efficiently.
• Ongoing Support: Offer ongoing support and training to address evolving needs and
challenges.
Benefits of Ergonomics in Automated Systems
• Improved Worker Health and Safety: Reduced risk of musculoskeletal disorders, eye strain,
and other health issues.
• Enhanced Productivity: Increased efficiency and reduced errors due to reduced fatigue and
improved focus.
• Higher Job Satisfaction: A more comfortable and supportive work environment can boost
morale and motivation.
• Lower Costs: Reduced absenteeism, healthcare costs, and worker's compensation claims.

The application of ergonomics in automated systems is not just about making the systems easier to
use—it’s about ensuring that the design, functionality, and interactions between humans and machines are
optimized for both safety and performance. As automation continues to grow across industries, adopting
ergonomic principles will be crucial for making automated systems work more effectively while improving
the well-being of operators and users.
By integrating ergonomic principles into the design and implementation of automated systems, we can
create workplaces that are not only efficient but also safe, healthy, and fulfilling for workers.

EXPERT SYSTEMS FOR ERGONOMIC DESIGN are computer-based systems that use
artificial intelligence (AI) and knowledge-based techniques to assist in the design of work environments,
tools, machines, and systems with a focus on human factors and ergonomics. These expert systems mimic
the decision-making abilities of human experts in ergonomics by using predefined rules, guidelines, and
databases to provide recommendations, assessments, and solutions to design challenges.
Here’s a breakdown of how expert systems for ergonomic design work, their applications, and the
benefits they offer:
1. What Are Expert Systems in Ergonomic Design?
An expert system in ergonomics is a software application that:
• Simulates the expertise of a professional ergonomist or human factors specialist.
• Uses rules, heuristics, or knowledge databases to analyse ergonomic problems or design issues
and provide solutions or recommendations.
• Aims to enhance the usability, comfort, safety, and performance of both work environments and
products by ensuring they align with ergonomic principles.
These systems typically consist of:
• Knowledge base: A repository of ergonomic guidelines, best practices, design standards (e.g., ISO
standards for ergonomics), and case studies.
• Inference engine: A system that processes input data (such as anthropometric measurements, task
characteristics, or environmental factors) against the knowledge base to generate recommendations.
• User interface: Allows users (e.g., designers, engineers, ergonomists) to interact with the system,
input data, and receive feedback.

2. Applications of Expert Systems for Ergonomic Design

a) Workstation and Workspace Design
• Expert systems can evaluate the ergonomics of an office, manufacturing, or healthcare
workstation by analysing factors like desk height, chair positioning, screen placement, and
lighting conditions.
• The system can recommend adjustments based on user-specific inputs (e.g., body
measurements, task types, work duration, and posture).
• Example: A system might assess whether a worker’s seated posture is ideal for reducing
strain on the lower back and neck and suggest improvements such as adjusting the seat
height, angle, or screen distance.
 b) Tool and Equipment Design
• Expert systems can help design tools, machinery, or handheld devices by ensuring they are
ergonomically suited to the intended users.
• Factors such as handle design, weight, reach distance, and the force required to operate the
device can be optimized using ergonomic principles.
• Example: The system may suggest a redesign of a tool’s handle to fit the average hand size
and reduce the risk of repetitive stress injuries.
c) Task Analysis and Workload Assessment
• Expert systems can evaluate the physical and cognitive demands of specific tasks, helping
identify potential risks such as repetitive strain, excessive force, or cognitive overload.
• The system can provide suggestions for task redesign, automation, or breaks to reduce the
risk of injury and improve productivity.
• Example: The system might analyse a manual lifting task and recommend rotating job
assignments or introducing mechanical aids to minimize the risk of musculoskeletal
disorders.
d) Virtual Ergonomics and 3D Modelling
• Using virtual reality (VR) or 3D modelling, expert systems can simulate human movements
and interactions with objects, workstations, and machinery.
• The system can predict posture issues or potential injuries by visualizing human-automation
interaction in a simulated environment.
• Example: In a manufacturing setting, the expert system could simulate how an operator
interacts with a robotic arm, and recommend adjustments to arm reach or machine
placement to avoid strain.
e) Customized Ergonomic Solutions
• Expert systems can tailor ergonomic solutions to the individual user by collecting detailed
personal data, such as body measurements (anthropometry), physical limitations, and work
habits.
• Example: A system might create a personalized ergonomic workstation design for an
employee based on their specific body dimensions, work tasks, and any existing health
conditions (e.g., carpal tunnel syndrome).

3. Benefits of Expert Systems in Ergonomic Design

a) Improved Efficiency and Consistency
• Expert systems provide quick and consistent ergonomic assessments, ensuring that designs
follow established guidelines without human errors or omissions. This speeds up the design
process and ensures high-quality outcomes.
 • By automating the analysis, expert systems help streamline the decision-making process,
reducing reliance on manual calculations or trial-and-error methods.
b) Data-Driven Design
• Expert systems leverage large databases of ergonomic research, industry standards, and real-
world case studies to provide evidence-based recommendations.
• They ensure that designs are aligned with the latest ergonomic research and best practices,
increasing the likelihood that they will be effective in reducing injury and improving
comfort.
c) Cost-Effectiveness
• By helping designers avoid costly redesigns or modifications, expert systems reduce the
need for expensive prototypes or human intervention.
• They can also help prevent workplace injuries and related healthcare costs by identifying
potential ergonomic risks before they become problems.
d) Personalization and Adaptation
• Expert systems can tailor ergonomic recommendations to individual workers,
accommodating differences in body sizes, abilities, and job roles.
• This personalized approach ensures that each worker’s needs are met, optimizing their
comfort, safety, and productivity.
e) Support for Continuous Improvement
• Ergonomic assessments can be continuously updated as new data becomes available or as
the work environment evolves (e.g., changes in technology, equipment, or worker
demographics).
• Expert systems can monitor changes in the workplace and recommend adjustments to
maintain optimal ergonomic conditions over time.

4. Examples of Expert Systems in Ergonomics

a) ErgoDesign and ErgoIntelligence
• These are software tools used in industries such as manufacturing and office environments.
They help assess and design ergonomic workstations, calculate reach zones, and optimize
tool design based on anthropometric data.
b) RULA (Rapid Upper Limb Assessment) Systems
• Expert systems like RULA can be implemented in ergonomic design to assess the risk of
upper limb disorders caused by posture and repetitive tasks. These systems analyze posture,
arm movements, and task demands to identify high-risk scenarios and recommend
corrective actions.
c) Simulating Human-Robot Interaction
 • In industrial automation, expert systems can be used to model human-robot interactions,
ensuring that workers can collaborate safely and comfortably with robots. These systems
evaluate robot positioning, task assignments, and proximity to workers, suggesting
ergonomic improvements for both the human and robotic systems.
d) Fitting the Workplace to the Worker
• Systems like Anthropometry-based design tools use input data about individual worker
sizes and work habits to design tailored workstations or tools. These tools can ensure that
equipment is positioned to minimize physical strain, reduce bending, twisting, and other
uncomfortable postures.

5. Challenges and Limitations of Expert Systems for Ergonomics

While expert systems for ergonomic design offer significant advantages, there are some challenges
to consider:
• Complexity of Human Variability: Human bodies and needs are highly variable, and
expert systems may struggle to account for all individual differences and scenarios.
• Data Quality and Input Requirements: The accuracy of the system’s recommendations
depends heavily on the quality and specificity of input data (e.g., accurate anthropometric
data or task descriptions).
• User Adoption and Trust: Designers and ergonomists may be hesitant to trust automated
systems for ergonomic decisions without human oversight. Building trust in the system’s
recommendations can be a barrier to widespread adoption.

ANTHROPOMETRY
Anthropometry simply means "measurement of people". The word is derived from the Greek
‘anthros’ meaning man, and ‘metron’ meaning measure. More formally it is the study of the size, shape and
strength of the human body, including, mass, volumes, mobility, proportions, centers of gravity, and
inertial properties of the whole body and body segments.
Anthropometrics is the practice of anthropometry and involves the collection, analysis and
application of anthropometric data. Anthropometry means human measures and it is the study of human
body measurements. At its most basic, anthropometrics is used to help scientists and anthropologists
understand physical variations among humans.
It is the measurement and study of human body dimensions like height, weight, reach lengths, eye
heights, etc. It is one of the most important data sets applied to fit people with their products and physical
environment.
Anthropometric Data help optimize the match between the physical dimensions of products, tools,
and workplaces and the body dimensions of individual users are commonly used to design guidelines for
heights, clearances, grips, and reaches of workplaces and equipment are sometimes used in the design of
various types of consumer products.

There are two ways of measuring Anthropometry.

A) Static Anthropometry
The static anthropometric data is a basic set of numbered variables and brief descriptions of their
use in ergonomics while the body is still.

Static measurements
• Measurements taken when body in a fixed state.
• Skeletal dimensions (between the centres of joints, i.e. between elbow and wrist). Contour
dimensions (skin surface/head circumference).
• Body measurements vary as a function of age, gender, ethnicity (and nutrition, but not as
clear).
B) Dynamic Anthropometry
The dynamic anthropometric data is a basic set of numbered variables and brief descriptions of their
use in ergonomics while the body is moving.

Dynamic (Functional) Dimensions

• Taken when body is engaged some physical activity
• Body members function in concert
• No systematic procedure for translating static into dynamic measurements
Anthropometry and Work place design
A proper work environment for workers at work should include the factors related to ergonomics
such as human endurance of illumination, pollution, noise, heating and ventilation. All factors concerned
with work environments such as design of work place, movement, building planning, personnel and other
facilities should be considered. In case of worker postures and movements leading to work efficiency,
similarly the work place should suit the body size of operator. It varies from person to person. The
variation is observed between
• Individuals
• Sex
• Race
Man has to use physical facilities to work all the time. It includes not only the personnel but the
chairs, tables, desks, seats, bicycles, cars and clothing, machine controls such as levers, foot pedals and so
on. It should have a relationship with physical characteristics of human beings. The word comfort, safety
and performance of individual is influenced by a proper fit to the facilities available. The physical
characteristics are hand and feet dimensions, weight, maximum hand and foot reach in a standing and
sitting posture and so on. It varies according to age, sex and build.
An ergonomist is concerned with many aspects such as strengths of various muscles and ranges of
movements. A designer is required to ensure the following two things while utilizing the anthropometric
data. For designing workplaces, anthropometric dimensions of the workers should be considered. It is
classified in to two groups.
• Reach dimension
• Clearance dimension

Reach dimension
These are designed for the shortest individuals. In kitchen cabinets the uppermost shelf is designed
for short females.
Clearance dimension
These are designed for tallest individuals. The opening height of doors is designed for tallest
individuals.

The anthropometry includes bodily dimensions, rotation of joints, standing work places, sedentary
workplaces, seating at work and design of work stations.

Key Anthropometric Measurements Used in Ergonomics:

1. Body Dimensions:
• Stature (Height): Overall body height from head to feet.
• Seated height: The distance from the seated surface to the top of the head, relevant for
designing chairs or car seats.
• Shoulder height: Important for designing workstations where tasks are performed at
different heights.
• Arm length: Can affect the reach distance and posture when interacting with work
equipment.
• Leg length: Affects the design of seating and standing positions to ensure proper posture
and comfort.
• Hand size: Includes finger length, palm width, and grip strength, useful for designing tools,
handles, and controls.
• Waist and hip measurements: Key for clothing, chair design, and other wearable items.
• Eye height (standing and seated): Important for monitor and screen placement to reduce
neck strain.
2. Body Proportions:
 • Proportions of limbs and torso: Body proportions can vary, and these differences affect
the ergonomics of seating, workstations, and tools.
• Range of motion: The flexibility and mobility of joints, particularly the shoulder, elbow,
and wrist, which are crucial for tool and workstation design.
3. Strength and Endurance:
• Grip strength: Measured for determining tool design (e.g., handle size, force required to
grip).
• Lifting capacity: Important for manual handling tasks, ensuring that the force required for
lifting, pushing, or pulling is within safe limits.

Sources of Anthropometric Data

Computerized databases have revolutionized the way anthropometric data is collected, stored, analysed,
and utilized in ergonomic design. Here are some key ways in which computerized databases are used:
1. Data Collection and Management:
• Standardized Data Entry: Computerized databases allow for standardized data entry formats,
ensuring consistency and accuracy in data collection.
• Data Validation: Built-in validation checks help identify and correct errors in data entry,
improving the quality of the data.
• Data Storage and Retrieval: Anthropometric data can be efficiently stored and retrieved using
computerized databases, making it easily accessible for analysis and design purposes.
2. Data Analysis and Visualization:
• Statistical Analysis: Computerized databases enable the use of statistical analysis techniques to
calculate descriptive statistics (e.g., mean, median, standard deviation) and identify trends and
patterns in the data.
• Data Visualization: Visualizing anthropometric data through charts, graphs, and other visual
representations helps designers understand the distribution of body dimensions and identify
potential design implications.
• Correlation Analysis: Computerized databases can be used to analyze the correlation between
different anthropometric measurements, helping to identify relationships and dependencies between
body dimensions.
3. Design and Simulation:
• CAD Integration: Computerized databases can be integrated with computer-aided design (CAD)
software to create virtual models of products and environments based on anthropometric data.
• Simulation and Modeling: Virtual simulations can be used to evaluate the fit and comfort of
designs for different body sizes and postures.
• Design Optimization: Computerized databases can help optimize designs by identifying the
optimal dimensions and configurations to accommodate a wide range of users.
4. Sharing and Collaboration:
• Data Sharing: Computerized databases facilitate the sharing of anthropometric data between
researchers, designers, and manufacturers, promoting collaboration and knowledge exchange.
• Data Access: Remote access to computerized databases allows researchers and designers to access
and analyze data from anywhere in the world.
• Data Standardization: Computerized databases can help standardize data collection and reporting
practices, ensuring consistency across different studies and organizations.
5. Research and Development:
• Data Analysis and Interpretation: Computerized databases enable researchers to analyze large
datasets and identify emerging trends in body dimensions and proportions.
• Developing New Design Guidelines: Researchers can use computerized databases to develop new
design guidelines and standards based on the latest anthropometric data.
• Predictive Modeling: Advanced statistical techniques can be used to predict future trends in body
dimensions, helping designers anticipate future needs and develop more adaptable designs.
Examples of Computerized Databases for Anthropometric Data:
• NHANES (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey): A large-scale survey
conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics in the United States, providing
comprehensive anthropometric data on the U.S. population.
• ANSUR (Anthropometric Survey of the U.S. Army): A database containing anthropometric data
on U.S. military personnel, used for designing military equipment and uniforms.
• CADENAS PARTsolutions: A database containing anthropometric data from various sources,
including ISO, DIN, and other standards, used for designing industrial products.

• Anthropometric data can come from various sources, each with differing degrees of inclusivity
and reliability.
• Historical anthropometric archives, scientific studies, military databases, and ergonomic
research are all rich sources of such data.
• Online databases, such as the Health and Safety Executive’s repository in the UK, provide
nationally representative anthropometric data sets.
• Databases can be divided by factors such as age, sex, occupational group, or nationality to cater
to specific user demographics.

Applying Anthropometric Data

• Anthropometric data is often used in fields like ergonomics, apparel design, architecture,
automotive design, and industrial design.
 • Its application can be seen in chairs customised for comfort, vehicle seats adjusted for driver’s
leg room, and equipment sized appropriately for user safety.
• It’s important to consider user diversity when applying this data, as one size does not fit all in
design.
• For example, in designing a workplace, a range of adjustable furniture might be selected to
cater to employees of different sizes.

The Importance of Updating Anthropometric Data

• As the physical characteristics of populations can change over time due to factors like nutrition
and lifestyle, anthropometric data needs to be regularly updated.
• An ill-fitting product, resulting from outdated or incorrect data, can lead to discomfort, injury,
poor performance, or dissatisfaction among users.
• Using the most current and accurate anthropometric data can help ensure a product is efficient,
comfortable, and safe.

Limitations of Anthropometric Data

• Although valuable, anthropometric data has its limitations. It is generally static and doesn’t
account for changes in body shape with movement or varying postures.
• It is also essentially quantitative and doesn’t consider qualitative factors such as personal
preference or the affective response of users.
• Therefore, while this data is an important guide in product design, it should be balanced with
other design considerations like aesthetics, usability and functionality.

Applications of Anthropometric Data in Ergonomics

Anthropometric data is used to inform the design of products and environments to ensure they are
comfortable, efficient, and safe for the people who use them. Here are some key applications:
1. Product Design:
• Furniture: Anthropometric data helps determine the appropriate dimensions for chairs, desks,
tables, and other furniture to support proper posture and reduce strain.
• Tools and Equipment: The size, shape, and weight of tools and equipment are designed to fit the
human hand and reduce the risk of injury.
• Consumer Products: Anthropometric data is used to design products like clothing, footwear, and
kitchen appliances to fit a wide range of body sizes.
2. Workplace Design:
 • Workstation Design: Anthropometric data helps determine the optimal height of workstations, the
distance between the keyboard and the chair, and the placement of monitors to prevent eye strain
and musculoskeletal disorders.
• Tool and Equipment Placement: The placement of tools and equipment within reach is crucial for
efficient and safe work practices.
• Layout of Workspaces: The layout of workspaces is designed to accommodate the movement and
reach of workers, minimizing the need for awkward postures.
3. Vehicle Design:
• Seat Design: Anthropometric data is used to design seats that provide adequate support and
comfort for people of different sizes.
• Control Placement: The placement of controls like steering wheels, pedals, and gear shifts is
designed to be within easy reach and minimize driver fatigue.
• Interior Space: The interior space of vehicles is designed to accommodate people of different sizes
and provide adequate legroom and headroom.

Importance of Anthropometric Data in Ergonomics

• Prevents Injuries: By designing products and environments that fit the human body,
anthropometric data helps reduce the risk of musculoskeletal disorders, fatigue, and other
ergonomic-related injuries.
• Improves Comfort and Productivity: When products and environments are designed to fit the
human body, they are more comfortable and efficient to use, leading to increased productivity and
reduced absenteeism.
• Ensures Accessibility: Anthropometric data helps ensure that products and environments are
accessible to people with disabilities, promoting inclusivity and equal opportunity.

LIMITATIONS:
Absolutely, while anthropometric data is a valuable tool in ergonomic design, it has several limitations:
1. Static Nature:
• Anthropometric data typically represents static body measurements. However, the human body is
dynamic and changes posture and movement constantly. This can lead to discrepancies between the
static measurements and real-world usage.
• It may not account for variations in posture and movement during tasks, which can impact the
effectiveness of the design.
2. Population Variability:
• Anthropometric data is usually collected from specific populations, often within a particular
country or region. This can lead to limitations when designing for a global market, as body sizes
and proportions can vary significantly across different populations.
 • Relying solely on local anthropometric data may result in designs that are not suitable for people
from diverse backgrounds.
3. Limited Consideration of Individual Differences:
• Anthropometric data provides information about average body dimensions within a population, but
it doesn't account for individual variations.
• People with atypical body shapes or proportions may not be adequately accommodated by designs
based solely on average measurements.
4. Changing Body Dimensions:
• Human body dimensions can change over time due to factors like aging, weight fluctuations, and
pregnancy.
• Designs based on static anthropometric data may not be suitable for individuals whose body
dimensions change significantly over time.
5. Lack of Consideration for Dynamic Factors:
• Anthropometric data often doesn't account for dynamic factors like strength, flexibility, and
dexterity, which are essential for performing tasks efficiently and safely.
• Designing solely based on static measurements may overlook the importance of these dynamic
factors, leading to suboptimal designs.
6. Difficulty in Obtaining Accurate Data:
• Collecting accurate anthropometric data can be challenging, especially in large-scale studies.
• Measurement errors, inconsistencies in measurement techniques, and limited sample sizes can all
impact the reliability of the data.

Mitigating the Limitations:

To overcome these limitations, ergonomic designers can:
• Combine Anthropometric Data with Other Methods: Incorporate additional methods like task
analysis, virtual simulations, and user testing to gain a more comprehensive understanding of user
needs and capabilities.
• Consider a Wide Range of Percentiles: Instead of relying solely on average measurements,
consider using a wider range of percentiles (e.g., 5th to 95th percentiles) to accommodate a larger
portion of the population.
• Utilize Adaptive Designs: Design products and environments that can be easily adjusted to
accommodate individual differences and changing body dimensions.
• Conduct User Research and Testing: Involve users in the design process through surveys,
interviews, and usability testing to gather feedback and identify potential issues.
• Stay Updated on Anthropometric Research: Keep up-to-date with the latest research on
anthropometric data and emerging trends in body dimensions to ensure that designs remain
relevant.
Case Study:
1. Application of Ergonomics and Anthropometry in the Redesign of a
Manufacturing Workstation
Background:
A manufacturing company producing heavy-duty machinery parts faced a significant issue with worker
injuries, particularly musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), which were on the rise among assembly line
workers. These injuries were attributed to the poorly designed workstations, where repetitive tasks were
being performed in awkward postures, and workers had to frequently adjust to uncomfortable positions.
The company wanted to improve worker comfort, reduce injury rates, and increase productivity. Therefore,
they decided to incorporate ergonomic principles and anthropometric data into the design of their
workstations.

Company Profile:
• Industry: Manufacturing (Heavy Equipment Parts)
• Size: 1,000 employees
• Location: Mid-sized industrial facility
• Problem: High rate of injuries among assembly line workers due to poor ergonomics.
• Specific Complaints: Back pain, neck and shoulder strain, repetitive motion injuries (e.g., carpal
tunnel syndrome), and fatigue from awkward working positions.
Problem Identification:
Through employee surveys, workplace assessments, and health reports, the following ergonomic issues
were identified:
1. Poor Workstation Design:
• Workstations were not adjustable, leading to awkward postures and repetitive strain
injuries.
• Workers were often required to bend over and reach above their heads to perform assembly
tasks, causing spinal misalignment and shoulder strain.
2. Inadequate Tool Design:
• Hand tools and power tools used by workers did not fit well, leading to grip
fatigue and muscle strain.
• The shape and weight of tools were not optimized for the human hand, leading to long-term
injury risks, particularly in the wrists and forearms.
3. Standing for Long Periods:
 • Employees were required to stand for long hours with little chance for movement, which
caused circulatory issues and leg fatigue.
4. Workload and Task Variation:
• The tasks were repetitive and did not allow for changes in posture or activity, increasing the
likelihood of musculoskeletal injuries from repetitive strain.
Objective:
The goal was to redesign the workstations using anthropometric data to create a more comfortable,
adjustable, and safe working environment that would reduce injury rates, improve worker productivity, and
enhance overall worker satisfaction.
Solution: Incorporating Anthropometry and Ergonomics
The company partnered with ergonomic experts to redesign the workstations. They
applied anthropometric principles to better fit the workers' body sizes and shapes, while also integrating
ergonomic tools and best practices to ensure better posture, reduce strain, and prevent injuries.
Step 1: Data Collection
The first step was to collect relevant anthropometric data and conduct an in-depth analysis of the
workers' body dimensions and movements. The team measured:
• Seated and Standing Heights: To understand how the workstations could be adjusted to suit
workers of different heights and ensure proper posture.
• Elbow Height: To determine the best height for work surfaces and tool positioning.
• Knee and Thigh Dimensions: To ensure that workers had adequate clearance beneath the work
surfaces to prevent discomfort when sitting or standing.
• Grip Strength and Hand Size: To ensure that the hand tools were optimized for the size and
strength of the workers' hands.
• Body Reach and Arm Length: To determine how far workers needed to reach to perform various
tasks and ensure that workstations were within an optimal reach zone.
The company also conducted observational studies and task analysis to identify common motions and
postures that could lead to fatigue and injury. Feedback from the workers, who participated in surveys and
focus groups, was also used to understand specific discomforts they were experiencing.
Step 2: Workstation Redesign
1. Adjustable Work Surfaces:
• Based on seated elbow height, the company designed adjustable-height workstations that
allowed workers to adjust the height of their work surfaces. The workstations were designed
to allow workers to work with their arms at a 90-degree angle, reducing shoulder
strain and wrist discomfort.
• For standing tasks, adjustable work surfaces allowed workers to vary their positions,
reducing the impact of prolonged standing and allowing workers to alternate between sitting
and standing throughout the day.
 2. Tool Design and Ergonomics:
• Hand tools and power tools were redesigned using anthropometric data on hand
size and grip strength. The handles were made larger and contoured to fit the workers'
hands better, which reduced grip fatigue.
• Tools with vibration-dampening features were introduced to minimize vibration-related
injuries, such as hand-arm vibration syndrome.
• Additionally, tools were made lighter and more balanced to reduce the physical strain on
workers' wrists and forearms.
3. Seating and Footrests:
• Ergonomically designed chairs with adjustable heights, lumbar support, and seat depth
were introduced for workers who performed seated tasks. These chairs were designed based
on seated knee height and thigh length to ensure comfort and proper posture.
• Footrests were provided for workers who found it difficult to reach the floor while sitting.
This promoted better circulation and reduced pressure on the lower back and legs.
4. Adjustable Armrests and Wrist Support:
• The design team introduced adjustable armrests on chairs, allowing workers to set them at
a comfortable height to reduce shoulder and neck strain.
• Wrist rests were added to workstations to provide support during tasks like typing or using
power tools, which reduced carpal tunnel syndrome and other wrist-related injuries.
5. Task Variation and Break Schedules:
• The company introduced job rotation schedules to reduce repetitive motion and ensure that
workers did not perform the same task for extended periods. This allowed employees to
change positions and tasks, reducing the likelihood of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs).
• Frequent short breaks were built into the schedule, encouraging workers to stretch, change
posture, or engage in light physical activity to reduce fatigue and strain.
Step 3: Testing and Feedback
Once the redesigned workstations were set up, the company conducted a series of test runs with a small
group of employees. The feedback was gathered and analyzed to assess whether the new designs addressed
the previous ergonomic issues. The team tested the following:
• Comfort and Posture: Workers reported that they were able to maintain a more neutral posture,
with less strain on their backs, shoulders, and wrists.
• Tool Performance: The new tools were tested for ease of use, comfort, and reduced fatigue.
Workers reported less discomfort from using the new tools compared to the old ones.
• Workplace Productivity: The ergonomic changes allowed workers to stay on task for longer
periods without experiencing discomfort, leading to improved productivity.
The workers also appreciated the flexibility in the design, as they could adjust their workstations and tools
to suit their preferences and body dimensions.
Step 4: Results and Impact
After implementing the ergonomic workstation redesign across the company, the company saw significant
improvements in several areas:
1. Reduction in Injuries:
• The rate of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) decreased by 35% in the first year,
particularly for back pain and carpal tunnel syndrome.
• Injuries related to repetitive strain and awkward postures were significantly reduced due
to better workstation design and task variation.
2. Improved Worker Productivity:
• Worker productivity increased by 20% as employees were able to work longer hours with
less discomfort and fatigue.
• Employees reported feeling more energized and focused throughout the day, contributing to
fewer mistakes and faster task completion.
3. Higher Employee Satisfaction:
• Employee satisfaction with their work environment increased. Surveys indicated
that 95% of workers felt more comfortable and valued the customizable nature of their
workstations.
• Workers also reported feeling more engaged and less stressed, contributing to improved
morale across the workforce.
4. Cost Savings:
• The company experienced significant cost savings in terms of reduced healthcare costs,
fewer days off due to injury, and lower workers' compensation claims.
• The ergonomic redesign paid for itself within the first 18 months due to the reduction in
injury-related costs and the increase in productivity.
Conclusion:
This case study illustrates how incorporating ergonomic principles and anthropometric data into
workstation design can significantly improve worker health, safety, and productivity. By making data-
driven adjustments to workstations, tools, and task designs, the company was able to create an
environment that not only reduced injuries but also increased worker satisfaction and efficiency. This case
demonstrates that investing in ergonomics is not only beneficial for employee well-being but also leads to
long-term cost savings and enhanced business performance.
Case Study:
2. Ergonomic Redesign of a Manufacturing Assembly Line
Problem Statement
A manufacturing assembly line was facing issues related to worker fatigue, musculoskeletal disorders
(MSDs), and low productivity. The workers were performing repetitive tasks involving reaching, bending,
and lifting heavy components, leading to increased injury rates and decreased job satisfaction.
Ergonomic Assessment and Anthropometric Data Collection
To address these issues, an ergonomic assessment was conducted, which involved:
1. Workplace Analysis:
o Observation: Observing workers performing their tasks to identify potential ergonomic risk
factors, such as awkward postures, repetitive motions, and excessive force.
o Interviews: Conducting interviews with workers to gather information about their work
habits, complaints, and pain symptoms.
2. Anthropometric Data Collection:
o Measurement of key body dimensions: Height, arm length, leg length, and weight were
measured for a representative sample of workers.
o Analysis of data: The data was analyzed to determine the range of body dimensions within
the workforce and identify any outliers.
Ergonomic Interventions
Based on the assessment findings and anthropometric data, the following ergonomic interventions were
implemented:
1. Workstation Design:
o Adjustable workstations: Workstations were designed to be adjustable in height, allowing
workers to customize their workspace to fit their body dimensions.
o Tool and component placement: Tools and components were placed within easy reach to
minimize reaching and bending.
o Tool handles: Tool handles were designed to fit the human hand, reducing hand fatigue and
discomfort.
2. Work Organization:
o Task rotation: Workers were rotated between different tasks to reduce repetitive strain.
o Reduced cycle time: The assembly process was streamlined to reduce the overall workload
and pace of work.
o Teamwork and cooperation: Workers were encouraged to work together to share the
workload and reduce individual strain.
3. Training and Education:
o Ergonomic training: Workers were trained on proper posture, lifting techniques, and the
importance of taking breaks.
 o Awareness campaigns: Posters and signs were placed around the workplace to remind
workers about ergonomic principles.
Evaluation of the Interventions
To evaluate the effectiveness of the ergonomic interventions, the following measures were taken:
• Post-intervention ergonomic assessment: A follow-up assessment was conducted to evaluate the
impact of the interventions on worker posture, comfort, and task performance.
• Injury and illness records: The company's injury and illness records were monitored to assess the
long-term impact of the interventions on MSD rates.
• Productivity metrics: Key performance indicators (KPIs) were tracked to measure the impact of
the interventions on productivity.
Results
The ergonomic interventions were successful in reducing the incidence of MSDs, improving worker
comfort, and increasing productivity. The following positive outcomes were observed:
• Reduced musculoskeletal pain: Workers reported a significant decrease in pain and discomfort in
their back, shoulders, and wrists.
• Improved productivity: Increased comfort and reduced fatigue led to improved productivity and
efficiency.
• Lower absenteeism: The number of sick days due to MSDs decreased significantly.
• Positive employee morale: Workers were more satisfied with their work environment and felt
valued by the company.
Lessons Learned
This case study highlights the importance of conducting thorough ergonomic assessments and utilizing
anthropometric data to design effective workplace solutions. Key lessons learned include:
• Involve workers: Involving workers in the design process can lead to more effective and
sustainable solutions.
• Customize workstations: Adjustable workstations can accommodate a wide range of body sizes
and postures.
• Optimize work organization: Redesigning tasks and work processes can reduce repetitive strain
and improve efficiency.
• Provide training and education: Training workers on ergonomic principles can empower them to
adopt healthier work habits.
• Monitor and evaluate: Continuous monitoring and evaluation of the workplace can identify
emerging ergonomic risks and allow for timely interventions.
By implementing ergonomic principles and utilizing anthropometric data, organizations can create
healthier, safer, and more productive work environments.