 Psychology Discussion

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In this article we will

discuss about:- 1.
:
 Meaning and Definitions
of Psychology 2. Scope of
Psychology 3. Methods.

Meaning and
Definitions of
Psychology:
Psychology is the scientific
study of behaviour and mental
processes. Behaviour includes
all of our outward or overt
actions and reactions, such as
verbal and facial expressions
and movements.

Mental processes refer to all

the internal and covert
activity of our mind such as
thinking, feeling and
remembering. It is a scientific
study because to study
behaviour and mental
processes, the psychologists
use the scientific methods for
understanding more precisely
and accurately.

The word Psychology has its

origin from two Greek words
‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’, ‘psyche’
:
 means ‘soul’ and ‘logos’ means
‘study’. Thus literally,
Psychology means ‘the study
of soul’ or ‘science of soul’.

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1. The first definition of
the Psychology was the
study of the soul:
:
 The earliest attempts at
defining Psychology owe their
origin to the most mysterious
and philosophical concept,
namely that of soul. What is
soul? How can it be studied?
The inability to find clear
answers to such questions led
some ancient Greek
philosophers to define
psychology as the study of the
mind.

2. In terms of the study of

the mind:

Although the word mind was

less mysterious and vague
than soul, yet it also faced the
same questions, namely what
is mind? How can it be
studied, etc. This definition
was also rejected.

3. In terms of the study of

consciousness:

The description and

explanation of the states of
consciousness is the task of
Psychology which is usually
:
 done by the instrument
introspection—process of
looking within.

This definition was also

rejected on the grounds
that:

(i) It could not include the

study of the consciousness of
animals.

(ii) It would not include

subconscious and
unconscious activities of
mind.

(iii) The introspection method

for the study proved that it is
most subjective and
unscientific method.

4. In terms of the study of

behaviour:

The most modern and widely

accepted definition of
psychology even today, is the
study of behaviour, both
humans and animals.
:
 5. William McDougall:

In his book An Outline of

Psychology, “Psychology is a
science which aims to give us
better understanding and
control of the behaviour of the
organism as a whole”.

6. JB Watson:

Psychology is “the science of

behaviour” (taking into
account the human as well as
animal behaviour).

7. NL Munn:

“Psychology is the science

and the properly trained
psychologist is a scientist,
or at least a practitioner
who uses scientific
methods and information
resulting from scientific
investigations”.

Science is the body of

systematized knowledge that
is gathered by carefully
observing and measuring
:
 events. The observation of
events are systematized in
various ways but mainly
classifying them into
categories and establishing
general laws and principles to
describe and predict events as
accurately as possible.
Psychology has these
characteristics; it clearly
belongs within the province of
science.

Thus it is not simply enough

to describe behaviour. Like
any other science, psychology
attempts to explain, predict,
modify and ultimately
improve the lives of people in
the world in which they live.

By using scientific methods

psychologists are able to find
answers to questions about
the nature of human
behaviour that are far more
valid and legitimate than
those resulting from mere
intention and speculation.
The experiments and
:
 observations which are made
can be repeated and verified
by others because of its
objectivity, reliability, validity
and predictability which are
the characteristics of basic
science.

Scope of Psychology:
The field of psychology can be
understood by various
subfields of psychology
making an attempt in meeting
the goals of psychology.

1. Physiological
Psychology:

In the most fundamental

sense, human beings are
biological organisms.
Physiological functions and
the structure of our body work
together to influence our
behaviour. Biopsychology is
the branch that specializes in
the area. Bio-psychologists
may examine the ways in
which specific sites in the
brain which are related to
:
 disorders such as Parkinson’s
disease or they may try to
determine how our sensations
are related to our behaviour.

2. Developmental
Psychology:

Here the studies are with

respect to how people grow
and change throughout their
life from prenatal stages,
through childhood, adulthood
and old age. Developmental
psychologists work in a
variety of settings like
colleges, schools, healthcare
centres, business centres,
government and non-profit
organizations, etc. They are
also very much involved in
studies of the disturbed
children and advising parents
about helping such children.

3. Personality Psychology:

This branch helps to explain

both consistency and change
in a person’s behaviour over
time, from birth till the end of
life through the influence of
:
 parents, siblings, playmates,
school, society and culture. It
also studies the individual
traits that differentiate the
behaviour of one person from
that of another person.

4. Health Psychology:

This explores the relations

between the psychological
factors and physical ailments
and disease. Health
psychologists focus on health
maintenance and promotion
of behaviour related to good
health such as exercise, health
habits and discouraging
unhealthy behaviours like
smoking, drug abuse and
alcoholism.

Health psychologists work in

healthcare setting and also in
colleges and universities
where they conduct research.
They analyse and attempt to
improve the healthcare
system and formulate health
policies.
:
 5. Clinical Psychology:
It deals with the assessment
and intervention of abnormal
behaviour. As some observe
and believe that psychological
disorders arise from a
person’s unresolved conflicts
and unconscious motives,
others maintain that some of
these patterns are merely
learned responses, which can
be unlearned with training,
still others are contend with
the knowledge of thinking
that there are biological basis
to certain psychological
disorders, especially the more
serious ones. Clinical
psychologists are employed in
hospitals, clinics and private
practice. They often work
closely with other specialists
in the field of mental health.

6. Counselling
Psychology:
This focuses primarily on
educational, social and career
adjustment problems.
:
 Counselling psychologists
advise students on effective
study habits and the kinds of
job they might be best suited
for, and provide help
concerned with mild problems
of social nature and
strengthen healthy lifestyle,
economical and emotional
adjustments.

They make use of tests to

measure aptitudes, interests
and personality
characteristics. They also do
marriage and family
counselling, provide strategies
to improve family relations.

7. Educational
Psychology:
Educational psychologists are
concerned with all the
concepts of education. This
includes the study of
motivation, intelligence,
personality, use of rewards
and punishments, size of the
class, expectations, the
personality traits and the
:
 effectiveness of the teacher,
the student-teacher
relationship, the attitudes, etc.
It is also concerned with
designing tests to evaluate
student performance. They
also help in designing the
curriculum to make learning
more interesting and
enjoyable to children.

Educational psychology is
used in elementary and
secondary schools, planning
and supervising special
education, training teachers,
counselling students having
problems, assessing students
with learning difficulties such
as poor writing and reading
skills and lack of
concentration.

8. Social Psychology:
This studies the effect of
society on the thoughts,
feelings and actions of people.
Our behaviour is not only the
result of just our personality
and predisposition. Social and
:
 environmental factors affect
the way we think, say and do.
Social psychologists conduct
experiments to determine the
effects of various groups,
group pressures and influence
on behaviour.

They investigate on the effects

of propaganda, persuation,
conformity, conflict,
integration, race, prejudice
and aggression. These
investigations explain many
incidents that would
otherwise be difficult to
understand. Social
psychologists work largely in
colleges and universities and
also other organizations.

9. Industrial and
Organizational
Psychology:

The private and public

organizations apply
psychology to management
and employee training,
supervision of personnel,
improve communication
:
 within the organization,
counselling employees and
reduce industrial disputes.

Thus we can say that in

organizational and industrial
sectors not only the
psychological effects of
working attitude of the
employees are considered but
also the physical aspects are
given importance to make
workers feel healthy.

10. Experimental
Psychology:
It is the branch that studies
the processes of sensing,
perceiving, learning, thinking,
etc. by using scientific
methods. The outcome of the
experimental psychology is
cognitive psychology which
focuses on studying higher
mental processes including
thinking, knowing, reasoning,
judging and decision-making.
Experimental psychologists
often do research in lab by
frequently using animals as
:
 their experimental subjects.

11. Environmental
Psychology:
It focuses on the relationships
between people and their
physical and social
surroundings. For example,
the density of population and
its relationship with crime,
the noise pollution and its
harmful effects and the
influence of overcrowding
upon lifestyle, etc.

12. Psychology of Women:

This concentrates on
psychological factors of
women’s behaviour and
development. It focuses on a
broad range of issues such as
discrimination against
women, the possibility of
structural differences in the
brain of men and women, the
effect of hormones on
behaviour, and the cause of
violence against women, fear
of success, outsmarting nature
of women with respect to men
:
 in various accomplishments.

13. Sports and Exercise

Psychology:

It studies the role of

motivation in sport, social
aspects of sport and
physiological issues like
importance of training on
muscle development, the
coordination between eye and
hand, the muscular
coordination in track and
field, swimming and
gymnastics.

14. Cognitive Psychology:

It has its roots in the cognitive
outlook of the Gestalt
principles. It studies thinking,
memory, language,
development, perception,
imagery and other mental
processes in order to peep
into the higher human mental
functions like insight,
creativity and problem-
solving. The names of
psychologists like Edward
Tolman and Jean Piaget are
:
 associated with the
propagation of the ideas of
this school of thought.

Methods of Psychology:
Psychologists use many
scientific methods for
research purposes to
understand various
psychological issues more
scientifically. These scientific
methods reduce bias and
errors in understanding
various behavioural aspects.

The relevance of these

scientific methods extends
beyond testing and evaluating
theories and hypotheses in
psychology. Though there are
many such methods used by
psychologists, each has its
own advantages and
disadvantages.

Some of the important

methods are:

a. Introspection method
:
 b. Observation method

c. Experimental method

d. Case study method

e. Questionnaire method

f. Interview method

g. Survey method

A. Introspection Method:
Introspection or self-
observation may be
considered as a old method
but it is something we are
doing almost constantly in our
everyday life. Introspection is
a method of studying the
consciousness in which the
subjects report on their
subjective experiences. It is a
method that requires long and
difficult training. It gives in-
depth information about the
individual.

In introspection, the subject is

taught to achieve a state of
“focused attention” in which
:
 he can closely observe his own
conscious experiences. He will
be able to report the smallest
possible elements of
awareness. Thus the goal of
introspection is to learn about
the basic building blocks of
experience and the principles
by which they combine to give
us our everyday
consciousness.

Limitations:

1. It is not possible to observe

one’s own behaviour and at
the same time experience it. If
such an attempt is made, the
experience disappears. Thus
the subject has to depend
upon memory which itself
may be subject to distortions,
omissions and commissions.

2. The results obtained from

introspection are subjective
and so lack scientific validity.
They cannot be verified and
have to be accepted at face
value.
:
 3. The method cannot be used
to study children, animals,
insane people, feebleminded
and those who are not good at
verbal expression.

4. Because experiences are

unique, they cannot be
repeated and so introspection
cannot be repeated.

5. Many experiences are either

partly or wholly unconscious
and cannot be observed
consciously and analyzed.

6. All experiences cannot be

verbalized.

B. Observation Method:
This is the most commonly
used method especially in
relation to behavioural
science, though observation as
such is common in everyday
occurrences, scientific
observations are formulated
in research places. It is
systematically planned,
recorded and is subjected to
:
 check and control its validity
and reliability.

In this method we not only

ask the subject to report his
experiences but also gather
information by direct
observation of overt
behaviour. When observations
are carried out under
standardized conditions they
should be observed with a
careful understanding of the
units, that is the style of
recording observed
information and the selection
of dependent or related data
of observation concerned,
then it is called structured
observation. But when
observation takes place
without these consideration it
is called unstructured
observation.

Structured observation is
useful in descriptive studies,
while unstructured
observation is useful in
exploratory studies. Another
:
 way of classifying observation
is that of participant and non-
participant types of
observation. In participant
observation the observer
makes himself a member of
the group which is being
observed.

In non-participant
observation the observer
detaches himself from the
group that is being observed.
Sometimes, it so happens that
the observer may observe in
such a way that his presence is
unknown to the people he is
observing. This is called
disguised observation.

The method of participant

observation has a number of
advantages, the researcher
can record natural behaviour
of the group and he can gather
information which cannot be
easily obtained; if he stays
outside the group, and also he
can verify the truth of
statements made by the
:
 subjects in the context of
schedule or questionnaires.

The other way of

classifying observation is
that of controlled and
uncontrolled
observations:

a. Uncontrolled
observation:

It is that which takes place in

natural setting. Here no
attempt is made to use
precautional instruments or
methods. Here the major aim
of this type of observation is
to get a spontaneous picture
of life of the persons.

b. Controlled observation:

In this, behaviour is observed

according to definite pre-
arranged plans involving
experimental procedure. Here
mechanical or precision
instruments are used to aid
accuracy and standardization.
This provides formulized data
:
 upon which generalizations
can be built with considerable
accuracy. Generally,
controlled observation takes
place in various experiments
which are carried out in labs
under controlled conditions.

Limitations:

1. It is expensive with respect

to time and money.

2. The information’s provided

by this method is very less or
limited.

3. Sometimes, unforeseen
factors may interfere with
observation.

Merits:

1. If observation is done
accurately, subjective bias is
eliminated.

2. The information obtained

under this method relates to
current happenings. Either
past behaviours or future
:
 intensions, do not complicate
it.

3. This method is independent

of the subject willingness to
respond and so does not
require active participation of
the subject. Because of this,
the method is especially
suitable to subjects which are
not capable of giving verbal
reports of their thoughts and
feelings.

Naturalistic observation
method which is the
systematic study of behaviour
in natural settings, can be
used to study the behaviour of
animals which are in wild or
in captivity. Psychologists use
naturalistic observation
whenever people happen to be
at home, on playgrounds, in
classrooms and offices.

In observation method of
studies, it is important to
count or measure the
behaviour. Careful record-
:
 keeping ensures accuracy and
allows different observers to
crosscheck their observations.
Crosschecking is necessary to
make sure that observations
are reliable or consistent from
person to person.

C. Experimental Method:
The experimental method is
most often used in laboratory.
This is the method of
observation of the behaviour
or the ability of the individual
under controlled condition or
fixed circumstances. It is the
performing of an experiment
that is a tightly controlled and
highly structured observation
of variables.

The experimental method

allows researchers to infer
causes. An experiment aims to
investigate a relationship
between two or more factors
by deliberately producing a
change in one factor and
observing its effect on other
factors. The person who
:
 conducts the experiment is
called the experimenter and
the one who is being observed
is called the subject.

An experiment begins with a

problem. Problem is the
relationship which
experimenter wishes to study
between two or more
variables. Then a hypothesis is
formed; it is a suggested
answer to the problem under
investigation, based on the
knowledge that existing in the
field of study. To test the
hypothesis, relationship
between variables is
examined. Variables are the
factors that can change.

There will be two variables.

An independent variable is a
variable that the experimenter
selects. He can control this
variable according to the
requirements of the
experiment. The dependent
variable is the factor that
varies with the change in the
:
 independent
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Experimenters will not wait
for the behaviour to occur in
nature rather the behaviour
will be created in situation by
presenting a stimuli to the
organism. The behaviour that
occurs will be co-related with
the stimulus.

From this, it is possible to

predict the nature and types
of response or responses that
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influenced by a number of
factors. To establish a clear-
cut relationship between a
stimulus and response, all
other possible influences must
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Conditions of
Experimental Study:

a. The control group

b. The experimental group.

:
 If experiment has to be
successful, the subjects
(patients/clients) must be
selected carefully. This is
called sampling. A random
sample is one where every
member of the population has
an equal chance of being
selected. When this is not the
case, the sample is said to be
biased sample (manipulated).
A random sample of entire
population is not always
necessary or even desirable.

For instance, an experimenter

may begin by conducting
experiment on a particular
population and then repeat
the experiment on broader or
more representative samples.
Once the experiment has been
conducted, the results have to
be summarized and a
conclusion drawn.

a. Control group provides a

base line against which the
performance of experimental
group can be composed.
:
 b. The group that receives the
experimental treatment is
called the experimental group
(The group that receives no
treatment is called the control
group).

Limitations:

1. The situation in which the

behaviour is studied is always
an artificial one.

2. Complete control of the

extraneous variables is not
possible.

3. All types of behaviour

cannot be experimented.

4. Experimental method
requires a laboratory and is
expensive.

5. We cannot accumulate
information from abnormal
people using this method.

Merits:

1. The results are clear and

:
 straight forward.

2. The results are usually

expressed in terms of
numbers which makes it
convenient for comparison of
performance and analysis.

3. The experiment can be

replicated by other researches
and verified.

4. Highly dependable cause-

effect relationships can be
established.

D. Case Study (History)

Method:

It is a detailed description of a
particular individual. It may
be based on careful
observation or formal
psychological testing. It may
include information about the
person’s childhood dreams,
fantasies, experiences,
relationships and hopes that
throw light into the person’s
behaviour.
:
 Case studies depend on
client’s memories of the past
and such memories are highly
reliable to understand the
problems. As case studies
focus on individuals, so we
cannot generalize about
human behaviour.

E. Questionnaire Method:

Questionnaire is an
instrument of data collection.
It is a method of data
collection through which both
qualitative as well as
quantitative data can be
collected by formulating a set
of interrelated questions.

A questionnaire consists of a
number of questions printed
or typed in a definite order,
one set of forms to which the
respondents are supposed to
answer unaided, by writing
the answers in the space
provided for the purpose.
Where this questionnaire is
mailed to the respondents
instead of directly
:
 administering it is called a
mailed questionnaire.

This method of data collection

is especially popular when
large scale enquiries have to
be made. The questionnaire is
sent to the person concerned
with a request to answer the
questions. It consists of a
number of questions printed
in a definite order which the
respondents have to answer.
It is considered as the heart of
survey operation. In order to
construct a good
comprehensive questionnaire,
some points have to be kept in
mind.

They are:

1. The general form

2. The question sequence

3. Question formulation and

wording.

1. The general form:

:
 This refers to whether the
questionnaire is
‘unstructured’ or ‘structured’.
Questionnaire which include
definite, concrete and
predetermined questions and
highly structured
questionnaire is one in which
all questions and answers are
specified and comments by
the respondents are held to
the minimum.

In an unstructured
questionnaire the researcher
is presented with a general
guide on the type of
information to be obtained,
but the exact question
formulation is not set. Thus
the structured questionnaires
are simple to administer and
relatively inexpensive to
analyze.

2. The question sequence:

In order to make a
questionnaire effective the
question sequence must be
:
 clear and should have smooth
flow. The relation of one
question to another should be
readily apparent to the
respondent.

The first few questions are

particularly important,
because they are likely to
influence the attitude of the
respondent. Questions which
are causing very much strain
on the memory, personal
questions and questions
related to personal wealth,
etc. should be avoided.

3. Question formulation
and wording:

Each question must be clear

because any kind of
misunderstanding can harm
the survey. Questions must be
impartial and constructed to
the study, the true state of
affairs. They should be simple,
easily understood and
concrete. They should convey
only one thought at a time.
:
 They should conform as much
as possible to the respondent’s
way of thinking.

Limitations:

1. The method can only be

used when respondents are
literate and cooperative.

2. The questionnaire is not

flexible because there is no
possibility of changing the
questions to suit the situation.

3. There is possibility of
ambiguous responses or
omission of responses to some
questions.

4. Interpretation of omissions
is difficult.

5. It is difficult to know
whether the sample is really
representative.

Merits:

1. When the sample is large,

the questionnaire method is
:
 economical.

2. It is free from the bias of

the interviewer.

3. Respondents have adequate

time to give well though-out
answers.

4. Large samples can be used

and so the results can be
made dependable and
reliable.

F. Interview Method:

This involves collection of

data by having a direct verbal
communication between two
people. Personal interviews
are popular but telephone
interviews can also be
conducted as well. This
method is also called face to
face method.

In personal interviews an
interviewer asks questions
generally in a face to face
contact with the person being
interviewed. In direct
:
 personal interview, the
investigator collects
information directly from the
sources concerned. This has to
be used when intensive
investigation is required.

But in some cases, an indirect

examination is conducted
where the interviewer cross-
examines other persons who
are supposed to have
knowledge about the problem
under investigation. This is
used where ever it is not
possible to directly contact the
required person to be
interviewed.

Types of Interview:

a. Structured interview
involves the use of
predetermined questions and
standardized techniques of
recording. The interviewer
follows a rigid procedure
asking questions in a framed
prescribed order.

b. Unstructured interview is
:
 flexible in its approach to
questioning. Here it does not
follow the system of
predetermined questions and
standardized techniques of
recording the data. Here the
interviewer is allowed much
greater freedom to ask
supplementary questions or to
omit some questions if
required and he may change
the sequence of questions.

He also has a freedom while

recording responses, whether
to include some aspects and
exclude others. This may lead
to lack of comparability and
also difficult in analyzing the
responses.

Other types of interviews

are:

i. Focused interview

ii. Clinical interview

iii. Non-directive interview.

i. Focused interview:
:
 In focused interviews the
attention is paid on a given
experience, and its effects on
the respondent. This is
generally used in developing
the hypotheses and
constitutes a major type of
unstructured interview.

ii. Clinical interview:

In clinical interviews concern

is given to the feelings or
motivations of individuals life
experiences. Here the
interviewer simply encourages
the respondent to talk about
the given topic with a
minimum of direct
questioning.

iii. Non-directive
interview:

The researcher acts as a

catalyst to a comprehensive
expression of the subject’s
feelings, belief and of the
frame, of reference within
which such feelings which are
expressed by the subjects
:
 personal significance.

Limitations:

1. It is a very expensive
method.

2. Interviewer bias as well as

respondents bias may operate
while gathering information.

3. Certain types of
respondents may not be
available for interviews.

4. This method is relatively

time consuming.

5. Because the interviewer is

present on the spot, the
respondent may become
overstimulated and give
imaginary information just to
make the interview more
interesting.

6. Selecting, training and

supervising the field staff is
very complex.

Advantages:
:
 1. More information about the
subject can be obtained in
greater depth. The interviewer
can obtain a perfect idea
about the subject through
other means of assessing. As
the person is directly
accessible he can use other
means of communication to
assess the individual.

2. First hand information can

be collected about the
subject’s background,
economic and educational
considerations.

3. The overall personal aspect

of an individual can also be
assessed.

G. Survey Method:

This method involves in

asking large numbers of
individuals to complete the
given questionnaires or
through interviews by
interviewing people directly
about their experiences,
attitudes or opinions.
:
 That is for example, survey on
healthcare reform, or
economic reform, voting
preferences prior to elections,
consumer reactions to various
products, health practices,
public opinion and complaints
with safety regulations and so
on. Surveys are often repeated
over long period of time in
order to trace the shifts in
public opinion. Surveys can
provide highly accurate
prediction when conducted
carefully.

H. Testing Method:

This method makes use of

carefully devised and
standardized tests for
measuring attitudes, interest,
achievement, intelligence and
personality traits. Intelligence
tests measure the intellectual
capacity of an individual and
achievement tests through
light on achievement of
student in various subjects
they are studying.
:
 So by adopting all these
methods, psychology collects
information about behaviour,
which helps us to study the
behaviour systematically.
There are the different
methods used in psychology
to study the behaviour.

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Home ›› Notes ›› Psychology ›› Introduction

to Psychology

Related Articles:

1. Notes on Educational
Psychology: Nature, Scope
and Methods
2. 7 Methods of Studying
Human Behaviour
3. Educational Psychology
(Notes)
4. Educational Psychology:
Meaning, Scope and
Methods

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TABLE OF
CONTENTS

Meaning and
Definitions of
Psychology:
Scope of Psychology:
1. Physiological
Psychology:
:
 2. Developmental
Psychology:
3. Personality
Psychology:
4. Health
Psychology:
5. Clinical
Psychology:
6. Counselling
Psychology:
7. Educational
Psychology:
8. Social
Psychology:
9. Industrial and
Organizational
Psychology:
10. Experimental
Psychology:
11. Environmental
Psychology:
12. Psychology of
Women:
13. Sports and
Exercise Psychology:
14. Cognitive
Psychology:
Methods of
Psychology:
A. Introspection
Method:
B. Observation
Method:
C. Experimental
Method:
D. Case Study
(History) Method:
E. Questionnaire
Method:
F. Interview Method:
G. Survey Method:
:
 H. Testing Method:

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