Foundations of Psychology

• Understanding about behavior

• Everyone wants to know about oneself and other people around him.
• Psychology requires scientific approach
• Natural settings, laboratories, schools, colleges, universities, parks,
markets, organizations……. Every social setting.

• Study about HOW, WHAT and WHY of human behavior.

• Psychology………….. Psyche (soul/mind)
Logy (study)

• Psychology as a soul
• Psychology as a mind
• Psychology as mental processes
• Psychology as behavior
Definition of Psychology
• Psychology is the “scientific study of mental processes and
behavior”.
• It encompasses not just what people do but also their thoughts,
emotions, perceptions, reasoning processes, memories, and even the
biological activities that maintain bodily functioning.
• Scientific study----Mental processes----Behavior
• Studies physical, mental, emotional, social behavior
• Cognitive activities like learning, memory, thinking, imagination,
intelligence etc.
Goals of psychology
• To Describe
The first goal of psychology is to describe how humans and animals
behave in different situations. Through continued observation we can
define what kind of behavior is considered normal or healthy and what
may be seemed as abnormal or unhealthy.
• To Explain
• Why does this behavior occur? Under what circumstances will it occur
again? In order to explain a behavior, psychologists must conduct
experiments to ensure that the behavior is not an anomaly. They have to
consider which factors trigger certain behavior, as well as formulate
certain theories which will help explain the same.
• To Predict
• Based on past observed behavior, a psychologist aims to predict how
that behavior will appear again in the future and if other people will
exhibit the same behavior. Being able to correctly predict occurrences
of certain behavior is very important, as with this understanding,
models can be developed to encourage positive behavior and find
methods to modify or control negative behavior.
• To Control
• The final goal of psychology is to control or modify certain types of
behavior based on observation.
Example
• Someone did something that they weren't supposed to do that had a negative
impact on their life. You want to try to help/solve the problem and naturally, the
following questions might run through your mind:
• "What happened?" (describing),
• "Why did she do that?" (explaining),
• "What would happen if she did this?" (predicting)
• "What can she do next time to have a different outcome?" (changing).
• The main difference between us asking these questions and psychologists and
professional mental health professionals asking these questions is that there is a
high level of education and training in the explaining, predicting and changing
process that facilitates lasting positive change for individuals.
Importance of psychology
• Better understanding of your own self (development, personality,
thoughts and behavior)
• Better understanding of people around you. (building relationships)
• Better communicator
• Better leader (self confidence)
• Better friend
• Avoiding stressful situations
• Coping and resilience
Psychology, Science or Arts?
• Based on Empirical Method (method for acquiring knowledge based on
observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms
of logical argument)
Direct observation + experiences
Does not rely on argument
Objectivity (unbiased)
Can be repeated
Control (variables are controlled)
Hypothesis testing
Replication
Prediction
Scientific method
• Observation
• Recording
• Analysis, interpretation and generalization
• Reporting- verification

• Factuality, validity, universality, prediction, cause and effect

relationship.
• Studies overall, individual, their activities, environment,
Difference between Psychologist and
Psychiatrist
• Psychologist: focus extensively on psychotherapy and treating emotional
and mental suffering in patients with behavioral intervention.
• Psychologists obtain PsyD doctoral degree, Throughout their education,
psychologists study personality development, the history of psychological
problems and the science of psychological research.
• Psychiatrist: are trained medical doctors, they can prescribe medications,
and they spend much of their time with patients on medication
management as a course of treatment.
• Psychiatrists attend medical school and are trained in general medicine.
After earning an MD, they practice four years of residency training in
psychiatry.
Sub fields of psychology
• Clinical psychology deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of
psychological disorders. Clinical psychologists are trained to diagnose
and treat problems that range from the crises of everyday life, such as
unhappiness over the breakup of a relationship, to more extreme
conditions, such as profound, lingering depression.
• Counseling psychologists help people to cope with challenges and
crises (including academic, vocational, and marital issues) and to
improve their personal and social functioning. These issues are of
mild level such as stress or adjustment issues regarding education or
marital life etc.
• Health psychology explores the relationship between psychological factors
and physical ailments or disease. For example, health psychologists are
interested in assessing how long-term stress (a psychological factor) can affect
physical health and in identifying ways to promote behavior that brings about
good health. issues such as weight management, smoking cessation,
stress management, and nutrition. They might also research how people cope
with illnesses, helping patients learn more effective coping strategies.

• Social psychology is the study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions
are affected by others. Social psychologists concentrate on such diverse topics
as human aggression, liking and loving, persuasion, and conformity, prejudice,
stereotypes, discrimination, traditions, norms, values)
• Behavioral neuroscience/Behavioral Genetics Behavioral neuroscience
examines the biological basis of behavior. Another rapidly growing area in
psychology focuses on the biological mechanisms, such as genes and
chromosomes, that enable inherited behavior to unfold. Behavioral
genetics seeks to understand how we might inherit certain behavioral traits
and how the environment influences whether we actually display such
traits.
• Educational psychology is concerned with teaching and learning processes,
teaching psychology, educational issues, and student concerns such as the
relationship between motivation and school performance They may also
work directly with students, parents, teachers, and administrators to
improve student outcomes.
• Forensic /Criminal psychology deals with issues related to psychology and the law.
Those who work in this branch apply psychological principles to legal issues. They
perform a wide variety of duties, including providing testimony in court cases, assessing
children in suspected child abuse cases, preparing children to give testimony, and
evaluating the mental competence of criminal suspects.
• Industrial/organizational psychology is concerned with the psychology of the
workplace. It seeks to improve productivity and efficiency in the workplace while
maximizing the well-being of employees. It includes areas such as human factors.
• Personality psychology focuses on the consistency in people’s behavior over time and
the traits that differentiate one person from another.
• Sport psychology applies psychology to athletic activity and exercise. Individuals may
work with a sports psychologist to improve their focus, develop mental toughness,
increase motivation, or reduce sports-related anxiety.
Brief History
• Many cultures throughout history have speculated on the nature of
the mind, heart, soul, spirit, and brain.
• Philosophical interest in behavior and the mind dates back to the
ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, and India, but psychology
as a discipline didn’t develop until the mid-1800s when it evolved
from the study of philosophy and began in German and American
labs.
• Concept of Trephining
• Nerves were hollow tubes through which “animal spirits” conducted
impulses in the same way that water is transmitted through a pipe.
When a person put a finger too close to a fire, heat was transmitted
to the brain through the tubes (17th-century philosopher Descartes)
• Franz Josef Gall, an 18th-century physician, argued that a trained
observer could discern intelligence, moral character, and other basic
personality characteristics from the shape and number of bumps on
a person’s skull.
• 17th-century British philosopher John Locke believed that children
were born into the world with minds like “blank slates” ( tabula rasa
in Latin) and that their experiences determined what kind of adults
they would become.
• the formal beginning of psychology as a scientific discipline is
generally considered to be in the late 19th century, when, in Leipzig,
Germany, Wilhelm Wundt established the first experimental
laboratory devoted to psychological phenomena.
Schools of Thoughts
• Structuralism
• When Wundt set up his laboratory in 1879, his aim was to study the building blocks of
the mind. He considered psychology to be the study of conscious experience.
• He focused on uncovering the fundamental mental components of perception,
consciousness, thinking, emotions, and other kinds of mental states and activities.
• The theory of structuralism strives to understand the key components of the mind by
breaking each thought and emotion down to its most basic elements.
• Introspection: A procedure used to study the structure of the mind in which subjects
are asked to describe in detail what they are experiencing when they are exposed to a
stimulus.
• Wundt argued that by analyzing people’s reports, psychologists could come to a better
understanding of the structure of the mind
Drawbacks
• Introspection was not a truly scientific technique, because there were
few ways an outside observer could confirm the accuracy of others’
introspections.
• People had difficulty describing some kinds of inner experiences, such
as emotional responses. Those drawbacks led to the development of
new approaches, which largely replaced structuralism.
• Functionalism
Concentrated on what the mind does and how behavior functions.
Functionalists, whose perspective became prominent in the early
1900s, asked what role behavior plays in allowing people to adapt to
their environments.
William James, the functionalists examined how behavior allows people
to satisfy their needs and how our “stream of consciousness” permits
us to adapt to our environment.
Structuralism Vs Functionalism
• Structuralism • Functionalism
• Consciousness into its basic • Psychology should investigate
elements and investigate how the function of consciousness
they are related as structure. rather than structure.
• Include Sensation, feelings and • Why and how brain function
images associated with natural selection
• Introspection • Observation
• Wilhelm Wundt and Edward • William James
Titchener.
• Gestalt Psychology
• Gestalt psychology emphasizes how perception is organized. Instead
of considering the individual parts that make up thinking, gestalt
psychologists took the opposite tack, studying how people consider
individual elements together as units or wholes.
• Led by German scientists such as Hermann Ebbinghaus and Max
Wertheimer, gestalt psychologists proposed that “The whole is
different from the sum of its parts,” meaning that our perception, or
understanding, of objects is greater and more meaningful than the
individual elements that make up our perceptions.
Summary of History
• Trephining used to allow the escape of evil spirits
• John Locke introduces idea of tabula rasa
• Descartes describes animal spirits
• Franz Josef Gall proposes phrenology
• Wilhelm Wundt inaugurates first psychology laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany
• Gestalt psychology becomes influential
• Sigmund Freud develops the psychodynamic perspective
 Today’s Perspectives of
psychology
Emphasize: Understand Behavior and mental processes in different
directions.
What is approach and perspective?
• An approach is a perspective (i.e., view) that involves certain
assumptions (i.e., beliefs) about human behavior
• the way they function, which aspects of them are worthy of study
and what research methods are appropriate for undertaking this
study.
• Each perspective has its strengths and weaknesses, and brings
something different to our understanding of human behavior.
Neuroscience perspective

• The approach that views behavior from the

perspective of the brain, the nervous
system, and other biological functions.
THE NEUROSCIENCE/Biological
PERSPECTIVE
how genetics influence different behaviors or how damage to specific areas of the
brain influence behavior and personality.
how people and nonhumans function biologically
how individual nerve cells are joined together,
Role of inheritance in influencing behavior
functioning of the body affects hopes and fears,
• A baby’s response to strangers, are viewed as having critical biological components by
psychologists who embrace the neuroscience perspective.
• This perspective includes the study of heredity and evolution, which considers how
heredity may influence behavior.
• Behavioral neuroscience, which examines how the brain and the nervous system affect
behavior
Neuroscience Perspective…..
• major contributions to the understanding and betterment of human
life, ranging from cures for certain types of deafness to drug
treatments for people with severe mental disorders.
• nervous system, genetics, the brain, the immune system, and the
endocrine systems are just a few of the subjects that interest
biological psychologists.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans
Positron emission tomography (PET) scans
• Scientists can now look at the effects of brain damage, drugs, and
disease in ways that were simply not possible in the past.
What Sort of Things Are Biological Psychologists Interested in?

• Bio psychologists study many of the same things that other psychologists
do, but they are interested in looking at how biological forces shape
human behaviors.
Analyzing how trauma to the brain influences behaviors
Investigating how degenerative brain diseases impact how people act
Exploring how genetic factors influence such things as aggression
Studying how genetics and brain damage are linked to mental disorders
Assessing the differences and similarities in twins to determine which
characteristics are tied to genetics and which are linked to environmental
influences.
• One of the strengths of using the biological perspective to analyze
psychological problems is that the approach is usually very scientific.
Researchers utilize rigorous empirical methods, and their results are
often reliable and practical. Biological research has helped yield useful
treatments for a variety of psychological disorders.
• The weakness of this approach is that it often fails to account for
other influences on behavior. Things such as emotions, social
pressures, environmental factors, childhood experiences, and cultural
variables can also play a role in the formation of psychological
problems.
Psychodynamic Perspective
• behavior is motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which we
have little awareness or control. (behavior is the product of
underlying conflicts over which people often have little awareness.)
• They view dreams and slips of the tongue as indications of what a
person is truly feeling of unconscious psychic activity.
• Sigmund Freud
• Freud believed that events in our childhood can have a significant
impact on our behavior as adults. He also believed that people have
little free will to make choices in life. Instead, our behavior is
determined by the unconscious mind and childhood experiences.
• Major assumptions
• (1) that much of mental life is unconscious (i.e., outside of
awareness), and (2) that past experiences, especially in early
childhood, shape how a person feels and behaves throughout life.
Three components of unconscious mind (id, ego, super-ego)
Defense mechanisms
Psychosexual stages(how early experiences affect adult personality).
• It is considered as both Theory and a Therapy
• Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, explained the human mind as
like an iceberg, with only a small amount of it being visible, that is our
observable behavior, but it is the unconscious, submerged mind that
has the most, underlying influence on our behavior.
• Freud used three main methods of accessing the unconscious mind:
free association
dream analysis
slips of the tongue.
• Freud postulated a cycle in which ideas are repressed but continue to
operate unconsciously in the mind, and then reappear in
consciousness under certain circumstances.
• Much of Freud’s theory was based on his investigations of patients
suffering from “hysteria” and neurosis. Hysteria was an ancient
diagnosis that was primarily used for women with a wide variety of
symptoms, including physical symptoms and emotional disturbances
with no apparent physical cause.
THE BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE:
OBSERVING THE OUTER PERSON
• The behavioral perspective grew out of a rejection of psychology’s early
emphasis on the inner workings of the mind. Instead, behaviorists
suggested that the field should focus on observable behavior that can be
measured objectively.
• J.B. Watson: one could gain a complete understanding of behavior by
studying and modifying the environment in which people operate.
• Watson believed that it was possible to elicit any desired type of behavior
by controlling a person’s environment.
• Along with its influence in the area of learning processes, this perspective
has made contributions in such diverse areas as treating mental disorders,
aggression, resolving sexual problems, and ending drug addiction.
• Behaviorism is different from most other approaches because they view
people (and animals) as controlled by their environment and specifically
that we are the result of what we have learned from our environment.
• Behaviorism is concerned with how environmental factors (called
stimuli) affect observable behavior (called the response).
• The behaviorist approach proposes two main processes whereby
people learn from their environment:
Classical conditioning involves learning by association
Operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of
behavior.
• Behaviorism also believes in scientific methodology (e.g., controlled
experiments), and that only observable behavior should be studied
because this can be objectively measured.
• Behaviorism rejects the idea that people have free will, and believes
that the environment determines all behavior.
 THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE:
IDENTIFYING THE ROOTS OF
UNDERSTANDING
• cognitive perspective focuses on how people think, understand, and know about
the world. The emphasis is on learning how people comprehend and represent the
outside world within themselves and how our ways of thinking about the world
influence our behavior.
• “Cognition” refers to thinking and memory processes, and “cognitive development”
refers to long-term changes in these processes
• Human mind is like a computer ( information processing)
 How people make decisions?
 Whether a person can watch television and study at the same time.
• The common elements that link cognitive approaches are an emphasis on how
people understand and think about the world and an interest in describing the
patterns and irregularities in the operation of our minds
• Cognitive psychologists often utilize an information-processing model,
comparing the human mind to a computer, to conceptualize how
information is
Acquired
Processed
Stored
utilized.
• Cognitive Psychology revolves around the notion that if we want to
know what makes people think then the way to do it is to figure out
what processes are actually going on in their minds.
• In other words, psychologists from this perspective study cognition
which is ‘the mental act or process by which knowledge is acquired.’
• The cognitive perspective is concerned with “mental” functions such
as memory, perception, attention, etc.
1. Encoding (where information is received and attended to)
2. Storage (where the information is retained)
3. Retrieval (where the information is recalled).
THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE:
• study of the whole person (known as holism). Humanistic psychologists look at
human behavior, not only through the eyes of the observer, but through the eyes
of the person doing the behaving.
• Humanistic perspective suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow,
develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior.
• Humanistic psychologists maintain that each of us has the capacity to seek and
reach fulfillment.
• Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, who were central figures in the development
of the humanistic perspective said that people strive to reach their full potential if
they are given the opportunity.
• The emphasis of the humanistic perspective is on free will , the ability to freely
make decisions about one’s own behavior and life.
• The humanistic perspective assumes that people have the ability to
make their own choices about their behavior rather than relying on
societal standards.
• More than any other approach, it stresses the role of psychology in
enriching people’s lives and helping them achieve self-fulfillment.
• The humanistic perspective suggests that we are each responsible for
our own happiness and well-being as humans. We have the innate
(i.e., inborn) capacity for self-actualization, which is our unique desire
to achieve our highest potential as people.