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 INTRODUCTION

Structural Eng.

Analysis Design

(SOM, SA) (RCC, Steel PSC)

- Equilibrium - Safety
- Compatibility - Serviceability
- Energy etc. - Durability
- Economy
- Aesthetic etc.

Various type of load acting on structure

1. Gravity load 2. Horizontal load 3.Longitudinal load

- Dead load - Wind load - Moving load

- Live load - Earthquake load

IS: 875:1987 – Code for practice for design load for building.

Part – 1 Dead load

PCC 24 KN/m3 OR 2400 kg/m3

RCC 25 KN/m3 OR 2500 kg/m3
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Brick 20 KN/m3 OR 2000 kg/m3

Masonry
Steel 78.5 KN/m3 OR 7850 kg/m3

Part – 2 Live load OR Impose load

- Residential Building 2 KN/m2

- Office, small work place, 2.5 KN/m2

- Bank 3 KN/m2

- Stair and Balcony 3 – 5 KN/m2

Part – 3 Wind load

Part – 4 Snow load

Part – 5 Load Combination

IS: 1343:2012 – Code of practice for pre stress concrete

IS: 1893:2002 – Earthquake resistance design of structure

IS: 3370:2009 – Concrete structure for the storage of liquid

IS: 10262:2009 – Concrete mix design

IS: 13920:1993 – Ductile detailing of reinforcement for concrete structure

Subjected to seismic force
IS: 516:1995 – Method of tests for strength of concrete

 Cement: -
OPC - General construction
Law heat cement - Massive construction i.e dam, retaining
wall
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Rapid hardening cement – for quick removed of form work OR

Quick Strength
Pozzolona cement - Chemical resistance
High strength cement - Pre stress concrete
Hydrophobic cement - Storage, water prof construction

 Coarse Aggregate:
 Max ¼ X thickness of member
 In heavy reinforce member 5mm less than the min. clear cover or min clear
distance between the main reinforcement which is small.
 For most work 20mm aggregate is suitable. Where there is no restriction to
the flow of concrete into section 40mm or larger size may be permitted.
 In concrete element with thin section closely spaced reinforcement or small
cover consideration should be given to the use of 10mm nominal max. size.
 Plums above 160mm and up to any reasonable size may be used in plain
concrete work up to max limit of 20% by vol. of concrete. (IS:456: page 14)

 Aggregate – Water absorption 10% their own mass of water

– Sulphate (SO3) - 0.5%

 Final aggregate: (divided into four zone)

Zone 1 – Very coarse

Zone 2 – Medium IS: 456 (preffered)

Zone 3 – fine

Zone 4 – very fine

 Water :-
(IS: 456 pg. 14) As per IS: 456 pH > 6
6 to 8.5 (GPSC)
(IS: 456 pg. 18) Sulphate attack pH 6 to 9
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 Impurity:
1) Organic matter – 200ppm
2) Sulphate (SO3) – 400mm
3) Suspended matter – 2000 ppm
4) Chlorides – 2000 ppm – PCC ,500 ppm -Rcc
5) In organic – 3000ppm

 Reinforcement:-
- Any material that can take tension may be used as reinforcement eg. Steel,
bamboo, plastic, fiber etc

 Why Steel?

1) Same 𝛼c = 𝛼s
2) Economical
3) High tensile strength
4) Ductility
5) Durability etc...

 Some imp property of steel

ES = 2 X 105 N/mm2 = 200 G pa.
= 12 X 10-6 /c
= 0.3 (elastic)
= 0.5 (plastic)
GS = 0.769 x 105 N/mm2 (IS: 800:2007)
= 0.8 x 10 N/mm2 (IS: 800:1984)

 Length of bar
L = 12m - up to 25 mm 𝜙 bar
L=6m > 25mm 𝜙 bar
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 Grade of steel:-

Fe 250 – mild steel

Fe 415
Fe 500 HYSD/CTD/TOR
Fe 500D (D = Ductility)
Fe 55D Recently Developed
Fe 600

 Mild steel:-

23 %

 HYSD:- /TOR /CTD

Fe 415 (HYSD) 14.5%

Fe 500 12%
Fe 550 10%
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- It is obtained by straining mild steel beyond yield plateau by stretching and

twisting at particular temperature and after that unloading is done. Above
process of straining eliminates yield plateau from stress strain diagram this
process is called cold working process.
- These bars are rolled with ribs to increase bond strength.
- HYSD steel is less ductile than mild steel.
- In absence of definite yield point 0.2% proof stress is considered as yield
stress.

 Thermo mechanically treated bar (TMT)-

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- Red hot steel bars rapid cooling by a spray of water, oil or air can produce
steel bars with high strength at the surface with core of mild steel (ductile)
this process called quenching process.
- TMT bars are also rolled with ribs to increase the bond strength.
- TMT are more corrosion resistance, ductility and strength than HYSD
- Steel corrosion → copper + chromium
Toughness + manganese.

 Freezing & thawing Action: -

→ to counteract this effect

- Air entrained admixtures,
- Law w/c
- Use of pozzolanic material etc...

NMA Entrained Air(%)

20 mm 5±1
40 mm 4±1

(IS: 456 pg. 18)

 Chloride in concrete: -

- Risk of corrosion of embedded metal (steel).

1) Concrete containing metal and steam cured at elevated temp. & pre-stress
concrete – 0.4 kg/m3
2) RCC OR PCC (steel provided) – 0.6 kg/m3
3) Concrete (steel not provided) – 3 kg/m3

 Sulphate in concrete: -
- Cause expansion and disruption of concrete.
- To prevent ≯ 4% by mass of cement.
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 Durability of concrete: -
- The property by which concrete possess some strength throughout life time
without much of shrinkage & cracking.

 Factor affecting: -

- w/c ratio
- min. cement content
- cover
 Max. Cement content as per IS: 456 is 450 kg/m3 in order to control
shrinkage & thermal crack.

 PCC (for 20mm agg.)

Exposure cement content w/c ratio Grade of

(kg/m3) concrete
Mild 220 0.6 -
Moderate 240 0.6 M15
Sever 250 0.5 M20
Very sever 260 0.45 M20
Extreme 280 0.40 M25

RCC (20 mm aggregate)

Mild 300 0.55 M20
Moderate 300 0.50 M25
Sever 320 0.45 M30
Very sever 340 0.45 M35
Extreme 360 0.40 M40

- min grade for PCC under mild exposure is not specified.

 Other than 20mm Size of Aggregate
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Nominal max. Aggregate

Adjustment to min. cement content
Size(mm)
10 +40
20 0
40 - 30

Q. (RCC) Sever → NMA → 40mm

Cement content = 320 – 30 = 290

Q. (RCC) moderate → NMA →10mm

= 300 + 40 = 340 kg/m3

 Exposure condition, Nominal cover and effective cover:

 Exposure Condition: -
- It is the general environment to which concrete will be exposed during its
working life.
 Nominal cover: -
- Nominal cover or clear cover is the shortest distance between the surface of a
concrete member and the nearest surface of reinforcing steel.
- As per IS code it is the design depth of concrete cover to all steel reinforcement
including link.
- It shall not be less than dia. of the bars.
 Effective cover: -
main dia
Effective cover = Nominal cover + stirrups dia +
2

Que. A reinforced concrete (RC) beam with width of 250 mm and total depth
500mm with 2 – 16 mm of steel in compression zone and 3 – 20mm of steel in
tension zone. Find effective cover and effective depth of beam. (For stirrups we
use 8mm dia and nominal cover 20mm)
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main dia
 Effective cover = Nominal cover + stirrups dia. +
2

= 20 + 8+ (20/2)
= 38mm

 Effective depth = 500 – 38

= 462mm

 Purpose of Nominal Cover:

- To protect the reinforcement from environmental exposure (corrosion)

- To avoid splitting of concrete due to stress in the reinforcement bar.
- To protect fire resistance.
 Nominal cover to meet, Durability condition:

Concrete Exposure Nominal

Grade cover in mm
≮
M20 Mild 20
M25 Moderate 30 Under normal water
M30 Sever 45 Under sea water
M35 Very server 50 Exposed to sea water
spray
M40 Extreme 75 Member in tidal zone
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 NOTE:
1) For main reinforcement up to 12 mm dia bar for mild exposure the nominal
cover reduced by 5mm
2) For exposure condition ‘sever’ and ‘very sever’ reduction of 5mm made
where concrete grade is M35 and above.
3) Unless specified otherwise actual concrete cover should not deviate from
the required nominal cover by 10mm on positive side and 0mm negative
side.
 Minimum nominal cover for various members:

Slab – 15 – 20 mm
Beam – 20mm
Column – 40mm
Foundation – 50mm
- In the case of column of min dimension of 200mm or under, whose
reinforcing bar do not exceed 12mm, a nominal cover of 25mm, may be
used.
- Fire resistant finishes provision of fire resistant false ceiling and sacrificial
steel in tension zone should be adopted in case the nominal cover required
to give protection 40mm for beam & 35mm for slab against spalling.
- As cover increase the crack width increases and moment of resistance
decreases and hence, we shall not provide more cover than required.

 Concrete in sea water : [IS: 456 pg. 21]

- Concrete in sea water as exposed directly along the sea cost shall be at
least M20 grade in the case of plain concrete and M30 in case of reinforced
concrete.
- The use of slag or pozzolana cement is advantageous under such
condition.
- No construction joints shall be allowed within 600mm below low water level
or within 600mm of the upper and lower planes of wave action.
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- In reinforced concrete structures care shall be taken to protect the

reinforcement from exposure to saline atmosphere during storage,
fabrication and use. It may be achieved by treating the surface of
reinforcement with cement wash or by suitable methods.

 Under water concreting: [IS: 456 pg. 27]

- w/c ratio shall not exceed 0.6 and may need to be smaller depending on the
grade of concrete or the type of chemical attack.
- For aggregate of 40mm max. Particle size, the cement content shall be at
least 350 kg/m3 of concrete.
- Methods to be used for depositing concrete under water
1) Tremie
2) Direct placement with pump
3) Drop bottom bucket
4) Bags
5) Grouting

NOTE:- The tremie pipe shall not be less than 200mm in dia and shall be large
enough to allow a free flow of concrete.

 Curing of concrete:
- Curing is the process of preventing the loss of moisture from the concrete while
maintaining a satisfactory temperature regime.
- Curing of concrete for at least 7 days from the date of placing concrete in case
of OPC and at least 10 days where mineral admixture or blended cements are
used.
- The period of curing shall not be less than 10 days for concrete exposed to dry
and hot weather condition.
- At 28 days curing its strength = 1 (reference strength)
- At 6 month curing strength = 1.2 (20% more)
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- At 7 days curing strength = 0.7 (30% less)

- As per IS: 456 the max. permissible free fall of concrete may be taken as 1.5
m( IS: 456 pg.26)

 Batching:
- Batching is the process in which the quantity or proportion of materials like
cement, aggregate, water etc. are measured on the basis of weight or volume.
- The accuracy of measuring equipment shall be within ± 2% of the quantity of
cement being measured and within ± 3 % of the quantity of aggregate
admixture and water being measured.
- For large and medium project sites the concrete shall be sourced from ready
mixed concrete plant or from on site or off site batching and mixing plant.
- In batching concrete the quantity of both cement and aggregate shall be
determined by mass admixture, if solid by mass liquid admixtures may however
be measured in volume or mass. Water shall be weighted or measured by
volume in calibrated tank.
 Mixing:
- For guidance the mixing time shall be at least 2 min.
- For other types of more efficient mixtures manufactures recommendation shall
be followed; for hydrophobic cement it may be decided by the engineer in
charge.
- Dosage of retarder plasticizers and super plasticizer shall be restricted to 0.5,
1 and 2% respectively by weight of cementitious material and unless a higher
value is agreed upon between the manufacturer and the constructor based on
performance test.
 Different Grade of Concrete :
Ordinary Concrete M10 to M20
Standard concrete M25 to M60
High strength concrete M65 to M100
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 Stripping time of framework:

Sr. Minimum period before striking formwork

No For con. Made using
other than OPC or
Types of framework For concrete
using mineral
made using OPC
admixtures like fly
Ash & slag
1 Vertical Formwork to columns wall, 16-24 hr 16-24 hr
beams
2 Soffit formwork to slab (props to be 3 days 7 days
re-fixed immediately after removal
of formwork)

Soffit formwork to beams (props to

3 be re-fixed immediately after 7 days 10 days
removal of formwork)
4 Props to slabs:
1> Spanning up to 4.5m 7 days 10 days
2> Spanning up to 4.5m 14 days 14 dyas
5 Props to beam & arches:
1>Spanning up to 6m 14 days 14 days
2>Spanning over 6m 21 days 21 dyas

 NOTE:
- For concrete of compressive strength greater than M60 design parameter given
in the standard may be obtained from specialized literatures and experimental
result.
- In the fourth amendment may 2013 of IS: 456:2000 M60 grade has been shifted
to standard concrete from high strength concrete.
 Sampling and strength of designed concrete mix:
- Compressive strength of concrete:
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- Compressive strength of concrete is the most important property of concrete

because other properties like stress – strain relationship tensile strength, shear
strength, bond strength , modulus of elasticity, density impermeability, durability
etc. can be inferred from the compressive strength using established correlations.
- Compressive strength can be measured by standard test on concrete cube (or
Cylinder) specimen.

- Standard Cube 150 x 150 x 150 mm

- Standard Cylinder 150 x 300 mm
- If size of aggregate < 20 mmm then 100 x 100 x 100 mm cube used
- Strength of concrete in uniaxial compression is determined by loading standard
test cube to failure in compression testing machine.
- As per IS:456 – 2000 three specimen of a sample is taken
- Additional samples may be required for various purpose such as to determine the
strength of concrete at 7 days or at the time of striking the form work or to check
the testing error to report strength of cube, we take average of three specimens
of a sample

 NOTE:

fcylinder = 0.8 x fcube or fcube = 1.25 x fcylinde

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- Chances of cracking in case of cube is reduced due to confinement by plate

(due to friction between the concrete surface and the steel plate of testing
- machine) & we get relative higher strength, this effect is called as "Plate
restraint effect" or "Platent effect"
- The effect of this lateral restraint is to increase the compressive strength in
longitudinal direction, this effect lies down with increasing distance from the
friction surface.
- Thus, as the distance from the friction surface increases (i.e. as height/width
ratio increase), compressive strength decreases.
- Cylinder gives more appropriate result for uniaxial compressive strength of
concrete because effect of friction between machine plates and specimen is
less.
- Cube of smaller size (assuming 100 mm) given more strength than standard
cube because chance of less weak spot.

 Frequency of sampling:
Quantity of concrete in the Work (𝒎𝟑 ) Number of samples

1–5 1 3 cube
6 – 15 2 6 cube
16 – 30 3
31 – 50 4
51 and above 4 plus one additional sample for each
additional 50𝑚3

 Acceptance criteria for comp. strength:

(1) mean of the group of 4 non overlapping consecutive test results in 𝑵⁄𝒎𝒎𝟐

𝑓𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑔 ≥ 𝑓𝑐𝑘 + 0.825𝜎 (𝜎 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

(Rounded off to nearest 0.5𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
OR
≥ 𝑓𝑐𝑘 + 3
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(2) Individual test results in 𝑵⁄𝒎𝒎𝟐

≥ 𝑓𝑐𝑘 − 3
(3) The test results of the sample shall be the average of the strength of three
specimen. The individual variation should not be more than +15% of the average.
If more the test results of the sample are invalid.

Specimen - 1 fc1

Sample Specimen - 2 fc2

Specimen – 3 fc3

𝑓𝑐1 + 𝑓𝑐2 + 𝑓𝑐3

𝑓𝑐(𝑎𝑣𝑔. ) =
3
𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑐. 𝑎𝑣𝑔
× 100 = ±15% , ∴ 0.85 𝑓𝑐. 𝑎𝑣𝑔 ≤ 𝑓𝑐 ≤ 1.15 𝑓𝑐. 𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑓𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑔

Ex: For, a concrete work of 50𝑚3 4 sample are taken and the test result of the cubes
are given below. Check wether the concrete satisfies the acceptance criteria for
compressive strength take M25 concrete and standard deviation as 4 MPa.

Sample Cube Strength Sample strength 0.85 f.avg 1.15 f.avg

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1 22, 28, 26 25.33 21.53 29.12

2 26, 24, 28 26 22.10 29.9

3 31, 35, 33 33 28.05 37.95

4 32, 31, 33 32 27.2 36.8

(1) fck + 3 = 25 + 3 = 28MPa

𝑓𝑐𝑘 + 0.825𝜎 = 25 + (0.825 × 4) = 28.30 𝑀𝑃 ← 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Avg. of 4 consecutive test result
25.33+26+33+32
= = 29.08 𝑀𝑃𝑎 > 28.3 𝑀𝑃𝑎 .......ok
4
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(2) I.T.R > fck – 3

Col. 3 > 25 – 3
Col .3 > 22

(3) 0.85 f.avg ≤ fc ≤ 1.15 f.avg

Col. (4) ≤ Column (2) ≤ Column (5)

Note :
 Cube shall be made cured and tested at 28 days in accordance with IS: 516
 In case of doubt regarding the grade of concrete used. either due to poor work-
manship or based on results of cube strength tests compressive strength tests
of concrete on the basis of core test and load test may be carried out.

 Core Test :
- The points from which cores are to be taken and the number of cores required shall
be at the discretion of the engineer in charge and shall be representative of the whole
of concrete concerned. In no case however fewer than three cores shall be tested.
- Cores shall be prepared and tested as described in IS 516.
- Concrete in the member represented by a core test shall be considered acceptable. If
the average equivalent cube strength of the cores is equal to at least 85% of the cube
strength of the grade of concrete specified for the corresponding age and no
individual core has a strength less than 75%
- In case the core test results do not satisfy.

 For flexural members:

 Load Test :
- Load test should be carried out as soon as possible after expiry of 28 days from the
time of placing of concrete.
- The structure should be subjected to a load equal to full dead load of structure plus
1.25 times the imposed load for a period of 24hr. then the imposed load shall be
removed.
- The deflection due to imposed load only shall be recorded. If within 24hr. of removed
of the imposed load the structure does not recover at least 75% of the deflection
under super imposed load. The test may be repeated after lapse of 72hr. if recovery
is less than 80% the structure shall be deemed to be unacceptable.
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40𝑙 2
- If the max. Deflection in mm show during 24hr. under load is less than where l is
𝐷
the effective span in m and D the overall depth of the section in mm. It is not necessary
for the recovery to be measured and the recovery provisions of load test shall not
apply.

 Member other than flexural member:

- Non- distractive test (NDT) are used to obtain estimation of the properties of concrete
in the structure.
- The methods adopted include ultrasonic pulse velocity and rebound hammer, probe-
penetration pull out and maturity.

 Tensile Strength of Concrete :

- It is approximately 10% (7 to 15%) of the comp. strength.
- Stress – strain diagram is almost linear.
- Ratio of comp. strength to tensile strength increases with increase in grade of
concrete.
- Since tensile strength of concrete is ignored in RCC structure. So it has very less
importance however, It is calculated to determine cracking moment.

(1) Direct Tension Test:

- Practically it is very difficult to perform direct tension test because force never
remains perfectly axial tension due to non-homogeneity of concrete.
(2) Flexural Test: (Modulus of rapture)
 Flexural test carried out at 72 ± 2hr or at 7 days.
 Size of specimen:
100 X 100 X 500 mm - It largest nominal size of aggregate does not exceed
19mm. Otherwise 150 x 150 x 700
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𝑀 𝐹 𝐸
 Flexural formula : = =
𝐼 𝑦 𝑅

𝑃𝑐𝑟 ×𝐿
3 𝑓𝑐𝑟
𝑏𝑑3
− 𝑑⁄ Fcr =??
⁄12 2
 3rd point loading is applied for pure bending condition (flexure)
 In this method max. Nominal size of aggregate does not exceed 38mm.
 Corresponding to cracking load, bending moment is calculated in central portion
and tensile strength is calculated as illustrated above.
 IS: 456 provides standard formula for flexure tensile strength/ modulus of rapture.
𝑓𝑐𝑟 = 0.7√𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
EX: The cracking moments of a beam made of M25 concrete having a size of 600 X 300
mm is ______.

𝑓𝑐𝑟 𝑀
=
𝑦 𝐼

∴ 𝑀 = 𝑓𝑐𝑟 × 𝑍
𝑏𝑑 2
= 0.7 √𝑓𝑐𝑘 ×
6
(300) × (600)2
= 0.7 × √25 ×
6
6
= 63 × 10 𝑀𝑃𝑎

 Acceptance criteria : (IS : 456, pg. 29)

 When both the following are met the concrete complies with the specified flexural
strength.
(a) The mean strength determined from only group of four consecutive test results
exceed the specified characteristic strength by at least 0.3𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 .
(b) The strength determined from any test result is not less than the specified
characteristic strength less than 0.3𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 .

(3) Split Tensile strength Test:

 The standard test specimen
cylinder of 150 X 300 mm is used.
 A line loading along length is
applied at dia metrically end
points.
 Due to this loading cylinder splits
into two parts.
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𝟐𝑷
𝑭𝒄𝒓 =
𝝅𝑫𝑳
 Split tensile strength is 66% of the modulus of rapture and direct tensile
strength is 50% to 62.5% of modulus of rapture.

 Note:- Cube strength > cylinder strength > modulus of rapture > split cylinder
strength > Direct tensile strength

 Standard Deviation:
 Attempt should be made to obtain results of 30 samples as early as possible to
establish the value of standard deviation.
 Where sufficient test results for a particular grade of concrete are not available
the value of standard deviation given below may be assumed for design.

Sr. no. Grade of concrete Assumed Standard

Deviation
1 M10 3.5 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
M15
2 M20 4 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
M25
3 M30
M35
M40 5 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
M45
M50

 The above value correspond to the site control having proper storage of cement
weight – batching of all materials, controlled addition of water. regular checking
of all materials, aggregate gradings and moisture content and periodical checking
of workability and strength where there is deviation from the above the values
given in the above table shall be increased by 1𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 .
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∑(𝑥−𝑥𝑖)2
 Standard Deviation (𝑆) = √
(𝑛−1)
 Concrete Mix proportion :
 Design of concrete mix envolves economical selection of relative proportion of
various ingredients of concrete the concrete apart from meeting the strength criteria
must also be workable in the fresh or green state. The concrete shall be impermeable
and durable in the solid state.
 Normally Concrete is classified as
(a) Nominal mix concrete
(b) Design mix concrete.

(a) Nominal Mix concrete:

 It is permitted only up to M20 grade concrete.
 Volume batching is used.
 Bulking of sand affected nominal mix.
 Nominal mix generally contains higher cement quantity compared to same grade
of design mix.
 Proportion of nominal mix as per IS: 456 is given below.

Grade of wt. of (F.A + C.A) FA: CA (by Max. water

Concrete in 50kg cement mass) (litter) per 50kg
(kg) cement
M5 800 generally 60
M7.5 625 1:2 but can 45
M10 480 vary from 34
M15 330 I:1.5 to 32
M20 250 1:2.5 30

 1 bag of cement = 50kg

Volume = 34.72 litre

Que: Calculate nominal mix proportion for M15 concrete. Take

FA : CA = 1 : 2
 cement = 50kg
FA + CA = 330kg
FA : CA = 1 : 2
FA =110 kg
CA = 220kg
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 C : FA : CA
o 50 : 110 : 220
o 1 : 2.2 : 4.4
 W/C ratio :
𝑤 32
=
𝑐 50
𝑤
= 0.64
𝑐
(b) Design Mix Concrete : (Recently used)
 For higher grade concrete (generally > M20) design mix is preffer.
 Weight batching used.
 Bulking of sand doesn’t affect design mix.

 Steps of design mix :

 Step 1 : Calculate target mean strength
ft = fck + K.S
Where, K = 1.65 (for 5% of definition)
S = Standard deviation that depends on quality control

Grade of Concrete S
M10 – M15 3.5
M20 – M25 4.0
M30 – M50 5.0

 Step 2 : Take value of water cement ratio Corresponding to target mean strength
from graph given in SP23 (Special Publication)
 W/C ratio should not be more than value obtained from above graph &
corresponding to exposure condition.

 Step 3: Take maximum water content from table 2 of IS: 10262 corresponding to
nominal size of coarse aggregate and slump 25 - 50mm.
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Nominal size of coarse aggregate Maximum water content

10mm 205 kg/m3
20mm 186 kg/m3
40mm 165 kg/m3

 Note :
 Maximum limit of water content is imposed to prepare economical and durable
concrete with low shrinkage.
 As nominal size of C.A increases water requirements decreases because total surface
area of large size coarse aggregate is less than as of smaller size C.A.
 For each additional 25mm slump, above values are increased by 3%.
 Above values are reduced by 5 -10% for plasticizers and 20% for super – plasticizers.
 Maximum limit of plasticizers and super plasticizers are 1 % and 2% of quantity of
cement respectively.

 Step 4: Calculate cement content.

𝑊𝑤
Weight of cement =
𝑊/𝐶
 This value should not be less than minimum cement content corresponding to
exposure condition.

 Step 5: Take proportion of volume of C.A in volume of total aggregate (F.A + C.A)
from table 3 of IS : 10262 for W/C ratio 0.5

Nominal Size of C.A Zone IV Zone III Zone II Zone I (Finest)

10mm 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44
20mm 0.60 0.64 0.62 0.60
40mm 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69

 For W/C ratio other than 0.5, above values are modified as given below.
± 0.01 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ
𝑊
∓ 0.05 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜.
𝐶
 Step 6: Calculating quantity of F.A & C.A total volume of concrete = 1m3.

(a) Volume of concrete mass = 1 – air content

𝑊𝑐
(b) Volume of cement =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑊𝑐 𝑊𝑐
= =
𝑆𝑐 ×𝑌𝑤 𝑆𝑐 ×1000
 Page 26

𝑊𝑤
(c) Volume of water =
1000
𝑊𝑎𝑑𝑚
(d) Volume of admixture =
𝑆𝑎𝑑𝑚 ×1000
(e) Volume of total aggregate =(a) – (b+c+d)
(f) Weight of coarse aggregate = Volume of C.A X Density
= Proportion X (e) X SCA X 1000

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶.𝐴
Proportion =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇.𝐴

 Volume of C.A = proportion X Vol. of T.A.

(g) Weight of F.A = Volume of F.A X Density

= (1 – proportion) X (e) X SFA X 1000

Ex: M40, C.A = 20mm, severe exposure, slump 100mm, 1% plasticizer, Sc = 3.15, SCA/FA
=2.74, Sadm = 1.145, FA of zone I, Air content 1.5 %

Soln Step: 1 Target mean strength

ft = fck + k.s
= 40 + (1.65 X 5)
ft = 48.25 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 .
Step: 2 W/C ratio
W/c = 0.4 (from sp 23, ft = 48.25𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 .
 This is less than 0.45 (severe), so it is ok
W/C = 0.4

Step: 3 Weight of water

Ww =186kg/m3(from table 2 of IS 10262, CA=20mm)
 For 100mm slumps
6
Ww =186 + 186 X
10
∴ 𝑊𝑤 = 197.16 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
 For use of plasticizer
8
Ww =197.16 - 197.16 X
100
3
∴ 𝑊𝑤 = 181.37 𝑘𝑔/𝑚
 This value is maximum limit, so taking
Ww = 170 kg/m3 (Based on experience)

Step: 4 Cement Content

𝑊𝑤 170
𝑊𝑐 = = = 425 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑊/𝑐 0.4
 Page 27

 This is greater than 320 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 (severe) So, It is ok.

∴ 𝑊𝑐 = 425 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Step: 5 Proportion:
Proportion = 0.6 (from table 3 of IS: 10262 CA=20mm & Zone I)
For W/C = 0.4
Proportion = 0.6 + (2 X 0.01) = 0.62

∴ Proportion = 0.62 W/C Proportion

0.50 0.60
-0.05 + 0.01
-0.05 + 0.01
0.40 0.62

Step: 6 Quantity of F.A & C.A

Total Volume of concrete = 1m3
(a) Volume of concrete mass =1 – air content
1.5
=1 – 1 X
100

= 9.985 m3
𝑊𝑐
(b) Volume of cement =
𝑆𝑐 𝑋 1000

425
= = 0.135 𝑚3
3.15 𝑋 1000

𝑊𝑤 170
(c) Volume of water = = = 0.170𝑚3
1000 1000

𝑊𝑎𝑑𝑚 1% 𝑊𝑐
(d) Volume of admixture = =
𝑆𝑎𝑑𝑚 ×1000 𝑆𝑎𝑑𝑚 ×1000
425
1×
1000
= 0.0037𝑚3
1.145×1000

(e) Volume of total Aggregate = (a) – (b+c+d)

=0.985 – (0.135+0.170+0.0037)
=0.6763 m3

(f) Weight of C.A. = WCA = proportion X(e) X SCA X 1000

= 0.62X0.6763X2.74X1000
WCA = 1148.89kg
 Page 28

(g) Weight of F.A. = WFA = [ 1 – proportion] X (e) X SFA X 1000

= [1-0.62] X 0.6763 X 2.74 X1000
WFA = 704.61kg
 Final Result:

C : FA : CA : W : Adm
3
1m Ratio per 425 : 704.16 : 1148.89 : 170 : 4.25
bag of cement
1 : 1.65 : 2.70 : 0.4 : 0.01

50 : 82.5 : 135 : 20 : 0.5

 Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete:

(1) Initial tangent modulus of elasticity:

It is the slope of stress –strain curve of concrete at origin.
This is also called as dynamic modulus of elasticity which is used for analysis due
to dynamic loading.
It is the maximum value of modulus of elasticity of concrete.
It is calculated using resonance frequency test.
(2) Secant Modulus of elasticity:
It is the slope of the line joining any points on stress- strain curve to origin also
called static modulus of elasticity.
Modulus of elasticity of concrete for all practical purpose is taken as secant
modulus at a stress of around 0.33Fck.
IS: 456 provides standard formula for this modulus of elasticity.
𝐸𝑐 = 5000 √𝐹𝑐𝑘 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 (𝐼𝑆: 456 − 2000)
𝐸𝑐 = 5700 √𝐹𝑐𝑘 (𝐼𝑆: 456 − 1978)
This is also called short term modulus of elasticity and it is not incorporating
effect of creep.
 Page 29

There may be variation of 20% in an actual value observation. (𝐼𝑆: 456 −

2000 pg. 16)

(3) Tangent Modulus of elasticity:

It is defined as slope of tangent drawn at any point of stress-strain diagram.
This is an instantaneous value of modulus of elasticity.
It is used in incremental load analysis.

NOTE:- Modulus of elasticity of concrete for all practical purposes is primarily

influenced by elastic properties of aggregate & to a lesser extent on the condition of
curing, age of concrete, mix proportion & type of cement used.
 Poisson’s ratio of concrete for design is taken as 0.2 (can vary between 0.2 to 0.3)

 Creep of concrete:
 It is a time dependent strain in concrete due to sustained loading (Permanent
loading) dead load and pre-stressing force are example of the permanent loading.
 The exact mechanism of creep in concrete is still not fully understood. It is generally
attributed to internal movement of absorbed water, viscous flow of sliding between
the gel particles moisture loss and the growth in micro- cracks.

 Effect of Creeps:
 Increase in deflection of beam and slab.
 Increase in deflection of slender column that may lead to buckling.
 Loss of pre-stress.
 Gradual transfer of load from concrete to reinforcing steel in comp. member.

 Beneficial effect of creep are:

(1) Reduction in stress induced by restrained shrinkage resulting in reduction in cracking.
(2) In indeterminate structures, stress induced due to settlement of support is reduced
due to creep.
 Page 30

 Creeps increases when:

 Cement content is high.
 W/C ratio is high
 Aggregate content is low
 Air entrainment is high
 Relative humidity is low.
 Temp.is high
 Size/thickness of member is small
 Loading occurs at early stage.
 Loading sustained a long period.

 Creep coefficient (θ):

𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝜃=
𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛

 This concrete can be used to compute total (long term) deflection (Initial + creep)
by usual liner elastic analysis with reduced modulus of elasticity.
 Long term modulus of elasticity.

5000√𝐹𝑐𝑘 𝐸𝑐
𝐸= =
1+𝜃 1+𝜃

Age of Concrete at the time of loading θ

7 day 2.2
28day 1.6
1 year 1.1

 Higher value of θ Represent 5 higher creep strain.

 Intermediate value of creep coefficient may be interpolated by assuming that the
creep coefficient decreases linearly with the log of time in days.

 Effect of creep can be reduced by:

 Using high strength concrete
 Delaying the application of finisher, partition wall etc.
 Adding reinforcement.
 Steam curing under pressure.
Note:- Due to effect of creep value of Ec is reduced by 1/2 to 1/3.
 Page 31

 Effective Span: (IS:456 -2000, pg 35)

a) Simply supported beam or slab:
1)Clear span + effective depth
2)c/c of supports =Lclear + width

b) Cantilever beam or slab:

𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
Effective span = Lclear +
2

c) Continuous beam or slab:

𝐿𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟
(1) If width of support < then effective span is same as simply supported
12
beam.
𝐿𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟
(2) If width of support >
12
Or
Width of support > 600mm
 For end span with one end fixed and other continuous or for internal span
Effective span – clear span.
 For end span with one end free and other continuous.
Lclear + d/2 which is
𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡
Lclear + small
2
 In the case of spans with roller or rocker bearing the effective span shall always be
that distance between centre of bearings.

a) Frames: In the analysis of continuous frame centre to centre distance shall be

used.

Que: A simply supported RC beam has clear span of 6m and support width 200 mm and
effective depth 300mm the effective length of beam as per IS: 456-2000 is....

(A) 6300 mm (C) 6100 mm

(B) 6200 mm (D) 6000 mm

 for simply supported beam

le = lc + w or lc + d (smaller)
= 6000 +200 or = 600 +300
= 6200mm or = 6300 mm (smaller)

Ans: 6200mm
 Page 32

 Design Method :

(1) Working stress method :

 Stress governing method
 Also called liner elastic method or modular ratio method or factor of safety method.
 Traditional method of design.
 Both concrete and steel are assumed to behave in liner elastic manner.
 Stress within the material is not allowed to excess the permissible stress.
 Working stress method of design used to be the basis of design for all RCC structure
in the past but these day it finds application in calculating serviceability
requirement like deflection and crack width under service load condition.
 In this method of design we do not take factored load rather we work on working
loads safety is ensured by keeping the stress generated due to working load within
allowable limit.
 It is also use in present in design of few structure like liquid retaing structure and
Highway Bridge and chimney.

 Deficiency of in WSM:
 It may not be possible to keep the stress within permissible stress. this is because
by
(a) Long term effect of shrinkage of creep.
(b) Effect of stress concentration and other secondary effects. all such effects
result in significant local increase in stress in to inelastic range and
redistribution of the calculated stress.
 WSM fails to discriminate between different types of loads that act simultaneously
but have different degree of uncertainty for ex. If dead load and wind load produce
counter acting stress but if they are simply added the design load would be much
larger.
 WSM of design give large section as compared to LSM and ULM method.

 permissible stresses:
𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
=
𝐹𝑜𝑠
 In case of steel reinforcement the limiting strength is either yield stress or 0.2%
proof stress as the case may be for concrete the limiting strength is the crushing
strength in compression.
-FOS for tension Reinforcement =1.8
-Hence permissible stress in tensile reinforcement
𝑓𝑦
6𝑠𝑡 = = 055𝑓𝑦
1.8
 Page 33

Types of steel Characteristic permissible stress For dia >

yield strength in steel(6st) 20𝑚𝑚
(N/mm2) N/mm2
Mild steel 250⁄ 140 130
1.8
HYSD bar 415⁄ 230 230
1.8
TMT 500⁄ 275 275
1.8

Note :- Value of 𝜎st is applicable for lower Dia. bar up to 20mm for more than 20mm
dia. bar this usually reduced value.
 The FOS for flexural compression in concrete is approximately 3 .Thus, permissible
compressive stress in concrete in flexural
 Compression.
𝜎cbc = fck/3 = 0.33fck
Note:
(1)For concrete the factor of safety is higher than for steel this is so because concrete
suffer from higher degree of variability regarding its strength and properties than
steel which is produced under well controlled conditions.
(2) FOS of concrete in direct compression = 4
FOS of concrete in direct tension = 8.5 to 9.5
(3) Where stresses due to wind earthquake temp and shrinkage effect are combined
with those due to dead load, live load and impact load the stressed in steel and
concrete are increase by 33.33%

 Modular Ratio (m):

 In the elastic theory structure having different materials are made equivalent to
one common materials. In the reinforce concrete structure concrete and
reinforcing steel are therefore converted into one material. This is done by
transformation using modular ratio ‘m’ which is ratio of modulus of elasticity of
steel and concrete.
𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
Thus, 𝑚 =
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒
2 𝑋 105
 𝑚= (𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜)
5000√𝑓𝑐𝑘
 Do not consider effect of creep, shrinkage and other long term effect.
2 × 105
∴𝑚= =8 (∵ 𝑀25)
5000√25
2 𝑋 105 (1+𝜃)
 𝑚= (𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜)
5000√𝑓𝑐𝑘
 Consider fully effect of creep, shrinkage and other long term effect.
 Page 34

2 × 105 (1+1.6)
∴𝑚= = 20.8 (∵ 𝑀25)
5000√25
280
 m=3𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 (used in WSM)
 Partially takes into account long term effect of shrinkage and creep.
280
𝑚 = 25 = 11.3 (𝑀25)
3×( ⁄3)
 This value of ‘m’ partially takes in to account long term effect of shrinkage and
creep.

Note: The product of ‘m𝜎𝑎𝑏𝑐’ is called real constant.

 Modular ratio 𝑚 = 280⁄3𝜎𝑎𝑏𝑐 is applicable only for tension reinforcement.
 For comp. reinforcement modular ratio is taken is m’ = 1.5 X m
 In tension steel, shrinkage reduces the tensile stress and creep produces
additional tensile stress but in comp. steel both shrinkage and creep add
additional stresses so we have to use different value of modular ratio (m).
280 280 280 𝑓𝑐𝑘
 𝑚= = = ( 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 = )
3𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 3 𝑋 𝑓𝑐𝑘 3𝑓𝑐𝑘 3
 ex: for M20 grade concrete
280
 𝑚= = 14 (For MCQ =13.33)
20
 Max permissible stress in tension in concrete or flexural tensile strength or
modulus of rupture fcr =0.7√𝑓𝑐𝑘
 If in concrete tensile stress value becomes more than fcr tensile cracks will
develop in concrete.

Note:- Stress at cracking in concrete = 0.7√𝑓𝑐𝑘

0.7√𝑓𝑐𝑘
- Strain at cracking in concrete=
5000√𝑓𝑐𝑘
= 1.4 × 10−4
- Strain at cracking in steel = 1.4 × 10−4 (from strain compatibility)
- Stress in steel at cracking = 1.4 × 10−4 × 2 × 105
=2.8 𝑁⁄
𝑚𝑚2
 Thus, If concrete is not allowed to crack the max. stress that steel bar can take
is 28 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2

Note: The bond between steel & concrete ensures strain compatibility, i.e. the strain
at any point in the steel is equal to that in the adjusting concrete.
 Page 35

 Design based on cracked section:

fct > fcr =0.7√𝑓𝑐𝑘

 Concrete is completely neglected in tension zone.

 In tension zone all tensile stress are considered taken by steel only.
 Effective area of concrete reduces and tension resisted by concrete prior to
cracking is transferred to the reinforcing steel.
 With sudden increase in tension in steel there is, associated in tension strain in
steel bars. at the cracked section.
 This relatively large increase in tensile strain at the level of steel result in
upward shift of the neutral axis and increase in curvature at the cracked section.

 Design based on uncracked section:

fct < fcr = 0.7√𝑓𝑐𝑘

 Concrete not cracked in tension.

 Total c/s area of concrete is consider.
 Page 36

 Working stress method

 Analysis of RCC beam:

 Comp. force of rectangular portion.

= Area of stress diagram × 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
1
= × 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 × 𝑥𝑢 × 𝑏
2
 Tensile force
= tensile stress X area of equivalent concrete
𝜎𝑠𝑡
= × 𝑚 × 𝐴𝑠𝑡
𝑚
= 𝜎𝑠𝑡 × 𝐴𝑠𝑡
𝑋𝑢
 Lever arm = 𝑑 −
3
 for position of N.A.
C=T
1
 × 𝑋𝑢 × 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 × 𝑏 = 𝜎𝑠𝑡 × 𝐴𝑠𝑡 _____(1)
2
 from stress diagram:
𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝜎𝑠𝑡⁄
𝑚
=
𝑋𝑢 𝑑−𝑋𝑢

𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝑋𝑢
∴ 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 = (𝑑−𝑋𝑢)_________(2)
𝑚
 from (1) & (2)
1 𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝑋𝑢
∴ 𝑋𝑢 × ×( ) × 𝑏 = 𝜎𝑠𝑡 × 𝐴𝑠𝑡
2 𝑚 𝑑−𝑋𝑢
𝑋𝑢
∴ 𝑏 𝑋𝑢 × = 𝑚. 𝐴𝑠𝑡 . (𝑑 − 𝑋𝑢)
2
Moment of area of Comp. zone about NA = Moment of area of tension
zone about NA
 Above expression show that position of NA can be directly calculated by
equation moment of area of comp. and tension zone about N.A. this can cot be
applied in LSM because section is of two different material.
 In WSM steel converted into concrete so above expression is valid.
 Page 37

 Type of section:
Based on quantity of steel present in section three types of section are
Defined.
(1) Balanced section:
- Amount of steel in section is such that concrete and steel both attain their

- From Similar triangle

𝑋𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑑−𝑋𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑚
= 𝜎𝑠𝑡⁄
𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝑚

𝑚.𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐
𝑋𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑚 = ( )×𝑑
𝑚𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐+𝜎𝑠𝑡

𝑚 𝜎𝑠𝑡
=( )𝑑 (∵ 𝑟 = 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐)
𝑚+𝑟

280⁄
3𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐
∴ 𝑋𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 280⁄ 𝜎𝑠𝑡⁄ )× 𝑑
3𝑐𝑏𝑐 + 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐

1
=( 3𝜎𝑠𝑡 ) ×𝑑
1+ ⁄280
 In WSM depth of N.A. for singly reinforced rectangular section is depends only
on 𝜎𝑠𝑡 (fy)
𝑥𝑢 =𝑘 .𝑑

For, mild steel 𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 140 𝑘 = 0.40

𝐹𝑒 415 𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 230 𝑘 = 0.289
𝐹𝑒 500 𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 275 𝑘 = 0.253
 Page 38

(2) Under Reinforced section:

- Amount of steel in section is such that steel attains it’s permissible stress before
concrete.
- Stress in concrete <𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐
- Stress in steel = 𝜎𝑠𝑡
- Failure of under reinforced section is tension failure. It gives sufficient warning
before failure, so it is preferable.
(3) Over reinforced section:
- Amount of steel in section is such that concrete attains it’s permissible stress
before steel.
- Stress in concrete = 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐
- Stress in steel < 𝜎𝑠𝑡
- Failure of over reinforced section is comp. failure it is sudden (Without warning)
so it is undesirable.
- Comparing failure stress diagram of all three types of section.

 Moment of Resistance:
MR = C X L.A
1 𝑋𝑢
= 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 × 𝑥𝑢 × 𝑏 × (𝑑 − )
2 3
MR = T X L.A.
𝑥𝑢
= 𝜎𝑠𝑡 × 𝐴𝑠𝑡 × (𝑑 − )
3

 Limiting Moment : (Balanced section)

 𝑀𝑅𝑙𝑖𝑛 = 𝐶 × 𝐿. 𝐴
1 𝑥𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑚
= × 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 × 𝑥𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑚 × 𝑏 × (𝑑 − )
2 3
1 𝑘.𝑑
= × 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 × 𝑘. 𝑑 × 𝑏 × (𝑑 − )
2 3
1 𝑘
= × 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 × 𝑏 × 𝑘. 𝑑 2 × (1 − )
2 3
 Page 39

1
𝑀𝑅 = × 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 × 𝑘. 𝑗. 𝑏. 𝑑 2 ( ∵ 𝑗 = 1 − 𝑘⁄3) (j=lever arm constant)
2

For Mild Steel(250) MRlim=0.173 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 . 𝑏. 𝑑 2 𝐾 = 0.40

Fe 415 MRlim = 0.130 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 . 𝑏. 𝑑 2 𝐾 = 0.28
Fe 500 MRlim = 0.115 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 . 𝑏. 𝑑 2 𝐾 = 0.25

Q-1 :- The Effective depth of a single reinforce a rectangular beam is 30cm .The section
is over reinforced and the neutral axis is 12 cm below from the top. If the maximum
stress attained by concrete is 50kg/cm2 and the modular ratio is 18,then the stress
developed in steel would be
(A)1800kg/cm2 (C) 1350kg/cm2
(B) 1600kg/cm2 (D)1300kg/cm2
Q-2 :- A beam of width b and effective depth d has neutral axis location at a depth X from
top area of steel in compression and tension is Asc and Ast respectively .The euilvalent
concrete area in compression by warking stores method analysis is
(A)bx+1.5 mAsc (C)bx-Asc
(B)bx-Asc+1.5mAsc (D)bx+Asc+1.5mAst

Grade of (steel) permissible 𝑥𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑚 Mu lim

stress In steel 𝑑
(st)
250 140 0.40 0.173 cbc  bd2
415 230 0.289 0.130 cbc  bd2
500 275 0.253 0.115 cbc  bd2
 Page 40

 Ultimate Load Method(1960)

 This method is an improvement over the traditional WSM of design and takes into
account the short comings of the earlier method .The ULM is also called as the
Load factor method the non-linear stress strain behavior of steel and concrete are
accounted for and stress induced in the structure at the verge of failure at ultimate
loads are considered .The problem associated with the modular ratio are entirely
avoided in this method.
 The safety in the design of structure is taken care by the concept of load factor
which is expressed as:

 Load factor = Ultimate Load (design) ULM

Working or service Load Wsm

 This concept of load factor makes it possible to assign different factor of safety
(interms of load factors)to different types of loads(like dead loads, live loads,
seismic load wind load, snow load etc)and can be suitably combined which is
major drawback in the WSM of design .
 This method also called load factor method.

 Limitation of ULM of design :

 The major drawback of this method is that one cannot say with 100%assurance
that if a structure performs well at ultimate load (strength) the same structures
will perform its function satisfactory at service load also (serviceability criteria).
 Another drawback of this method is that the assumed nonlinear stress strain
behavior of concrete and steel is relevant only if non-linear analysis is performed
on the structure is too ↑ done for routine type of structure.

Note:- Ratio of resistance factor and load factor less than unity.

 Resistance factor takes in to account the possible un certainties in the

determination of material characteristics like poison’s ratio, modulus of elasticity
etc. and is less than unity whereas the load factor takes into account the possible
over loading of structure and his greater than unity.
 Page 41

Where,
a = depth of rectangular stress block
= 0.537d → Whitney’s theory
= 0.43d → IS: 456: 1964
Xu = depth of N.A
Z = lever arm
0.537𝑑
=d- = 0.731d → Whitney’s theory
2
0.43𝑑
=d- = 0.785d → IS: 456:1964
2

𝜎𝑐𝑢 = ultimate 28day. Cylinder strength of concrete.

k𝜎𝑐𝑢 = avg. stress
= 0.55 𝜎𝑐𝑢 → IS: 456:1964
= 0.85 𝜎𝑐𝑢 → Whitney’s theory
𝜎𝑦 = yield stress in steel
𝜀𝑐𝑢 = ultimate stress in concrete
= 0.3% as per Whitney’s theory
𝜀𝑠𝑡 = ultimate strain in steel.
IS
MOR = C × L.A or T × L.A
= 0.185𝜎𝑐𝑢 . b. d2 → IS: 456:1964
1
MR = 𝜎𝑐𝑢 . b. d2 → Whitney’s theory
3

 Load combination
 Those structure in which the effect of wind and earthquake are neglectrd.
1.5 DL + 2.2 L.L
 For those structure in which wind load and earthquake load should be
considered.
 1.5 DL + 2.2 L.L + 0.5 WL / EL
OR
1.5 DL + 0.5L.L + 2.2 WL / EL
Which is greater
 Page 42

 Limit state Method(LSM) of design(1970)

 strain governing mehod
 semi probabilistic method
 WSM is based on service load condition alone where as the ULM is based
on ultimate load condition alone however LSM takes into account the safety
at ultimate load and serviceability at service load.
 We know that there is uncertainity in the loading and the material
properties besides uncertainity of member ,uncertaintiy due to simplifying
assumptions used In analysis &design etc.
 To overcome this reliability base analysis was performed and factor of
safety where established both for loading and material properities .these
factor of safety are called partial safety factors.
 Analysis based on the above concept was called limit state method.
 In this method of design actual stresses developed at collapse differ
conciderable from the therotical values.
 selection of various partial safety factor has sound prolabilistic basis.

 Limit state:

 Limit state is the state of 'about to collapse 'or' impending failure 'beyond which
the structure is not of any practice use.i.e either the stracture collapse or become
unserviceable.
 In LSM two types of limit state define.
1. Limit state of collapse:(strength)
 This Limit state deals with the strength of the structure in terms of collapse
overturning sliding buckling etc.
 Various limit state of collapse are:
Flexure(bending) - beam
compression – column
shear - footing, beam
torsion - L beam curved beam in plan
2. Limit state of serviceability:
 This limit state deal with the deformation of the stracture to such an excent
that the structure becomes unserviceable due to excessive
deflection,cracks,vibration ,leakage etc.
 Various limit state of collapse are:
- defination
- cracking
- corrosion
- fire resistance
 Page 43

- excessive vibration
- durability etc.

NOTE:-If structure has attained the limit state of serviceability and then the load are
removed then the structure will return to its original state .however if the structure has
attained the limit state of collapse then the structure will not return to its original shape.

Design Load:

= characteristic load x FOS

 characteristic load:
Value of load which has a 95% probability of not being exceeded during the life of
the structure is known as characteristic load.
 (fm-1.65𝜎) and (fm+1.65𝜎) are two important limit which "probability of laying
test result "is maximum.these limit is called confidence limit.

 = standard deviation

= design load  avg. load

characteristic strength
 Design strength :-
partial safety factor
 Characteristic strength of material strength below which not mode than 5% of the
test result are expected to fall is known as the characteristic strength of the material
and denoted by fck for concrete.
fck = fm – 1.65

where, fm = avg. strength,  = std. deviation, Design strength ≤ avg. strength

 Page 44

NOTE:- M5 and m7.5 grade of concrete are lean concrete mixes used for simple bases
and foundation of masonry walls.

Que: The number of cubes having 28days comp. strength greater than 25mpa out to 40
cubes made of M25 concrete is_________________
(A) 36 (C) 40
(B) 38 (d)42
 AS per definition of characteristic strength 5% result are fail.
Que: If characteristic strength of concrete fck is define as the strength below which not
more than 50% test results are expected to fall the expression for fck in terms of mean
strength 'fm'& std deviation '6'would be_____
(A) Fm-0.164𝜎 (B)Fm
(C) Fm-1.64𝜎 (D) Fm+1.64𝜎

 Calculate total probability of failure of RCC structure as per IS : 456. :-

Total probability of failure = probability of material  prob. Of load
Strength below below char. Load
Characteristic strength
+ prob. Of material prob. Of load
Strength above above char. Load
Char. Strength
+ prob. Of material prob. Of load
Strength below above char. Load
Char. Strength

= (0.05  0.95) + (0.95  0.05) + (0.05  0.05)

= 0.0975
= 9.75 10-2 (9.75%)
Order = - 2

 Total probability of safety = 1 – 0.0975

= 0.9025
= 9.025  10-1 (90.25%)
= order = 1
 Page 45

partial safety factor:

(A) concrete:-
 camp. strength of standard cylinder (15cm dia& 30cm height ). slendeness ratio 2
is about 0.7 to 0.8 fck and with slenderness ratio 3 is about 0.7 to 0.75 fck and
with slenderness ratio 4 is about 0.67fck
 Further ,it is observed that with increased slenderness ratio beyond 4 the strength
about 0.67fck only this is one of the main reason why strength of concrete is
consider 0.67fck.instead of fck in limit state method
 Strength of concrete decreases with increase in the size of test specimen
.However beyond 450mm cube size there is generally no decrease in the strength
of concrete.
 The quality control maintain in laboratory is not maintain while concreting actual
structure .thus we use partial safety factor 1.5 for concrete.

0.67 𝑓𝑐𝑘
 Design strength :- =
1.5
= 0.446 fck
 Load factor = 1.

(B) Steel :-
𝑓𝑦
 Design strength = = 0.87fy
1.15

Note:- Value of partial fos for material should account for.

(A) possibility of deviation of the strength of material
(B) Deviation of sectional dimension.
(C) Accuracy of calculation procedure
(D) Risk of life & economical consequences

 The value of partial fos for load should account for:

(A) Unusual increase in load beyond that used for characteristic values.
(B) Unforeseen stress redistribution.
(C) Inaccurate assessment of the effect of load.
(D) Importance of the limit state considered.

Load Limit state of collapse Limit state of serviceability

combination DL LL WL / EL DL LL WL/ El
Dl +LL 1.5 1.5 - 1.0 1.0 -
Dl + WL/EL 1.5./0.9 - 1.5 1.0 - 1.0
DL + LL + WL/El 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.8
 Page 46

Note:
 Design wind load &design earthquake load are never considered on a structure
simultaneously.
 Partial F.O.S of limit state of collapse is higher than as of limit state of
serviceability because safety is more important than serviceability.
 Factor o.9 is taken with DL if DL is providing stability against sliding &
overturning.
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒/𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
  1.4
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 /𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
 If retaining wall is safe in sliding& overturning with 90% of its weight then it,
must be safer. With 100% weight.

 Limit state of collapse of flexure:

Assumptions: Plane section remains plane offer bending .it means strain variation
over cross-section is linear.

(1) Max. cop. strain in concrete is limited to 0.0035

(2) Stress –strain dia. of concrete is as given below.

Note:- Any variation of stress-strain curve of concrete can be considered provided that
must comply with experimental results.

(4) Tensile strength of concrete is ignored.

(5) Stress-strain dia of steel under compression &tension is as given below.
 Page 47

(6) Max. Strain in tension steel at the time of failure should not be less than
𝐹𝑦
(0.002+0.87 )
𝐸𝑠

Note:- Max. Limit of max. strain of tension steel to the time of failure is not defined
because steel is very ductile as compared to concrete
0.87𝐹𝑠
Minimum limit of max. stain of tension steel at the time of failure (0.002+ ) is
𝐸𝑠
defined for full utilization of strength of steel

Grade of steel 0.87𝑓𝑦

Limiting strain + 0.002
𝐸𝑠
Fe 250 0.0031
Fe 415 0.0038
Fe 500 0.0042
 Page 48

0.87𝐹𝑦
Note:- In reality for Fe250 grade. yielding will at a strain of 0.0011( ) .
𝐸𝑠
however IS code has not specifeied limiting value of strain for fe 250 separately .
Higher stain in mild steel ensures better ductility so for design purpose we assure
0.87𝐹𝑦
that strain in any grade of steel shall not be less than 0.002+ at ultimate limit.
𝐸𝑠
The stress strain curve of concrete under pure compression is not given by IS:456-
2000 because limit state of collapse under pure compression of concrete is not
relevant in design consideration of structure.
Partial safety factor concrete is more than the steel because the control on the
quality of concrete is not good as that of steel.
In limit state method of design the failure criterion for reinforcement concrete
beam & column in max.principal strain theory.
Design stress strain curve of concrete is obtain by dividing the ordinaters of
characteristic stress-strain curve of concrete by partial safety factor of concrete
1.5.
Design stress –strain curve for reinforcing steel is obtained by dividing the yield
strength or characteristic strength of steel (fy) by Fos of steel which is 1.15.

 Types of Beam section :

(A) Balanced section (limiting section) (𝑥𝑢 = 𝑥𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑚)
 Comp.strain in concrete &tensite strain in steel reach their limiting values
simultaneously.
 Concrete & steel theoretically fail at same time.
 Practically it is difficult to have a balanced section.
 This failure is by primary compression.

Form similar triangle,

0.87𝑓𝑦
0.0035 0.002+
𝐸𝑠
∴ =
𝑥𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑑−𝑥𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥𝑢 𝑚𝑎𝑥 0.0035
∴ = 0.87𝑓𝑦
𝑑 +0.0055
𝐸𝑠

𝑥𝑢 𝑚𝑎𝑥 700
∴ =
𝑑 1100+0.87𝑓𝑦
 Page 49

For,
𝑥𝑢 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Fe, 250 (MS) = 0.53
𝑑
𝑥𝑢 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Fe 415 = 0.48
𝑑
𝑥𝑢 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Fe 500 = 0.46
𝑑

(B) Under reinforced section (𝑥𝑢 < 𝑥𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑚)

0.87𝑓𝑦
0.002 +
𝐸𝑠
0.87𝑓𝑦
 Tensile strain in steel reaches limiting strain earlier to comp.strain in concrete
𝐸𝑠
reach their limiting value of 0.0035
 In this type of section (Ast provide <Ast lim) steel will yield before collapse & the
flexure member will undergo large scale deflection & develops extensive cracking
large curvature before failure
 The initation of failure due to yielding of steel & at the ultimate limit state of collapse
the crushing of concrete will occurs .
 As the failure initiated by tensile steel.this type of failure is called tensile
failure,ductile failure or secondary comp. failure
 It gives sufficient warning before failure
 N.A shift upward (to wards compression fibre)due to yielding of steel.

(C) Over Reinforced section: (𝒙𝒖 = 𝒙𝒖𝒍𝒊𝒎)

 limiting strain in concrete (0.0035) is reached earlier than yield strain of steel
0.87𝐹𝑦
 ( 0.002 + )
𝐸𝑠
 The steel in this section is more than that required for balance section. So failure
occurs due to immidiate crushing of concrete.
 If crushing of concrete occurs priors to yielding of steel then this type of failure is
called brittle failure or camp. failures and also called primary comp. failure
 Page 50

 As per limit state method the design of over reinforced section should be avoided.

NOTE:- Under reinforced concrete flexural member are deeper & undergo large
deflection than balance & over rein. Member.

Over reinf. & balance concrete flexural member are stiffer than under reinf member
Ultimate failure is always due to crushing of concrete. It never occure due to failure of
steel.

Compared to working stress method limit state method takes concrete to a higher
stress level by taking into account the Non – linear stress – strain curve.
 Page 51

 SINGLY BEAM

 From strain diagram:

0.0035 0.002
∴ =
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐵

0.002 20
∴ AB = × xu = xu
0.0035 35

4
∴ AB = xu
7

4 3
⟶ 𝐶𝐵 = 𝑥𝑢 − 𝑥𝑢 = 𝑥𝑢
7 7

 Comp. force of retangular portion.

= Area of stress diagram X width of section
3
C1 = 0.446 fck × xu.b
7

∴ C1 = 0.193 fck. b. xu
 This force (C1) will be act at a distance
3
Y1 = 𝑥𝑢 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑡𝑜𝑝
14

Comp. force of parabolic protion (C2)

Area of stress dia. × width of section
2
= × base × height × width of section
3
2 4
= × 0.446 fck × 𝑥𝑢 . 𝑏
3 7

C2 = 0.171 fck . b .𝑥𝑢

 This force (C2) will act at a distance
 Page 52

3 3 4
Y2 = 𝑥𝑢 + × × 𝑥𝑢
7 8 7
36
= 𝑥𝑢
56

 This combine comp. force will act at a y distance from top.

∴ C.G. location of total force from top.
𝐶1 𝑌1 + 𝐶1 𝑌1
=
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
3 9
(0.193𝑓𝑐𝑘 .𝑏.𝑥𝑢) ( 𝑥𝑢) + (0.171 𝑓𝑐𝑘.𝑏.𝑥𝑢 ) ( 𝑥𝑢)
14 14
=
0.193𝑓𝑐𝑘.𝑏.𝑥𝑢+0.171𝑓𝑐𝑘.𝑏 .𝑥𝑢

= 0.42 𝑥𝑢
 Lever arm (distance between centroid of camp. force to centroid of tensile
force)
∴ 𝑍 = d- 0.42 𝑥𝑢
 Total comp. force
C = C 1 + C2
= 0.193 fck.b.𝑥𝑢 + 0.171𝑓𝑐𝑘. 𝑏. 𝑥𝑢
∴ C = 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘. 𝑏. 𝑥𝑢
 Total tensile force
T = Tensile Stress X area of steel
∴ T = 0.87 𝑓𝑦. 𝐴𝑠𝑡
 For balance section.

C=T ∴ 0.36 𝑓𝑐𝑘 . 𝑏. 𝑥𝑢 = 0.87. 𝑓𝑦. 𝐴𝑠𝑡

0.87 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡
∴ 𝑥𝑢 =
0.36 𝑓𝑐𝑘. 𝑏

 From above expression N.A. is directly proportion to the amount of steel in

tension
𝑀𝑢 = 𝐶 × 𝑍
= 0.87 𝑓𝑦 . 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 0.42 𝑥𝑢)
0.42 ×0.87 𝑓𝑦×𝐴𝑠𝑡 ×𝑑
= 0.87 𝑓𝑦 . 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (1 − )
0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘.𝑏 ×𝑑
 Page 53

𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡
∴ 𝑀𝑢 = 0.87 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑏 (1 − )
𝑓𝑐𝑘 . 𝑏
 Similarly,

Mu = C × Z

∴ 𝑀𝑢 = 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘. 𝑏. 𝑥𝑢 (𝑑 − 0.42 𝑥𝑢)

 For Mulim ( 𝑥𝑢 = 𝑥𝑢 𝑚𝑎𝑥 )

𝑑
∴ 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 0.36 𝑓𝑐𝑘. 𝑏. 𝑥𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑑 − 0.42 𝑥𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 × )
𝑑
𝑥𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑥𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 0.36 × [1 − 0.42 ] 𝑓𝑐𝑘. 𝑏. 𝑑 2
𝑑 𝑑

Fe 250 Mulim = 0.148 𝑓𝑐𝑘. 𝑏. 𝑑 2

Fe 415 Mulim = 0.138 𝑓𝑐𝑘. 𝑏. 𝑑 2
Fe 500 Mulim = 0.133 𝑓𝑐𝑘. 𝑏. 𝑑 2

NOTE:- Max. depth of N.A. in LSM is depends upon only grade of steel.

Que: Considering Modular ratio as 13, grade of concrete as M20 & grade of steel as
415. What is ratio of balance depth of N.A. as per working stress method to the
balance depth of N.A. as per limit state method?

A. 12/7 C. 7/12
B. 11/3 D. 3/11
 As per WSM for Fe 415

𝑥𝑢 = 0.28𝑑

 As per LSM for Fe 415

𝑥𝑢 = 0.48𝑑
0.28𝑑 7
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =
0.48𝑑 12
 Page 54

 Steel req. for a balance section:

C=T
∴ 0.36 𝑓𝑐𝑘. 𝑏. 𝑥𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.87 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡
𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚 0.36 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑥𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
= × × 100%
𝑏.𝑑 0.87 𝑓𝑦 𝑑

𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑥𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝑡 . 𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 0.414 ( )× × 100 %
𝑓𝑢 𝑑
𝑓𝑐𝑘
𝑃𝑡 . 𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 21.93 × % (for Fe 250)
𝑓𝑦

= 0.088𝑓𝑐𝑘
𝑓𝑐𝑘
= 19.87 × % (𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑒 415)
𝑓𝑦

= 0.048 fck
𝑓𝑐𝑘
= 19.03 × % (For Fe 500)
𝑓𝑦

= 0.038 fck
𝑥𝑢 𝑙𝑖𝑚 Mu lim Astl imt
250 0.53 0.148 fck bd2 0.088 fck
415 0.48 0.138fck bd2 0.048 fck
500 0.46 0.133 fck bd2 0.038 fck

Que: M20, Fe 415, Pt. bal = (?)

0.36 × 20
 % pt bal =  0.48  100
0.87 × 415

= 0.957 = 0.96%

Que :- M35, Fe415, Pt  bal = (?)

20
pt bal = 19.87  = 1.68%
415

 Min. tensile reinforcement in beam (IS : 456)

𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.85
   100%
𝑏.𝑑 𝑓𝑦

For, Fe 250  0.34 %

 Page 55

Fe 415  0.205%

Fe 500  0.17%

NOTE: Min. steel in beam is provide to avoid sudden failure.

Max. comp. reinforcement

= 0.04bD = 4% of gross area

Max. tensile reinforcement

= 0.04 bD = 4% of gross area
Min comp reinforcement = Nil.

NOTE:- Max. reinforcement is based on critically in placing and compacting the

concrete.

IS : 456 pg. 39 Slenderness limit for beam to ensure lateral stability

60𝑏
- Simply support beam 𝑏2
min
250
𝑑

25𝑏
- Cantilever beam 𝑏2
𝑚𝑖𝑛
100
𝑑

Que: R.C beam is sub to following flexural moment.

DL moment = 30kN.m

LL moment = 40 kN.m

Seismic moment = 20 kN.m

Design flexural moment for limit state of collapse is__________ .

 1.5 (DL + LL) = 105 kn.m

1.5 (DL + SL) = 75kn.m
1.2 (DL + LL + SL) = 108kn.m
 max. of above is design moment = 108 kn.m
 Page 56

 DOUBLY BEAM

 If section dimensions are given & Mu >Mulim provision of singly reinforced

section will make the beam over reinforced.
 Hence section dimensions need to be modified or higher grade of steel /concrete
should be used.
 However if section dimension cannot be modified (preferably depth) we need to
provide steel on compression side also so that the neutral axis does not shift
downward even by providing steel in tension greater than Ast lim. Thus, we will
have to provide doubly reinforced section.
 Doubly reinforced section is also used in situation where reversal of moments in
likely to occur. (eg. Multi story frame subjected to lateral load.)
 Other advantage of using comp. reinforcement is reduction in long term
deflection due to shrinkage and creep.
 While providing comp. reinforcement, it should be ensured that the comp.
reinforcements are enclosed by closed stirrups in order to prevent their possible
buckling and provide some ductility by confinement of concrete.
 Why to provide comp. reinforcement for enhancing the moment carrying
capacity of beam while we can always do this by increasing the effective depth
of the beam?
 It is not always possible to increase the depth of the beam due to architectural
considerations head room restrictions etc. moreover, increase the depth of
beam adds significantly to self wt of beam.
 Above all the most imp reason for providing doubly reinforced beam is that they
provide safety against reversal of stresses in a structure due to wind seismic,
temp. stresses.
 Hanger bars vs. comp. reinforcement.
 Hanger bars are of nominal diameter provided in the comp. zone of beam for
holding the shear stirrups.
 Hangers bars are generally not considered as comp. reinforcement.
 But, in case when area of hanger bar> 0.2% then hanger bars are treated as
comp. reinforcement.
 Page 57

 Min. dia of hanger bars recommended for holding stirrups is 10mm.

Ast= Ast1+ Ast2

T = 0.87 fy Ast1 + 0.87 fy Ast2

 For singly RC beam force of comp. in concrete

C1 = 0.36fck.b.xu

 Lever arm for this ( c1) compression force.

= d – 0.42 xu
 For auxiliary RC beam

C2 = force of comp. reinforcement

= (fsc - fcc) X Asc

Lever arm of this comp. = d – d1

𝑥𝑢− 𝑑 1
 Where, fsc = stress in comp. steel corresponding to strain of 0.0035 ( )
𝑥𝑢

 Fcc = Stress in concrete at the level of steel corresponding to the strain of

𝑥𝑢− 𝑑 1
0.0035 ( )
𝑥𝑢

NOTE:- Stress in comp. steel will be found out form the strain in compression steel at its
𝑥𝑢− 𝑑 1
level i.e 0.0035 ( ). Using appropriate stress – strain curve of steel.
𝑥𝑢

Similarly stress in concrete at the level of comp. steel would be found out from stress
– strain curve of concrete.
 Page 58

 from similar triangle

𝑥𝑢 𝑥𝑢 − 𝑑1
=
0.0035 𝑥𝑢

𝑥𝑢 − 𝑑1
∴ 𝜀𝑥 = 0.0035 ( )
𝑥𝑢

Depth of N.A. can be found out form camp = tension.

0..36 fck . b .𝑥𝑢 + 𝐴𝑠𝑐 (𝑓𝑠𝑐 − 𝑓𝑐𝑐 ) = 0.87 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡

0.87 𝑓𝑦.𝐴𝑠𝑡 − 𝐴𝑐𝑐 (𝑓𝑠𝑐 −𝑓𝑐𝑐 )

𝑥𝑢 =
0.36 𝑓𝑐𝑘.𝑏

 moment of resistance of the section is

𝑀𝑢 = 𝑇1 𝑍1 + 𝐶2 𝑍2

= 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘. 𝑏. 𝑥𝑢 (𝑑 − 0.42𝑥𝑢)

+ 𝐴𝑠𝑐 (𝑓𝑠𝑐 − 𝑓𝑐𝑐 ) (𝑑 − 𝑑1 )

 similarly,
 𝑀𝑢 = 𝑇1 𝑍1 + 𝑇2 𝑍2

= 0.87𝑓𝑦. 𝐴𝑠𝑡1 × (𝑑 − 0.42𝑥𝑢)

+ 0.87 𝑓𝑦𝐴𝑠𝑡+2 (𝑑 − 𝑑1 )

NOTE: fsc is also find from d'/d ratio directly from code.

 fsc is decrease as d'/d ratio increase except Fe 250

 should be normally betn 0.05 – 0.2
 Stress in tension steel will generally be 0.87fy at ultimate stage because we will
ensure xu ≤ xulim of singly reinforce section. however design stress in comp.
steel would normally be less than 0.87fy (other than Fe 250)
 For Fe 250 generally comp. steel yield but for Fe415 and Fe500 comp. steel may
not yield.
 Doubly reinforced beam is consider less economical than singly rein. Beam
because comp. steel is under stress.
 Page 59

 T – BEAM (Flanged Beam)

 In monolithic construction slabs and beams are casted together, if the slab in such
cases is in compression zone, it becomes effective (partly) in addition to the
compression area of concrete of beam.
 In such cases, the design of beam can be done as a flanged beam.
 However if the slab is located in the tension zone, the concrete in the slab
becomes ineffective in cracked section analysis & the beam shall be designed as a
rectangular beam.
 For normal construction, in a continuous beam, sagging moment will be there near
the mid span & slab will be in compression & hence design the beam as a flanged
beam.
 Near the support, hanging moment will be there & slab will be in tension & hence
design the beam as a rectangular beam.
 Invented beams are recommended to increase the head room clearance &
generally provided on the top floor.

 For T or L beam action. i.e. slab will be act as a compression flange of a T –beam
or L – beam only when,
a. concrete of slab and web is monolithic
b. Web reinforcement is adequately anchored in slab.
c. Adequate transverse reinforcement must be provided near the top of
flange.
 Page 60

 to ensure monolithic behavior of beam & slab there shall not be any crack at the
interface when the spanning direction of slab is perpendicular to that of beam,
the main reinforcement of slab will resist the crack.
 However when the spanning direction of beam & slab are same chances of
cracking increases at the interface & we need to provide some additional
reinforcement for monolithic behavior.
 The area of such transverse reinforcement ≮ 60% of the main area of steel
provided at mid span of the slab and should extend on either side of beam to a
distance not less than 1/4th of the span of the beam.
 Page 61

 Effective flange width

 The compressive stress variation due to flexure is non – uniform over the width of
the slab.

 effective width of flange depends upon the following:

1) span of beam (lo)
2) width of web (bw)
3) thickness of flange (Df)
4) Types of loading i.e. whether the load is concentrated or uniformly
distributed.
5) Types of beam support.
Note:- The actual variation of flexural compressive stress with max. value near web
and decreasing away from web location is attributed to shear lag phenomenon.

 Effective flange width of T and L – beam (pg. 37)

 For continuous flange beam effective flange width given below but no case
greater than the breath of the web plus half the sum of the clear distance to the
adjacent Beam on either side.
a) For T – beam
𝑙𝑜 𝑙1+𝑙2
bf = + bw + 6Df ≯ bw +
6 2

b) For L – beam
𝑙𝑜 𝑙1+𝑙2
bf = + bw + 3Df ≯ bw +
12 2
 Page 62

lo = Distance between point of zero moment in the beam

= effective span of beam for simply supported beam.

= 0.7 X (effective span of beam) for continuous beam.

 For isolated beams the effective flange width shall be obtained as below but in no
case greater than the actual width.
𝑙𝑜
T – beam bf = 𝑙𝑜 + bw ≤ b
+4
𝑏

0.5𝑙𝑜
L – beam bf = 𝑙𝑜 + bw ≤ b
( +4 )
𝑏

b = actual width of the flange

Note:- example of isolated T – beams are spine beam of stair case or stringer beam.

 Effective depth of flanged beam is taken as 1/10 to 1/12 of span.

 case – 1 N.A lies within the flange. ( Df ≥ 𝑥𝑢)
(beam behave like rectangular beam of size bf X d)
 case – 2 N.A lies in web (Df < 𝑥𝑢 )

𝐷𝑓 𝐷𝑓 3
(a) < 0.2 or ≤ 0.43 =
𝑑 𝑥𝑢 7

Then flange of T-beam has a uniform stress of .45fck

𝐷𝑓
Mu = 0.36fck . bw . xu . ( d – 0.42xu ) + 0.45fck (dt – bw ) Df ( d - )
2
 Page 63

𝐷𝑓 𝐷𝑓 3
(b) > 0.2 or > 0.43 =
𝑑 𝑥𝑢 7

 Flange of T – section has non – uniform stress. (partially 0.45fck and partially less
than 0.45fck)
𝑦𝑓
 Mu = 0.36fck . bw.xu (d – 0.42xu) + 0.45fck (bf -bw) yf ( d -
2

 where yf = 0.15 xu + 0.65 Df ≯ Df

Note: eqn of yf is based on witney's stress block theory

 Side face reinforcement:-

 In deep beams lateral buckling occurs due to load which causes torsion in the
cross section. max. torsional shear stress develop on center of side face for
resistance side face reinforcement is provided
 When depth of web exceed 750 mm side face reinforcement is required.
 Total area of reinforcement = 0.1 % web area (pg. 47)
 Equally distributed on both side
 Spacing shall not exceed.
a. 300mm min
b. Thickness of web

 For torsion in beam

 D>450 mm, 0.1% of web area shall be provided with a not more than 300 mm
c/c Spacing.
 For Pre-stress concrete

 depth….>500 mm side face reinforcement 0.1% of web area should be provided

with spacing not exceed 200 mm
 Page 64

 Limit State of collapse in shear

 The section of structural member may be subjected to shear force due to
flexural punching and torsion

1. Flexural shear
Bending in beam create a tendency in the particle to slide upon each other
this is called shear. The shear associated with change of B.M along the span is
known as flexural shear or simply shear.
𝑑𝑀
Flexural shear force present in beam is given by …….. =v
𝑑𝑥

2. Punching shear
The shear associated with the possibility of punching a thin member by
concentrated load is called punching shear.
A slab carrying a concentrated wall load. A beamless floor slab supported
directly by columns (called flat slab) or a footing slab carrying a concentrated
column load are subjected to punching shear.
For the member subjected to both the above type of shear, the flexural
shear is referred as to one way shear, where as punching shear is called two way
shear. A footing slab coming concentrated column load is subjected to both
these shear.
3. Torsion shear
When a member is subjected to torsion. It is subjected to torsional shear.
The beams are subjected to flexural shear and some time to torsion shear
also.
The slab are plate elements and usually subjected to flexural shear.
However sometimes they are subjected to all types of shear as in case of
restrained two-way slab.
If the shear failures takes place before flexural failures. They are brittle
and occur without warning. If flexural failure takes place prior to shear
failure the ductile failure of the beam is ensured.
Note : Concrete is very strong in compression and also quite strong in shear however
the combination of vertical and horizontal shear stress along with tension due to
bending produces diagonal tension which is quite serious the complementary diagonal
compression should also be taken in to account.
 Page 65

 Diagonal Tension and diagonal Compression

1. If BM=0, i.e 𝜎=0, then 𝜎p1 = 𝜏 and 𝜎p2 = - 𝜏 and angle of principal plane 𝜃1
=45 & 𝜃1 = 135.
This means that near the support for simply support beam where B.M. is zero
and at N.A. of any section the principal tension is equal to shear stress and is
inclined at 45°. This is known as diagonal tension.
As concrete weak in tension the concrete near the support creak at 45° with
horizontal
The other principal stress is inclined at 135° and is compressive. This is known
as diagonal compression and is of the same value as the shear stress
The concrete is strong in compression and for usual cases diagonal
compression is below the permissible value.
However if the shear stress is very high precaution to avoid the diagonal
compression failure also have to be taken.
 Page 66

2. When bending stress (𝜎) is max. while shear stress is zero (𝜏 = 0 ) we get 𝜎p1
= 𝜎p2 = 𝜎 and 𝜃 = 90◦
(principal plane is perpendicular to beam axis)
This means that principal tension stress act in horizontal direction and crack
will be vertical as shown in figure.

Thus at mid section where bending stress are pre-dominant the cracks will
start developing vertically. Thus cracks are called flexural cracks.
From above discussion, It is clear that between two limit the cracks will chage
from a vertical direction at a point of zero shear force to direction inclined at
an angle of 45 of a plane where bending stress is zero.

Note:- The chance of diagonal tension crack in RCC member reduced when axial
compression and shear force acts simultaneously.

From the above discussion different mode of failure are :

1. Diagonal tension failure:
Which occur under large shear force and less bending moment such cracks
are normally at 45° with horizontal.
2. Flexural shear failure :-
Which occur under large B.M. and less shear force which occur normally at
closer to 90° with horizontal
When flexural crack occurs in combination with a diagonal tension crack
the crack is some time called as flexural shear crack
It should be noted that it is flexural cracks that usually forms first and due
to increased shear stress at the tip of the crack. this flexural crack extends
into diagonal tension crack.
 Page 67

3. Diagonal Compression Failure :-

Which occur under large shear force. It is characterized by the crushing of
concrete.
Normally is occur in beams which are reinforced against heavy shear
such type of failure occurs when area of shear reinforcement exceeds a
certain limit such that concrete section becomes stronger in diagonal
tension compared to diagonal compression.
Thus, diagonal compression failure may occur even before the shear
reinforcement has yielded.

 Mechanism of Shear Resistance

 The relative proportion of the various mechanism depends in the loading stage
the extent of cracking and material and geometric proportion.
 Prior to flexure crack, ≠ all shear resisted by uncrack portion of concrete
 As the concrete cracking commences redistribution of stress takes places
resulting in development of aggregate interlock force and dowel forces.
 As the commencement of diagonal crack occurs shear reinforcement intercepts
the cracks and undergoes a sudden increase in tensile stress and stain at this
stage all the four major components while resist external shear are very much
effective.
 Increase in longitudinal reinforcement not only increase dowel action but also
control the propagation of flexural cracks and contribute to increase the depth
of N.A. and there by the depth of uncrack concrete. Thus increase in aggregate
interlocking.

Note:- For the beam and thin walled sections subjected to large concentrated load
max.tensile stress located near N.A. resulting in crack which generally start at N.A.
propagate to support this crack is also known as web shear creck or diagonal tension
crack.
 Page 68

 In over reinforced RCC beam on overloaded scenario the first crack propagate
due to crushing of concrete.
 In case of deep beam shear deformation are more important when compared to
flexural alone.
 In a lab various type of beam failure can assessed by ratio of shear span (a) to
effective depth (d)

𝑎
Spitting failure < 1
𝑑
𝑎
diagonal compression 1 < < 2.5
𝑑
𝑎
diagonal tension 2.5 < < 6
𝑑
𝑎
flexural failure > 6
𝑑

 Shear stress

 distribution of shear stress in RCC is shown as below :

 Shear stress diagram is

parabolic up to N.A.& then
constant up to tensile
reinforcement
 Nominal shear stress (due to
external load)
𝑣
𝜏v = 𝑢
𝑑𝑏

; vu = shear force due to design load

b = breadth of member
d = effective depth

 For beam of varying depth

𝛽
vu ± Mu tan
𝑑
𝜏v = ; Mu = BM at the section
𝑑𝑏

B = angle betn the top and

bottom edge of the beam
(-) Sign- when BM numerically increase in the direction in which depth increase
 Page 69

(+) Sign-when BM numerically decrease in the direction in which depth increase

 An RCC beam of 200 mm × 300mm (effective) is subjected to a factored shear

force 30 KN. The max nominal shear stress in N/mm² as per present code is
(a) 0.5 (b) 0.55
(c) 0.75 (d) none

𝑉𝑢 30×103
𝜏v = = = 0.5 N/mm2
𝑑𝑏 200×300

 A T-beam of flange width 1000 mm web width 230 mm and depth of 450 mm is
subjected to a shear of 46 KN. The nominal shear stress in the beam in N/mm² is
(effective cover-50 mm)
𝑉𝑢 46×103
𝜏v = = = 0.5 N/mm2
𝑑𝑏 230×(450−50)

 Shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement (𝝉c):-

 Value of 𝜏c is calculated from IS:456 table 19

 𝜏c is depends upon grade of concrete & % of longitudinal reinforcement (tensile
reinforcement)
 Page 70

Note:- 𝜏c is depends on percentages of tensile reinforcement because

1. When amount of tension steel increase the depth of N.A increase and thus the
depth of uncracked concrete increase and this increase the capacity of concrete in
shear.
2. When the amount of tension steel increase the crack formed are smaller. Which
improve the aggregate interlock also because of further improves the capacity of
section in shear.

 effect of axial comp. force on design shear strength of concrete (IS: 456 pg. 72)
 If shear strength of concrete gets improved in present of axial compression & gets
reduced due to axial tension.
 IS: 456 recommended that the design shear strength of concrete in axial
compression should be taken as

3𝑝𝑢
𝛿=1+ min ; = pu = factored comp force
𝐴𝑔.𝑓𝑐𝑘

Ag = gross sectional area.

 For solid slab (resisting on beam) design shear strength of concrete shall be k. 𝜏c
where k has the value given as below.
Over all depth of >300 275 250 225 200 175 <150
slab (mm)
k 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30

Note:- Experimental study have shown that slab and shallow beams fails at loads
corresponding to nominal stress that is higher than that applicable for beam of usual
proportion.
Thinner is the slab grater is the increase shear strength.
Slab subjected to normal distributed loads satisfy 𝜏c < 𝑘. 𝜏c and hence do not need shear
Reinforcement.
 Page 71

 Max. shear stress with shear reinforcement (𝜏c max)

 𝜏c max depends on only grade of concrete
 By this provision failure of beam by diagonal compression is prevented.
 As load increases on beam 𝜏v also increases. This 𝜏v produces tension on one
diagonal plane, and compression on other diagonal plan.
 Diagonal tension is taken by shear reinforcement and diagonal compression is
taken by concrete.
 For 𝜏c > 𝜏v max , concrete under under diagonal compression get crushed so 𝜏c
should not be more than 𝜏c max

𝜏c max = 0.625 √𝑓𝑐𝑘

Grade M15 M20 M25 M30 M35 ≥M40

𝑁
𝜏c max 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.7 4
𝑚𝑚2

 shear design
 Action of shear reinforcement in resisting shear is explained by truss analogy
(Lattice girder effect)
Note: lattice girder effect
The combine behavior of a RCC beam with bent up bars is similar to truss as shown in
fig. where steel & concrete act as tension and compression members is called lattice
girder effect
 top concrete: compression member
 bottom longitudinal reinforcement : tension member
 concrete between inclined bent up bar: diagonal compression member
 bent up bar : diagonal tension member
𝜏𝑐
 Case : 1 if 𝜏v ≤ section is safe in shear and no need of min. shear reinforcement
2

ex: slab, lintel, chajja etc.

𝜏𝑐
 Case : 2 If 𝜏v > & 𝜏v < 𝜏c
2
 Page 72

Section is safe in shear but to avoid future increase in shear due to secondary
stresses like temperature shrinkage, creep etc. Provide min. shear reinforcement.
 Min. shear reinforcement
𝐴𝑠𝑣 0.4
= Note:- for Fe 250 → 0.183 %
𝑏.𝑠𝑣 0.87 𝑓𝑦

Fe 415 → 0.12 %

Que: If a 2 – legged 8mm ∅ HYSD bar is used as shear reinforcement for a beam of width
230mm and effective depth 300mm. what is the nearest magnitude of the spacing of
min shear reinforcement?

(A) 420mm (B) 390mm

(C) 350mm (D) 320mm

𝐴𝑠𝑣 0.4
=
𝑏.𝑆𝑣 0.87×𝑓𝑦

0.87fy×Asv 0.87×415×2×𝜋⁄4×(8)2
Sv = = = 394mm ≅ 390𝑚𝑚
0.4×𝑏 0.4×230

 Case : 3 If 𝜏v > 𝜏c
Section not safe in shear
 Shear reinforcement is design in the form of
1. Vertical stirrups
2. Inclined Stirrups
3. Bent up bars
 Most effective is inclined stirrups ∝ ≥ 450 but these are not stable in the form of
work.
 However in case of stress reversal (due to earthquake load) the direction of crack
will be reversed and inclined stirrups became ineffective.
 ∝ ≮ 45° ∝ < 45° because for there is possibility of inclined stirrups shipping along
the longitudinal bars.
 In practice vertical stirrups are commonly use.
 Page 73

 Bent up bar are optional & they cannot be used alone to resist shear. Can be used
with combination of vertical stirrups or inclined stirrups.
 Shear reinforcement will generally be required to cater for the shear over and above
that resisted by the concrete itself.
Hence, shear resisted by shear reinforcement.
Vsu = ( 𝜏v - 𝜏c ) bd
 As per ductile detailing first stirrups shall be provided within 50mm from the face of
the support.
Que: A Rectangular beam of size 200 X 300 mm (effective) is subjected to an ultimate
shear force of 50 KN the permissible shear stress is 0.2 N/mm2. The design shear
force in KN is
(A) 12 (B) 38 (C) 50 (D) None
 design shear force = ( 𝜏v - 𝜏c ) × bd
𝜏c = 0.2
𝑉𝑢 50 × 103
𝜏v = =
𝑏𝑑 200×300

 design shear force = 𝜏v .bd - 𝜏c . bd

50×103
= × 200 × 300
200×300
-0.2 × 200 ×300
= 38 KN
 The primary function of stirrups are
(1) To resist a part of shear
(2) To resist the growth of the indined crack and improve aggregate interlock.
(3) To tie the longitudinal bar in place there by increase the dowel action.

Note: closed stirrups are better because it resist torsion and helps in confining the
compression reinforcement.
 Hooks of closed stirrups should be located in compression zone because in that
case it helps in improving the anchorage and avoid crack initiation.
 For stirrups fy is limited to 415 N/mm2 because the width of diagonal crack is
related to strain in the stirrups. Limiting the stress in stirrups will limits the strain
and thus the width of diagonal crack.
 Page 74

 Note for bent up bar:

𝑙
 Bar should be not beyond distance from either side.
4
 The bent up bar alone are not satisfactory for shear reinforcements. This is because
the exact behavior of bent up bars in resisting shear is not clearly understood also
bent up bar do not resist the reversal of shear force.
 Is 456 stated that when bent up bars are provided, their contribution towards
shear resistance shall not be taken as more than half of the total shear to be
resisted by shear reinforcement the remaining half of shear to be resisted through
shear reinforcement shall be resisted by vertical indined stirrups which are
provided along with the bent up bars.
𝜏 −𝜏
 Bent up bar, design for shear force = ( 𝑣 𝑐) × bd.
2
 As per IS : 456 (pg. 73) design shear strength
(A) for vertical stirrups:
0.87fyAsv .d
Vus =
𝑆𝑣

(B) For indined stirrups or a series of bars bent up at different cross section.
0.87fyAsv .d
Vus = (sin∝ + cos∝)
𝑆𝑣

(C) For single bar or single group of parallel bars, all bent up at the same c/s.
Vus = 0.87fy Asv. sin∝
Que: If the stirrups spacing is equal to 0.75 times the effective depth of an RCC beam
then shear capacity of stirrups steel is equal to
(A) 1.75 fy Asv (C) 1.16 fy Asv
(B) 1.08 fy Asv (D) 1.00 fy Asv
0.87fyAsv .d 0.87×fy×Asv ×d
Vus = = = 1.16fy Asv
𝑆𝑣 0.75×𝑑

 Max. spacing of stirrups:

The shear reinforcement are provided to prevent the shear cracks in the beam
the horizontal distance between two successive crack is approximately equal to
effective depth. The stirrups shall be provided such that they cross the crack and
also no crack shall remain unreinforced.
 IS : 456 pg. 47
To ensure this max. Spacing of stirrups as per code shall not exceed.
 Page 75

1. For varticle stirrups

a. 0.75d
b. 300mm smaller

2. for indined stirrups

a. d (depth)
b. 300mm smaller

Note: The provision for the design shear strength of concrete are applicable only for
flexural (one way shear) and not applicable for punching shear (two way shear).
 Spacing of stirrups is increased in middle portion because shear force is less as
compared to supports.

 Purpose of min. shear reinforcement priority wise:

 controls the propagation of diagonal crack (Resist principal tension) & alters the
pattern of cracking before failure if overloaded in shear
 Prevents sudden formation of indined cracks & reduces chances of abrupt failure.
I.e. ensures same amount of ductility in shear.
 Improves dowel action of longitudinal reinforcement.
 Helpful in tensile stress due to creep, shrinkage, temperature & different
settlement.
 From secondary torsion point of view.
 Holds the main reinforcement in place while concreting and act as a ties for
compression reinforcement.

 Critical section for shear

 Page 76

 If the support is under compression critical section is at a distance d from face of

column.
 If support is under tension then the critical section is exactly at a face of support.

Note: For top slab the critical section for shear will be at a distance d from face of wall
and for bottom slab. It will be at the face of the wall.

 It is noted that if a concentrated load acts on the member with in a distance 2d

from the support face then the support face becomes the critical section for shear.
𝐴𝑠𝑡
Que:- At section A in a beam ×100 is 3.0 & in another section B this value is 3.5.
𝑏𝑑
The design strength of concrete.
a) at section A> t section B
b) at section A = at section B
c) at section A < at section B
d) None of the above.
 As per IS : 456 2000 table 19 pg. 73
𝐴𝑠𝑡
Value of 𝜏c for same grade of concrete and above 3 is constant.
𝑏𝑑

Que:- A reinforced concrete beam of 10m effective span and 1m effective depth is
simply supported if the total udl on the beam is 10 MN/m. the design shear force for
bam is
(A) 50MN (B) 47.5 MN
(C) 32.5MN (D) 40MN
 S.F at critical section = 50x1 – 10x1
= 40MN
Que:- A Reinforced concrete beam of 10m effective span 1m effective depth is
supported on 500x 500mm columns. If total udl load on beam is 10MN/m the design
shear force for the beam is.

 shear force at critical section

= 50 – 1.25x10
= 37.5 MN
 Page 77

 Combine shear & Torsion

Member of circular section made up of linearly elastic homogeneous material

subjected to torsion.

 Torsion formula
𝑇 𝜏 𝐺. 𝜃
= =
𝐽 𝑅 𝑙
 Plane section remains plane after twisting.
 Shear stress variation over c/s is linear with zero at Centre and max. at farthest
point from Centre.
 No normal stress on section.
 Torsion formula is valid.

Member of Non – circular section made up of linearly elastic homogeneous

material subjected to torsion.

𝑇
𝜏 max =
𝑥 𝑑2 𝐷
𝐷
Where ∝ depends on ratio.
𝑏

 Plane section no longer remains plane after twisting (wrapping) of section takes
place.
 Shear stress variation is Non – liner with max. at mid of longer edge & zero at
Centre and corners.
 Normal stress over section is also present.
 Torsion formula is no longer valid.
 If line of action of force is not passing through shear Centre then torsion develop in
addition to shear force and bonding moment.
 Page 78

 Classification of torsion:

 Primary or equilibrium or statically determinate torsion

 A torsion that develop to maintain static equilibrium in the structure assemblage.

 It is due to primary action (that is due to external load)
 Design for this torsion is compulsory because no other alternative to resist that
torsion.
ex: canopy beam, Ring beam of water tank, beam curved in plan.

 secondary or compatibility or statically indeterminate torsion:

 Torsion due to secondary action like shrinkage creep, temp. Change from the
requirement of continuity.
 Twisting moment induced in this case is proportional to the torsional stiffness of
member.
 These moments are generally statically indeterminate & their value is obtained
using compatibility eqn this is the reason these torsion are called compatibility
torsion.
 ex: grid system, edge beam of frame, L- beam If torsional stiffness of member is
not consider in analysis the structure need not be design for the torsion.

 Code provision:
 If in the analysis of structure the torsional resistance or stiffness of member has
not been taken into account no specific calculation for torsion is necessary.
adequate control of any torsional cracking being provided by the required nominal
shear reinforcement.
 Where the torsional resistance or stiffness of member is taken into account in the
analysis the member shall be designed for torsion.

 Critical section for shear: (IS : 456 pg. 75)

 Section located less than a distance d, from the face of the support may be
designed for the same torsion as computed at a distance d where d is effective
depth.

 Effect of torsional moment:

 Torsional moment includes shear stresses in the beams because of the torsion a
beam fail in diagonal tension forming spiral cracks around the beam.
 Page 79

 Hence Ideal way of providing reinforcement against torsion is by providing the steel
in the form of a spiral along the direction of principal tensile stress but this is not
practise & transverse reinforcement is provided in the form of longitudinal &
transverse reinforcement.
 longi reinforcement is provided in the form of bars distributed around the section
close to periphery & transverse reinforcement in the form of closed rectangular
stirrups placed perpendicular to the beam axis.
 The longi. Reinforcement helps in the reducing the cracks width through dowel
action & stirrups crossing the cracks resist shear due to vertical load torsion as the
area of longi. & transverse reinforcement increase stiffness of section the torsion
resistance capacity of section increase.
 Due to warping of section & cracking of concrete, analysis of RCC member of non-
circular section subjected to torsion becomes complicated IS: 456 provides a
simplifies approach (based on skew bending theory) to design member subjected to
torsion by converting torsion into equivalent shear of & equivalent moment.
 As a simplification of the effect of torsional moment is split up into.
(a) Equivalent shear &
(b) Equivalent bindings moment

NOTE:- Torsional design is based on skew bending theory proposed by HSU.

 Equivalent Shear: (IS 456 pg. 75)

 The combined effected of torsion & Shear is consider and called equivalent shear.
Ve = vu + Vt
Vu = factored Sher force due to load
VT = S.F contributed by factored torsional moment
𝑻𝒆
Ve = Vu + 1.6
𝒃
 Equivalent nominal shear stress.
𝑽𝒆
𝝉ve =
𝒃𝒅

 If 𝜏ve does not exceed 𝜏c then only min. Shear rein shall be provided.
 If 𝜏ve exceed 𝜏c both longi. & toansevesre rein. Shall be provided.
 𝜏ve Shall not exceed 𝜏c max. If exceed then redesign section.
 Page 80

NOTE:- The flexural Shear & torsional Shear are additive only on one Side of the beam &
they acts in opposite direction on the other Side of beam.
Equivalent Moment:-
 Lengitudinal reinforcement shall be design to resist an equivalent bending moment
Me = Mu + Mt
Mu = factored bending moment
Mt = bending moment contributed by factored torsional moment.
Tu(1+D/b)
Me = Mu +
1.7

 If Mt > Mu longitudinal com. reinforcement Shall be provided on flexural com. Face

to resist an equipment moment Me’ given by
Me’ = Mt – Mu
 IS : 456 Pg (48)
Max spacing of shear stirrups in beam subjected to torsion shall be as follow :

≯ 𝑥1

𝑥1 +𝑦1
≯ smaller
2

≯ 300mm

NOTE:- For brittle material crack due to torsion is spiral @45

Eff. Section to resist torsion box girder

Most critical beam for torsional in structure in peripheral beam because the beam
is subjected to shear Bending Moment & Torsional Moment.

Question:

Force on a 500 mm deep beam of 300 mm wide subjected to a shear force of 150 KN &
torsion 30 KN.M equivalent Shear is,
(A) 180 KN (B) 310 KN (C) 246 KN (D) 210 KN

Solution:
𝑇𝑢 30
Vc = Vu + 1.6 ( , = 150 + 1.6 ( ) , = 310KN
𝑏 0.3
 Page 81

 COLUMN

 A compression member is a structural element Which is subjected predominately

to axial compressive forces. Comp. member are most commonly encountered in
reinforced concrete buildings as columns.
 The column is representative of all types of comp. members & hence sometime
the terms column & comp. member are used interchangeably.
 The load defined the column as a comp. member the effective length of which
exceed three times the least lateral dimension. ( le > 3 × LLD)
 The Term pedestal is used to describe a vertical comp. member whose effective
length is less than three times its least lateral dimension. ( le < 3 × LLD)

 ASSUMPTION:

 Plane section normal to the axis remain plane after bending.

 The relationship between stress strain distribution in concrete is assumes to be
parabolic the maximum comp. stress is equal to 0.67 fck / 1.5 or 0.45 fck.
 The tensile strength of concrete is ignored.
 The stress in reinforcement are derived from the representative stress – strain
curve for type of steel used.
 The maximum comp. stain in concrete in axial comp is taken 0.002.
 The max comp. strain at the highly compressed extreme fibre in concrete
subjected to axial comp. & bending but when there is no tension on the section is
taken as 0.0035 minus 0.75 times the strain at the least compressed extreme fibre.
 The max .compressive strain at highly compressed extreme fibre in concrete
subjected to axial comp. & bending when part of the section is in tension is taken
as 0.0035.

ℰ cm= 0.0035 – 0.75 × ℰ CL

 Page 82

 Classification of columns based on types of reinforcement :

(a) Tied columns:
Where the main longitudinal bars are enclosed within closely spaced lateral
ties.
(b) Spiral Column:
Where the main longitudinal bars are enclosed within spiral reinforcement.
(c) Composite Column:
Where the reinforcement is in the form of structural steel section or pipes
with or without longitudinal bars.

Note:- As area of metal core in composite column should not be more than 20% of gross
area of column.

 Classification based on type of loading:

1) Column with axial loading.
2) Column with uniaxial eccentric loading.
3) Column with biaxial eccentric loading.

 Classification based on slenderness ratio:

1) Short column
2) Slender (long) column.
Slenderness is a geometrical property of a comp. member which is related to the
ratio of its effective length to its lateral dimension.
Column with slenderness ratio bet 3 to 12 are short column which invariably fails
under ultimate load with material reaching it’s ultimate strength and not by
buckling.
Column with slenderness ratio bet 12 to 60 are called long column.

Note:- As per IS: 456-2000 maximum slenderness ratio of a column should not exceed
60.

 Unsupported length: (IS : 456 pg.42)

 The unsupported length of a compression member shall be taken as the clear
distance bet end restraints except that.
(a) In flat slab construction. It shall be clear distance bet the floor & lower extremity
of the capital, the drop panel or slab whichever is the least.
(b) In beam of slab construction it shall be the clear distance bet floor of the
underside & the shallower beam framing in to the columns in each direction at
the next highest floors levels.
 Page 83

 Minimum Eccentricities:
 Eccentricities may not arise in structural analysis calculation but may actually
represent due to following reason.
 Lateral load not considered in design.
 Live load placement not considered in design.
 Accidental lateral eccentric loads.
 Slenderness effects underestimated in desing.
 For this reason IS: 456-2000 requires every column to be designed for a min.
unsupported length lateral dimension
eccentricity (in any plan) equal to plus subjected
500 30
to min. of 20mm
𝑙 𝐷𝑥
𝔢𝔵 min → +
500 30
𝑙 𝐷𝑦
𝔢𝑦 min → +
500 30

 For non-rectangular of non-circular cross sectional shapes it is recommended that

for any given plane.
𝑙𝑒
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)
300

= 20min
 Where Le is effective length of the column in the plane considered.

 Longitudinal reinforcement: (IS: 456 pg. 48)

 Min. reinforcement:
 The c/s area of longitudinal reinforcement shall not be less than 0.8%.
 Such limit specified by code:
(a) To ensure nominal flexural resistance under unforeseen eccentricities in
loading.
(b) To prevent the yielding of the bars due to creep & shrinkage effects which
results in a transfer of load from the concrete to the steel.
 In any column that has a large c/s area than that required to support the load the
min. percentage of steel shall be based upon the area of concrete required to
resist the direct stress of & upon the actual area
In case of pedestals in which the longi. reinf. is not taken in account in strength
calculations nominal longi. reinf. not less than 0.15% of the c/s area shall be
provided.

 Maximum Reinforcement:
The max. c/s area of longi. bars should not exceed 6% of gross area of the column
section.
 Page 84

Note:- The use of 6% reinforcement may involve practice difficulties in placing of

compacting of concrete hence lower percentage is recommended.
Where bars from the column have to be lapped with those in column under
consideration the percentage of steel shall usually not exceed 4%.
Longi. bar are usually located closed to the periphery (for better flexural
resistance) but may be placed in the interior of the column when eccentricities in
loading is min.
When a larger no. of bars need to be accommodated they may be bundled or
alternatively grouped.

 Min. diameter of bars & their location:

Longi. bars in column should not be less than 12 mm in dia & should not be spaced
more than 300mm apart along the periphery of the column.
At least 4 bars (each corner) should be provided in column with rectangular c/s &
at least 6 bars (equally spaced near the periphery) in a circular column.
In column with T, L-beam & other c/s shape at least one bar should be located at
each corner.

 Cover Requirement:
A min cover of 40mm or bar dia whichever is greater.
A column whose dimension is not greater than 200mm & reinforcing bar not
exceed 12mm a minimum cover of 25mm is permitted.
However is aggressive env. it is desirable in the interest of durability to provide
increased cover but preferably not greater than 75mm.

 Transverse Reinforcement:
All longi. reinf. in a comp. member must be enclosed within transverse reinf.
comprising either lateral ties. (with internal angle not exceed 1350) or spiral this is
required .
(a) To prevent the premature buckling of individual bars.
(b) To confine the concrete in the ‘core’ improving ductility & strength.
(c) To hold the longi. bar in position during const. &
(d) To provide resistance against shear & torsion if required.

 Lateral ties:
The arrangement of lateral ties should be effective in full filling the above
requirement.
They should provide adequate lateral support to each longi. bar there by
preventing the outward movement of the bar.
 Page 85

The dia of tie is governed by requirement of stiffness rather than strength & so it
is independent of the grade of steel.
The pitch of the ties should be small enough to reduce adequately unsupported
length (slenderness ratio) of each longi. bar.

 Pitch of ties :
1) least lateral dimension
2) 16 x minimum longi. reinf. bar Which is smaller.
3) 300 mm

 Dia. of ties:
1
 x large longi. dia of reinforcement. which is greater
4
 6mm
 The min dia permitted of transverse reinforcement bar is 8mm when dia of longi.
bar is less than or equal to 32 mm and 10mm when dia of longi. bar is more than
32mm.

 Arrangement of transverse reinforcement:

If the longi. bars are not spaced more than 75mm on either side, transverse
reinforcement need only to go round corner & alternate bars for the purpose of
providing effective lateral support.
If the longi. bars spaced at a distance not exceeding 48times the dia. of the ties
are effectively tied in two direction additional longi. bars in bet those bars need
to be tied in one direction by open lies.

 Spirals:
Spiral reinf. Provide confinement to the concrete core from all direction & hence
the core is under triaxial comp. which enhances significantly the ductility of
column at ultimate load.
The dia & pitch of spiral may be compluted as in the case of ties except when the
column is designed to carry 5% overloaded as permitted by the IS cord.
Pitch of helical reinforcement.
--- Not greater than
75mm
1
x core dia of column.
6

--- Not less than

25mm
 Page 86

3 x dia of helix bar

Dia of helical rein.

1
x largest long. Reinforcement bar which is more.
4
6mm
Note: Helical rein. Column are very much suitable for earthquake resistance
structure.
IS: 456-2000 permit the enhancement of design strength by 5% for spirally reinf.
column is applicable for short column only.
IS: 456- The pitch of helical reinforcement should be such that following criteria
should be satisfied.

𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑓.𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝑣𝑏 )

𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 (𝑉𝑐 )
𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝐴𝑔
≥ 0.36 ( − 1)
𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒

 Slenderness limits for column:

1) With both end restrained unsupported length
≥ 60 × 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
2) If one end of column is restrained unsupported length ≥ 100 𝑏2⁄𝑑

NOTE:- The effective length of column in building frames given in IS: 456-2000 are based
on woods table.

 Design strength of axially loaded column:

Pu = Fcc . Ac + Fsc . Asc

= Fcc . Ag + (Fsc-Fcc) Asc
Fsc = Stress in steel.
Fcc = Stress in concrete
Ac = Area of Concrete.
Asc = Area of steel.
Ag = Gross area.

 For pure axial loading condition the design strength of short column is
𝑃𝑢 = 0.45 𝐹𝑐𝑐 . 𝐴𝑐 + 𝐹𝑠𝑐 . 𝐴𝑠𝑐
 Page 87

0.67 𝐹𝑐𝑘
𝐹𝑐𝑐 = = 0.45𝐹𝑐𝑘
1.5

𝐹𝑠𝑐 = 0.87𝑓𝑦 → 𝐹𝑒 250

= 0.790 𝑓𝑦 → 𝐹𝑒 415
= 0.746 𝑓𝑦 → 𝐹𝑒 500

 Under pure axial loading condition the design strength of short column is
𝑃𝑢 = 0.45𝐹𝑐𝑘 . 𝐴𝑐 + 0.75 𝑓𝑦 . 𝐴𝑠𝑐
= 0.45 𝐹𝑐𝑘 . 𝐴𝑔 + (0.75 𝑓𝑦 − 0.45 𝐹𝑐𝑘)𝐴𝑠𝑐
 However the code require all columns to be designed for min eccentricities in
loading hence above equation can’t be directly applied.
 Where the calculated min. eccentricity does not exceed 0.05 timer the lateral
dimension the code permit the use of above 𝑒𝑑n by reducing Pu 11%
𝑃𝑢 = 0.4 𝐹𝑐𝑘 . 𝐴𝑐 + 0.67 𝑓𝑐𝑘 . 𝐴𝑐𝑐
 The permissible load for column is increased by 1.05 timer, if helical reinf. is used
because it provided good confinement to core & enhances the ductility significantly
𝑃𝑢 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 1.05 (0.4𝐹𝑐𝑘 . 𝐴𝑐 + 0.67𝑓𝑦 . 𝐴𝑠𝑐)

Que: When min. eccentricity in columns does not exceed 0.05 times the
Lateral dimension the axial load carrying capacity is reduced by.
(A) 8% (C) 14%
(B) 11% (D) 20%
Que: For rectangular Column (b x d) with 4% steel distributed equally on
Two faces the ultimate axial force corresponding to
Min. ecc. Is (take M20 Conc. & le250 steel)
(A) 0.72 bD (C) 14.40 bD
(B) 10.00 bD (D) 17.26 bD

 𝑃𝑢 = 0.4 𝐹𝑐𝑘 . 𝐴𝑐 + 0.67 𝑓𝑦 . 𝐴𝑠𝑐

= 0.4 𝑋 20 𝑋 0.96 𝑋 𝐴𝑔
+ 0.67 𝑋 250 𝑋 0.04 𝑋 𝐴𝑔
= 14.40 𝐴𝑔
= 14.40 𝑏. 𝑑
 Page 88

 Interaction Curve:
 It can be concluded from the
interaction curve that. If load acting
on RC Column increases
continuously from Zero to Higher
magnitude the magnitudes of the
uniaxial moments that can be
allowed on the column initially
increase and then decreases .

 Slender comp. member:

 Additional moment due to slenderness of column are given by
𝑃𝐷 𝐿𝑒𝑥 2
𝑀𝑎𝑥 = ( )
2000 𝐷
𝑝.𝑏 𝐿𝑒𝑦
𝑀𝑎𝑥 = ( )2
2000 𝑏

Note:- If the strength of column is governed by tension yielding then its flexural
strength increase with increase in axial comp. forces.

Que: For the design of an axially loaded short square column a min
Eccentricity of 20mm is consider the size of column will be?
𝑙
Ans: =12 𝜄 =12d
𝑑
𝒍 𝒅 𝟏𝟐𝒅 𝒅
𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒏 = + = +
𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟎 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟎

12 × 30𝑑+500𝑑
∴ 20 =
500 𝕩 30

∴ 𝑑 = 348.83 𝑚𝑚
Que: A column is subjected to combination of loading in such a way that neutral axis
lies outside the section the strain at least compressed edge is 0.001 then the stress
at highly compressed edge is ___ X (10)-3.

(A) 1.75 (B) 4.75 (C) 2.75 (D) 3.75

 Strain at highly comp. edge

= 0.0035 – 0.75 X 𝜀 𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 0.0035 – 0.75 X 0.001
=2.75 X (10)-3
 Page 89

Note: Strength reduction Co-efficient:

 The permissible stresses in concrete & steel are reduced by a factor called
stress reduction factor(Cr)
𝑙𝑒
𝐶𝑟 = 1.25 −
48𝑑
d= least lateral dimension
→ Alternatively & more precisely
𝑙𝑒
𝐶𝑟 = 1.25 −
160𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 = least radius of gyration of column.
Que: The reduction co-efficient of a reinf. con. Column with an effective
Length of 4.8 m & size 250 X 300 mm is
4800
𝐶𝑟 = 1.25 −
48𝑋250

= 0.85
 Page 90

 Footing:

 The words footing & foundation are often used synonymously but there is a slight
diff. bet these two terms.
 By the term footing mean the actual surface which comes in direct contact to the
soil but the term foundation implies that sub structure that actually transmits the
super imposed load of the super structure & itself wt. plus soil backfill to the soil
underneath.
 IS: 456-2000 footing shall be designed to full fill the following
 Requirement:
(1) Foundation structure must be able to sustain the applied loads, moments &
induced reaction without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of soil.
(2) The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible & must be
within the permissible limits.
 Rankine min. depth of foundation.
𝑞.
𝐷𝑓 = (𝐾𝑎)2 q. = Pressure below footing
𝑟
𝑞. 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
𝐷𝑓 =
𝑟
(1+𝑠𝑖𝑛∅)2 r = wt. density of soil.

 Acc. to terzaghi
𝐵
>1 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐷
𝐵
≤1 𝑑𝑒𝑒𝑝 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐷
 IS: 1080. 1962
Min depth of foundation is 500mm. even if hard strata present at GL.
 If area of all footing exceed 50% of plinth area raft / mat foundation is provided.
 Combined footing is provided in following cases:
(1) If column are closely spaced and then isolated footing are overlapping then
combined footing is preferable.
(2) If column is placed at land boundary then its isolated footing is combined with
isolated footing of other column to get desire pressure distribution for
economical design.
 If two equally loaded columns are supported by a footing & length of footing is
restricted then rectangular footing is provided for uniform pressure distribution
on soils.
 If two unequally loaded columns are supported by a footing & length of footing is
restricted then trapezoidal footing is provided.
 Page 91

 For uniform pressure on soil below footing resultant of all loads must pass through
C.G. of plan area of footing.
 Thickness of Edge of footing: [ IS: 456 – pg. 64]
 In Reinforced & plain concrete footing the thickness at the edge shall be not less
than 150mm for footing on soil & not less than 300mm for footing on pile.
 Min % of steel:- Footing is to be treated as an inverted slab as per IS: 456-2000
the min % of steel is 0.12% of gross area with HYSD bar & 0.15 % of gross area
for M.S.
 Min. clear cover:- As per IS: 456-2000 footing must have a min cover of 50 mm
actual cover may be more than that depending on soil conditions & pressure of
harmful chemicals in the soil.
 For plain concrete pedestals, the angle bet the plane passing through the
bottom edge of pedestal and the corresponding junction edge of the column
with pedestal of the horizontal plane shall be determine from the following
expression. (IS: 456 Pg. 64)
√100𝑞0
𝑡𝑎𝑛 ∝ ≰ 0.9 +1
𝐹𝑐𝑘

qo = calculated max. bearing pressure at the base of pedestal in N/mm2

fck = characteristic strength of concrete at 28 days in N/mm2
Que: for M20 & q0 = 3N/mm2
100 ×3
𝑡𝑎𝑛 ∝ > 0.9 √ +1
20

𝑡𝑎𝑛 ∝ > 3.6

Que: M25 & q0 = 6N/mm2

100×6
ten ∝ > 0.9√ +1
25

> 4.5
 Design:
Isolated footing design is similar to that of slab i.e. design for bending & check for
shear.
 Page 92

 Bending Moment:
Critical section for B.M. is the face of column
My = q0 . A1 . ̅̅̅
𝑥1
Mx = q0 . A2 . ̅̅̅
𝑦1

For locating the critical section for shear & moments in column having circular
𝐶
/octagonal an equivalent square section is consider.
𝑆
The equivalent square must be inscribed within the perimeter of the column
section.
Ex: A square column of side a is founded on a square footing of side b. max.
B.M. on footing. If upward pressure is P.

 Shear (one way)

 Critical section for one way shear at distance d from face of column.
 Due to excessive shear a crack along short direction develops at a distance d from
the face of column.
 One way share force
 Vu = q0 × 𝐴

𝑉𝑢
Nominal shear stress =
𝐵×𝑑𝑒

 Two way or punching

shear:
 Page 93

 Critical section for punching shear shall be at a distance d/2 from the periphery of
column.
Vu = q0 A

 Nominal shear stress

𝑉𝑢
 𝜏𝑣 =
𝑝×𝑑𝑒

P= perimeter of fracture line

 Masonary footing under Masonry wall:

Critical section for B.M is half way betn center line and edge of wall for footing
under Masonary walls.

 Footing under gusset base:

 If a footing are under gusset base then critical section is developed at half way
betn the face of column (face of pedestal or wall) and gusset base.
 Page 94

 Permissible shear stress:

 When shear reinforcement is not
provided the calculated shear stress
at the critical section shall not
exceed Ks.𝜏c
Where, Ks = 0.5 + 𝛽c ≯ 1
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝛽c =
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔

 𝜏c = 0.16 √𝑓𝑐𝑘 → 𝑊𝑆𝑀 IS: 456

 = 0.25 √𝑓𝑐𝑘 → 𝐿𝑆𝑀

 Footing shall be redesign when 𝜏v > 1.5 𝜏c

 Bond:
 The critical section for checking the development length in a footing shall be
assumed,
i. All the same places as there described for B.M
ii. All other vertical places where abrupt changes at section occurs.

 Tensile Reinforcement:
 The total tensile reinforcement shall be distributed across the corresponding
resisting section as follows:
a) In one way reinforcement footing the reinforcement shall be distributed uniformly
across the full width of footing.
b) In two way reinforced square footing the reinforcement extending in each
direction shall be distrusted uniformly across the full width of footing.
c) In two way reinforced rectangular footing the reinforced in the long direction shall
be distributed uniformly across the full width of footing for reinforcement in the
short direction a central band equal to width of footing shall be marked along the
length of footing & portion of the reinf. Determined in accordance with eqn given
below shall be uniformly distributed across central band.
𝑅𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 2
=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝛽+1

𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝛽=
𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
 Page 95

 The remainder of the reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed in the outer

portions of the footing.
 Bearing pressure:
 The comp. stress in the concrete at the base of column or pedestal shall be
considered being transferred by bearing to the top of the supported pedestal or
footing.
𝐴1
 Bearing pressure on footing ≯ permissible bearing stress × √
𝐴2

𝐴1
≯ 0.45 fck √
𝐴2

 Where,
 A1 = supported area for bearing of footing
 A2 = loaded area of column base
𝐴1
√𝐴 ≯2
1

 Dowel bar is used to transfer load from column to footing.

 Max. stress in dowel bar= 0.75 fy (pg. 66)
 Min. no of dowel bar=4
 Min. area of dowel bar= 0.5% of column area
 Dia of dowel bar ≯ dia of column bar +3

NOTE:
 The under reamed piles are connected by reinforced beam known as grade beam.
 If footing directly contact to soil (exposed to weather) than min. nominal cover
should not less than 75 mm.
 Self wt. of footing is assumed as 10-15% of the axial load.
 Page 96

 BOND AND ANCHORAGE

 While analyzing and designing the reinforced concrete structures, the basic
assumption is that there is a perfect bend between concrete and steel, i.e. there is
absolutely no slippage between the concrete and steel.
 It is this bond which is responsible for the transfer of axial force from a reinforcing
bar to the surrounding concrete, thereby providing strain compatibility and
“composite action” of concrete and steel.
 If this bond is inadequate, “slipping ” of the reinforcing bar will occur, destroying full
“composite action” Hence, the fundamental assumption of the theory of flexure, viz.
plane sections remain plane even after bending, become valid in reinforced concrete
only if the mechanism of bond is fully effective.
 Sufficient bond is required between reinforcement and concrete to prevent relative
moment and proper detailing of reinforcement is required for full utilisation of
member strength without any premature failure.

 Types of Bond
1) Flexure bond
2) Anchorage bond

1. Flexure bond: it develops due to variation of BM along length of reinforcement.

a. Section (1) -- (1)

M = T  LA ------- (1)

A section (2) …. (2)

M + dM = (T + dT)  LA ------- (2)

From (ii) – (i)

dM = dT  LA ------- (3)

FBD of 𝑅⁄𝑓 =
 Page 97

fx = 0

T – (T + dT) –  (n  ) dx = 0

dT –  (n  ) dx
𝑑𝑀
=  (n  )  dx
𝐿𝐴

𝑑𝑀
  (n  )  LA
𝐿𝐴

𝑑𝑀 1
=  (n
𝑑𝑥  ) LA

𝑉
= (n  ) LA

 Value of  calculated above should be less than permissible bond strength (design
bond stress) between reinforcement and concrete.

2. Bond stress: the term bond describes the means by which the relative movement
between concrete and steel is prevented and the intensity of adhesive force is
called bond stress.
Thus, bond stress is defined as longitudinal shear stress acting on the
surface between steel and concrete.

 It depends upon:
a) Grade of concrete (fck)
b) Types of reinforcement (Ms. or HySD)
c) Types of force in bar (comp. or tension)
 As per IS: 456(pg. 43) gives the value of bond strength below:

Grade 𝑀15 𝑀20 𝑀25 𝑀30 𝑀35 ≱ 𝑀40

bd (ISH) 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.9

 In case of HYSD bar above value increase by 60%

 In case of comp. above value increase by 25%
 Page 98

Note:- for deform bar is increase by 60% This is because for deform bar. The actual
contact area of bar with concrete is taken into account which is much more than
contact area based on nominal diameter.

 For bar in comp. the above value may be increase by 25% This is because, the end
bearing of the bar helping in resisting comp. also the possibility of cracking in the
concrete is nill in comp. & hence the allowable bond stress are increase.
 HYSD bar in camp. = 1.6 × 1.25× 𝜏c = 2𝜏c
 100% value increase than mild steel in tension

Note:- In case of bond failure, the most economical way to make it safe is by
providing more number of bars of smaller dia. Instead of less number of bars of
larger dia. For same amount of steel.

 Anchorage Bond

 This bond stress develops around bar to provide proper anchorage so that
reinforcement attains its desired stress.
 In above fig. L is provided for anchorage of reinforcement only so bond stress
around the R/f in this length is anchorage bond. (no. BM variation in this portion)

 Factors effecting the bond

A. Pure adhesion
 It is due to gum like property of colloidal materials produced in the concrete
during hydration of cement.
 When a reinforce concrete structure loaded the resistance first broken is pure
adhesion.
B. Friction resistance:
Due to shrinkage in concrete there by gripping the steel.
C. Mechanical resistance:
 Page 99

Due to deformation or twisting of bar.

 This type of resistance provide by deformed bar only (not by the plains bar)
corrugations and give higher bond resistance by providing an interlock between steel
and concrete.
 In deformed bar adhesion and friction become minor elements and the bond strength
is primarily dependent on bearing of concrete against the lugs or corrugations.
(Mechanical resistance)

Note:- If bond is absent the stress at all points on straight bar would be constant as
in a string or a straight cable.

 Development Length:
 Min. length of embedment of steel bar in a concrete block so that the bond between
steel and concrete can resist the bar not coming out.
 The calculated tension or camp. In any bar at any section shall be developed on each
side of the section by appropriate development length or end anchorage by a
combination there of.
 When the required development length cannot be provided due to certain restrict or
other considerations that in that case bends hooks or mechanical anchorages are
provided to supplement with an equivalent embedment length.

 max. applied force = resistance

𝜋
𝜏c × ∅2 = 𝜏bd × 𝜋 × 𝜙 × Ld
4
𝜙𝜎𝑠
𝐿𝑑 =
4𝜏𝑏𝑑

 In the above discussion 𝜙 is defined as the nominal diameter of the bar for the plain
bars nominal diameter and actual diameter are the same.
 However for deformed bars the c/s is not perfectly circular.
 The actual area of the c/s of a deformed bar is equated with an area of a circle and
corresponding diameter of the circle is known as the normal diameter.
 Thus all through the shape of c/s of plain and deformed bars are not equal but for a
particular diameter the c/s area and mass per meter length are the same.

Que:- For M15 and Fe 415 Ld in tension.?

 Page 100

𝜙𝜎𝑠 𝜙 ×0.87 ×415

𝐿𝑑 = = = 58 𝜙
4𝜏𝑏𝑑 4 ×1.6×1

Que. A bar of 10mm dia. Is embedded in concrete for a distance of locm calculate the
max. load which the bar can take. If the bond stress is not exceed 0.6N/mm2
Max .load = 𝜏bd× 𝜋 × ∅ × Ld
= 0.6 × 𝜋 × 10 × 100
= 1.9 kN
Note:- development length for HYSD bar is more than mild steel.
The permissible bond stress for HYSD bar is more than mild steel.
The terms anchorage length is sometimes used instead of development length in
situations where the embedment portion of the bar is not subjected to any flexural
bond.

 Use of Bundled bars

 The use of bundled is permitted by the standard by using bundled bars, concrete can
be compacted properly and also the large amount of reinforcement can be made to
concentrate at a point resulting in the increase of effective depth.
 The bars may be arranged singly or in pairs in contact, or in groups of three or four
bars bundled in contact. Bundles shall not be used in a member without stirrups.
 Bundled bars shall be tied together to ensure that bars remaining together
 Bars larger than 32 mm diameter shall not be bundled except in columns. The
bundled bars are illustrated in fig.
 Page 101

 The effective perimeter of a single bar in bond is its actual perimeter. When the bars
are bundled, effective perimeter having a bond with concrete is decreased.
 Thus, total effective perimeter for a group of bars is less than the sum perimeters of
individual bars. Therefore the development length of each bar of bundled bars shall
be increased by 10% for two bars in contact, 20% for three bar in contact and 33%
for four bars in contact, yhan the individual bar.

 Curtailment of flexure Reinforcement:

 Bars of flexure tension are deemed to (should) be curtailed beyond the point. It is
No longer required. Curtailment is done after satisfying following codal Provisions.
1. Distance between theoretical cut-off point (TCP) and actual cut-off point
(ACP) should not be less than d or 12ɸ whichever is greater, except end of
simple support or end of cantilever.

2. Flexure reinforcement should not be terminate in tension Zone unless

anyone of the following conditions is satisfied.
a) The shear fore at cut-off point (ACP) should not exceed 2/3rd of shear
capacity of section
2
𝜏𝑣 ≤ (𝜏𝑐 + 𝜏𝑠) → 𝜏𝑐 + 𝜏𝑠 ≥ 1.5𝜏𝑣
3
b) If shear fore is more than 2/3rd of shear capacity at ACP then excess shear
stirrups are provided along the terminated bars for a distance 0.75d from
ACP
 Page 102

c) For 36mm or smaller dia bars, the continuing bars should provide at least
double the area required for flexure at cut-off point (ACP) and shear force
should not exceed 3/4th of shear capacity.

3
:- 𝜏𝑣 ≤ (𝜏𝑐 + 𝜏𝑠)
4
4
:- 𝜏𝑐 + 𝜏𝑠 ≥ 𝜏𝑣
3

Where,
𝜏v= nominal shear stress
𝜏c= design shear strength of concrete
𝜏s= design shear strength of steel.
 Positive Tension Reinforcement :
 At least 1/3rd of positive tension reinforcement at simple support and 1/4th of
positive tension reinforcement at continuous support should be extended along
the same face of member into the support for a distance not less than Ld/3.
 Page 103

 At simple support and at point of inflection (contra flexure). Positive tension

reinforcement should be limited to diameter such that following expression
must be satisfied.

At simple support At point of inflection

1.3Μ1 Μ1
ℒ𝒹 ≤ + ℒ𝑜 ℒ𝒹 ≤ + ℒ𝑜
𝑣 𝑣

ℒd = Development length
M1 = MR of section at mid of simple support and point of inflection respectively
V = Shear force at mid of simple support and point of inflection respectively
ℒo = For simply supported end, anchorage beyond centre of support including
Equivalent anchorage value of bend or hook and mechanical anchorage.
For point of inflection, d or 12ɸ.
Whichever is greater.

𝛭1
Note: Factor 1.3 (Increase of value of by 30%) is used for simply supported
𝑣
end to account for confinement of concrete due to comp. support reaction.
 Page 104

 Negative Tension Reinforcement :

At least 1/3rd of total reinforcement provided for total negative moment at

support should be extended beyond point of inflection for of a distance not less
than d or 12ɸ or 1/6th of clear span whichever is greater.

 Curtailment of bundled bars :

Bars in a bundled shall terminate at different points spaced apart by not less
than 40 times the bar diameter except for bundles stopping at a support.

 Anchoring reinforcing bar :

a) Anchoring bar in tension :
Deformed bars may be used without end anchorages provided that the
development length requirement is satisfied. Hook should normally be
provided for plain bars in tension.
 Anchorage value of band shall be taken as 4 times the diameter of bar for
each 450 bend subjected to a maximum of 16 times the diameter of bars.

Angle of bending 45° 90° 135° 180°(u- hook)

anchor value 4ɸ 8ɸ 12ɸ 16ɸ

 Note: in earthquake critical zone min 135° bend in stirrups is must.

 The minimum (internal turning radius “r” specified for hook is 2ɸ for plain mild
steel and 4ɸ for cold work deformed bars
 For HYSD bar maximum allowable bending is at 135°.

b) Anchorage bar in Compression :

 Page 105

The anchorage length of straight bar in comp. shall be equal to the

development length of bar in compression.

 Anchoring shear reinforcement :

a. For inclined bars

The development length shall be as for bar in tension this length shall be
measured as under:
I. in tension zone, from the end of the slopping on incined portion of the bar
and
II. In the comp. zone from the mid depth of the beam.

b. Stirrups :

° ° ° ° ° °

° ° ° ° ° °

90°-8ɸ 135°-6ɸ 180°-4ɸ

 Splicing of Reinforcement (IS : 456 pg.44)

 Splice are required when bars placed short of their required length (due to length
constrain.)
 Splice are also required due to change in dia of bars(as in column)
 Purpose of splice is to transfer effectively the axial force from the terminating bar
to the connecting bar with the same line of action of force.
 Where splice are provided in the reinforcing bar they shall as for as possible be
away from the section of maximum stress and be staggered.
 It is recommended that splice in flexural members should not be at section where
the bending moment is more than 50% of resistance and not more than half the
bars shall be spliced at a section.
 Where more than one half of the bars are spliced at a section or where splice are
made at points of maximum stress special precautions shall be taken. Such as
 Page 106

increasing the length of lap and using spirals or closely spaced stirrups around the
length of the splices.

 Lap Splices: (IS: 456 pg. 45)

 Lap splices not be used for bars larger than 32mm for larger diameter bars may be
welded, in cases where welding is not practicable lapping of bar larger than 32mm
may be permitted in which cases additional spirals should be provided around the
laped bars.
 Lap splices shall be considered as staggered. If the centre to centre distance of the
splice is not less than 1.3 times the lap length calculated below.

 For Direct tension

Lap length ≮ 2Ld max
≮ 30∅
e.g. Side wall of circular water tank.

 For bending tension

Lap length
≮ Ld max
≮ 30∅
e.g. beam

 For direct or bending cemp.

Lap length
≮ Ld max
≮ 30∅

e.g. axially loaded column axial cemp.,

cemp. in steel in beam bending cemp.

 The straight length of the lap shall not be less than 15ɸ or 200mm
 When bars of two diff. diameter are to be spliced the lap length shall be
calculated on the basis of diameter of smaller bar.
 Where lap occurs for a tension bar located at:
1. Top of a section as cast and the minimum cover is less than twice the dia. of
the lapped bar the length shall be increased by factor of 1.4
2. Corner of a section and the minimum cover to either face is less than twice
the dia. of the lapped bar or where the clear distance between adjustment lap
 Page 107

is less than 75mm or 6 time the dia. of lapped bar whichever is greater the lap
length should be increased by a factor 1.4.
 Where both condition (1) & (2) apply the lap length should be increased by a
factor of 2.

Note:- Splices in tension members shall be enclosed in spirals made of bars not
less than 6mm dia with pitch not more than 100mm.

 Strength of welds:
The following values may be used where the strength of the weld has been
proved by tests to be at great as that of the parent bar.
 Splice in Compression.
For welded splices and mechanical connection 100% of the design
strength of joined bars.
 Splice in tension
80% of the design strength of welded bars, 100% If welding is strictly
supervised bars and it at any c/s of the member not more than 20%
of the tensile reinforcement is welded.
100% of design strength of mechanical connection.
 Page 108

 Flat slab

 Slab which is directly supported on column without the use of beam.

 Need: To provide increase floor height
To permit large amount of light.
 pg 53 As per IS: 456-2000 min. thickness of flat slab is 125mm.

 Column strip:
Column strip means a design strip having a width of 0.25𝑙2 but not greater than
0.25𝑙1 on each side of the column centre line
Where 𝑙1 is the span in the direction moments are being determined measured
centre to centre of support.
𝑙2 - span transverse to𝑙1 measured centre to centre of support.
 Middle strip:
Middle strip means a design strip bounded on each of its opposite side by the
column strip.
 Panel:
Panel means that part of a slab bounded on each of its four side by the centre-
line of a column or centre line of adjecent spans.
 Drop:
Thickened part of flat slab over its supporting column is called drop.
 Function:
o The function of drop is to resist shear.
o Increase negative moment carrying capacity of slab.
o Stiffen the slab and then reduce the deflection.
o The drops when provided shall be rectangular in plan and have a length in
each direction not less than ene third of the paned length in that direction.
 Page 109

o For exterior paned the width of drop at right angles to the non-continuous
edge and measured from the centre-line of the columns shall be equal to
one-half the width of drop for interior panels.
 Column heads / Column capital:-
Enlarge portion of flat slab is called capital.
 Function:
o Increase shear strength of slab
o Reduce the moment in the slab by reducing the clear or effective span.
o Where column head are provided that portion of a column head which lies
within the largest right circular cone or pyramid that has a vertex angle of
90°.
o Dia of column head supporting the flat slab is about 0.25 time the span.

 Is: 456, pg. 56/57.

 Critical section for shear shall be at a
distance d/2 from the periphery of
the column/capital/drop panel
perpendicular to plan of slab.
 Page 110

Note: the effective width of column strip of a flat slab is taken as half the width of panel.
IS: 456, pg. 59.
The spacing of bars in a flat slab shall not exceed 2 times the slab thickness except where
a slab is of cellular or ribbed construction.
IS: 456, pg. 55.
Indirect design method of flat slab in an interior span. The total design moment shall be
distributed in the following properties:
- Negative design moments =0.65
- Positive design moments =0.35
IS: 456, pg. 57
In equivalent frame method of flat slab.
(a) At an interior support the column strip shall be designed to resist 75% of the total
negative moment in the panel at that support.
(b) At an exterior support the column strip shall be design to resist the total negative
moment in the panel at that support.
(c) For each span column strip shall be designed to resist 60% of the positive moment
in the panel.
Note: When drop panel used for find area of reinforcement the thickness of drop panel
for determination of area of reinforcement shall be the lesser of the following:
(a) Thickness of drop and
(b) Thickness of slab plus one quarter the distance between edge drop and edge
of capital.
 Page 111

 Walls

 IS: 456, pg. 61

Reinforced concrete walls subjected to direct compression or combined flexural
and direct compression.
- Minimum thickness of wall shall be 100mm
- Wall shall be assumed to be braced. If they are laterally supported by a structure
in which all the following apply:
(a) Walls or vertical braced elements are arranged in two directions so as to
provide lateral stability to the structure as a whole.
(b) Lateral forces are resisted by shear in the planes of these walls or by braced
elements.
(c) floor and roof system are designed to transfer lateral forces.
(d) Connection between the wall and the lateral supports are designed to resist
a horizontal force not less than.
(e) The simple static reaction to the total applied horizontal forces at the level
of lateral support and.
(f) 2.5% of total vertical load that the wall is designed to carry at the level of
lateral support.
 Eccentricity of vertical load (IS: 456, pg. 61)
The design of a wall shall take account of the actual eccentricity of the vertical
force subjected to a minimum value of 0.05t.
where t = thickness of section.
 Maximum effective ht. to thickness ratio. (IS: 456, pg. 61)
The ratio of effective ht. to thickness H/t shall not exceed 30.
 Critical section for shear:
The critical section for maximum shear shall be taken at a distance from the
base of 0.5 lw or 0.5 Hw which is lesser.
 Shear stress in wall (IS: 456, pg. 62)
Under no circumstance shall the nominal shear stress 𝜏vw in wall exceed 0.17
fck in limit state method and 0.12 fck in working stress method.

 Minimum requirements of reinforcement in wall:- (IS: 456, pg.63)

(a) Minimum ratio of vertical reinforcement to gross concrete area shall be.
(i) 0.0012 for deformed bar → ɸ<16mm &
fu ≥ 415N/mm2
(ii) 0.0015 for other type of bar
(iii) 0.0012 For welded wire, fabric not greater than 16mm in diameter.
(b) Vertical reinforcement shall be spaced not further apart than three times wall
thickness not 450mm.
 Page 112

(c) The minimum ratio of horizontal reinforcement to gross concrete area shall be:
(i) 0.0020 for HYSD bar ɸ ≥ 16mm
fy ≥ 415 N/mm2
(ii) 0.0025 for other type of reinforcement.
(iii) 0.0020 for welded wive fabric not larger than 10mm dia.
(d) Horizontal reinforcement shall be spaced not further apart than three times the
wall thickness nor 450mm.

Note: Wall having thickness more than 200mm the vertical and horizontal reinforcement
shall be provided in two grids one near each face of the walls.
 Page 113

 LIMIT STATE OF SERVICEABILITY

 IS Code Concept :-
 The serviceability requirement for the deflection should be such that neither the
efficiently nor appearance of structure should be affected by the deflection. Which
will occure during it’s life.
 As per IS : 456 – 2000

[A] A final deflection of horizontal members below the level of casting should not
exceed span/250.

 This is based on the reason that the user can not notice the deflection.

[B] the deflection taking plate after the construction of partitions or application of
finisher should not exceed span/350 or 20mm. which is less.

 This limit is to prevent damage to partitions or finishes.

 Quantification of deflection :-
 Total deflection = short term deflection + long term deflection.

[A] Short term deflection :-

 Short term deflection are instantaneous or immediate after applicable of load.

 Calculated by usual method of elastic deflection using short term modules of
elasticity of concrete Ec and effective moment of inertia (I) i.e. ; short term modules
of elasticity is taken as initial tangent modulus given by Ec = 5000√𝑓𝑐𝑘
 The value moment of inedtia along the span with variation in B.M.

[B] Long term deflection :-

 The long term deflection are due to creep and shrinkage effect under sustained load.

<i> due to creep :-

 The deflection due to creep is determined by considering long term modulus of

elasticity. Ece.
𝐸
 Ece = 𝑐  = creep coefficint depends on age of concrete.
1+ θ
 The presence of compression reinforcement decrease long term deflection due to
creep because bond between concrete of steel.
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 The strain in tension steel remains unaffected as it exhibits practically no creep &
concrete contributes little in resisting tension.

 Effect of shrinkage :-
 Stress due to shrinkage

 Case I :- members is free to shrink :-

 Case II :- member is not free to shrink :-

 Deflection due to shrinkage :-

 Due to presence of bottom steel. Bottom fibres shrinks less than top fibres. This
defferential shrinkage produces downward deflection. Deflection due to shrinkage
can be eliminated by providing equal % of top & bottom reinforcement.

 Codal provision for check deflection :-

 Exccet calculation of deflection & keeping it within permissible limits need lots of
calculation.
 IS : 456 provides a simplified approach to kept deflection of beam within permissible
limits.
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓
 If ratio satisfied following conditions then beam is safe in deflection.
𝑑
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Support values
Cantilever 7
Simply 20
Continuous 26
One end simply 23
supported & one end
continuous
 Above values are for span  10m
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓
 < K1 K2 K3 K4 (value)
𝑑

Where ki = modification factor.

 Modification factor for span longer than 10m (K1):-

10
K1 = [not apply for cantilever]
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 (𝑚)

 Modification factor for tension reinforcement (K2):-

𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓
 Higher the percentage of tensile steel lover is allowable ratio.
𝑑
 It means for same c/s area, if tensile steel increase deflection of member increase.
 The deflection will increase with increase in stress and so lower ratios of effective
span to the depth are needed where steep high stresses are used.

𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑞.
Fs = 0.58fy 
𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑙

 Modification factor for comp. steel (k3) :-

Doubly reinforced
 In double reinfoned beam span to effective depth ratio is modified.
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓
 As % of comp. reinforcement increase modification factor increase so also
𝑑
increase.
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 For same all other condition if comp. steel increases deflection decreses because
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓
permissible ratio increases.
𝑑

𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓
 Higher the percentage of tensile steel lower is allowable .
𝑑
 In means for same C/S after, if tensile steel increase deflection of member increase

 Modidication factor for flange beam (K4) :-

 For flange beam K2 & K3 modified as per area of section equal to bf × d.

 Since K4 is higher for rectangular section so depth requirement to satisfy

deflection criteria is less for rectangular section than flanged section. It means flange
section produces more deflection.
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Note :- From limiting deflection point of view use of high strength steel in RC beam
results in increase in depth.

Que :- The min. effective depth of a RC beam of 15m simple span deflection control
is ……………..

 For simply supported beam with 15m span

𝑙 10
= 20 ×  d = 1.125m
𝑑 15

Que :- Max. Permissible × deflection in cantilever of 10m span after erection of partition
wall is …………………
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 10000
Deflection = or 20mm smaller = or 20mm
350 350

= 28.6 mm or 20mm (smaller)

= 20mm.

Que :- For a continuous slab of 3m × 3.5m size the min. overall depth of slab to satisy
vertical deflection limit is ………….. .
𝑙𝑦 3.5
= = 1.166 < 2 two way continuous slab.
𝑙𝑥 3

𝑙 3000
= 40  D= D = 75mm.
𝐷 40

 Limit state of serviceability cracking :- [depends upon spacing]

 The control of crack can be achieved by the spacing of bar diameter as small as
possible in beam & slabs.
 IS: 456 – pg 67 surface width of cracks should not in general rxceed 0.3mm.
 Members are exposed to moisture or in contact soil or ground water an upper
limit of 0.2mm is suggested.
 For particularly aggressive environment such as ‘sever’ category assonated
surface width of cracks should not in general exceed 0.1mm.
 The horizontal distance bet two parallel main reinforling bar shall usually be not
less than greatest of the following : [pg : 45]

1. The dia of bar if the dia are equal

2. The dia of larger bar if the dia are unequal and
3. 5mm more than the nominal max size of coarse aggreagate.

However, when needle vibrations are used the horizontal distanle between bars of a
group may be reduced to two thirds the nominal max. size of coarse aggregate
 Page 118

provided that sufficient space is left between groups of bars to enable the vibrations
to be immersed.

 Maximum horizontal c/c spacing :-

Fe 250  300 mm
Fe 412  180 mm
Fe 500  150 mm

Note :- Crack width of RCC structure depends on

1. Strain of steel &

2. Shrinkage of concocte.

 Higher strain is required in high grade steel to get designed stress. So this produces
wider cracks than low gradc steel now, cumulative effect of shrinkage & strain of steel
on crack width can be reduced by providing reduced spacing of reinforcement for higher
grade.

 Arrangement of loading for maximum B.M. :-

 Case I :- For maximum sagging span moment.

 Loading should be applied on span under consideration + alternate spans.

 Case II :- Maximum hogging support moment.

 Loading should be applied on adjacent spans + alternate spans.

 Page 119

 Case III :- for max. hogging span moment.

 Loading should be applied on adjacent spans + alternate spans.

 Case IV :- for max. sagging support moment.

 Loading should be applied on next to adjacent spans + alternate spans.

 Page 120

 RETAINING WALL
 A retaining wall is a structure used to retain earth or the material and to maintain
ground surface at different elevations on either side of it.
 To release the pore water pressures develop in the backfill material during rainy
season weep holes are providing in the retaining wall.
 Weep holes shall be provided in cement stone masonry walls at spacing of about 1.5m
c/c in either direction. The size of weep holes shall be 100 mm to 150 mm PVC
(flexible) pipes & shall be embedded at 10 down from the horizontal towards valley
side to effectively drain the water from ground.
 At the top on backfill and in front of retaining wall longitudinal drains provided.
Backfilling near retaining wall is with Brocken stones, gravel or coarse sand so that
drainage in longitudinal direction is improved and water pressure on the wall is
released.

 Gravity retaining wall :-

 A gravity retaining wall is made of plain concrete or brick masonry the stability of the
wall is maintained by it’s own weight.
 It is generally made up to a height of 3m of wall.

 Cantilever retaining wall :-

 This is a most common type of retaining wall. It consist of a vertical wall (stem) heel
slab & toe slab which act as cantilever beams.

Note :- A T – shaped retaining wall mainly consist of three cantilever.

 It’s stability is maintained by the weight of the retaining wall and the weight of the
earth on the heel slab of the retaining wall.
 It is generally used when the height of wall is up to 6 mm.
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 The cantilever retaining wall resist the horizontal earth pressure as wall as other
vertical pressure by way of various components acting as cantilever.
 In T – shaped retaining wall the main reinforcement in the stem is provided on the
innerface in one direction.
 Main reinforcement in the toe of T-shape retaining wall is provided on bottom face
perpendicular to the wall.
 The main reinforcement in the heel of a T-shape R.C. retaining wall is provide on top
face perpendicular to the wall.
 Temp reinforcement (distribution steel) in the vertical slab of a T-shaped R.C.
retaining wall is provide more on front face than on inner face.

 Counterfort Retaining Wall :-

 In the counter fort retaining wall the stem and the heel slab are tied together by
counter fort at suitable interval.
 Because of provision of counter forts the vertical stem as well as the heel slab acts
as a continuous slab.
 The toe slab however acts as cantilever bending upward.
 The counter fort acts as tension member to support the stem and reduce bending
moment in it. It also provide support to the heel slab. And reduce BM in it.
 Generally counter fort are spaced at approx. H⁄2 to H⁄3 (2 to 3 m)
 H= height of retaining wall.
 The stability of the retaining wall is maintained by the weight of the earthen the base
slab and its self weight.
 Counterfort retaining wall are economical for height over about 6m.
 Page 122

 Butteress type retaining wall :-

 A buttress wall is modification of the counter fort retaining wall in which the counter
fort is called buttress are provided on the other side of the backfill.
 A buttress all is more economical than the counter fort retaining wall however the
buttresses reduced the clearance in front of the wall and therefore these wall not
commonly used.
 Buttresses acts at comp. member to support the vertical wall (stem) & reduce B.M.
in it. In also provide to toe slab & reduces B.M. in it.
 Page 123

 WIND

Wind load Pz = 0.6 Vz2

Vz = design wind speed, Pz = design wind pressure

Wind zone (basic wind speed)

33m/sec 39m/sec 44m/sec 47m/sec 50m/sec 55m/sec

Vz = Vb  K1  K2  K3  K4 , Where, K1 = Risk factor or probability factor

Depend upon

Life of structure basic wind speed

 Type of structure :-
 For 50 year life span K1 = 1
 K2 = terrain ht, & structure size factor
 K3 = topography factor  < 3 K = 1

  3 K3 = 1 to 1.36

 K4 = Cyclone factor

 Wind load on individual member.

F = (Cpe – Cpi) A  Pz

Cpe = external wind pressure coefficient.

Cpi = Internal wind pressure coefficient.

 Depends upon opening of wall.

 Small opening up to 5% of wall area

Cpi =  0.2

 Medium opening up to (5 to 20%) of wall area

Cpi =  0.5

 Large opening up to (> 20%) of wall area

Cpi =  0.7
 Page 124

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

 Guest Effectiveness Factor =
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

 Structure which does not satisfy either of following two criteria shall be examined
for dynamic effect of wind.

1. Building & closed structure with ht. to min. lateral dimension ratio more than 5.
2. Building having natural frequency in first mode < 1Hz.

 Guest factor method is critical only when wind frequency is matching with building
natural frequency.

=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=

 SHEAR WALL
 General requirement : as per IS : 13920
 Thickness ≮ 150 mm.
 Max. spacing of reinforcement shall not exceed of
𝐿
1. 𝑤
5
2. 3xtw
3. 450 mm
1
 Dia. Of bar ≯ × 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
10
 If factored shear stress in wall exceed 0.25√𝑓𝑐𝑘 or if thickness > 200 mm
reinforcement shall be provided in two curtains.
 Min. reinforcement ratio for longitudinal and transverse direction 0.0025 of gross
area in each direction (0.25%).
 Page 125

 EARTHQUAKE
 IS: 1893 : 2016
 Lateral force = Mass  Accelaration
 Total lateral force (total base shear)

Vb = Ah  W

Where, Ah = total seismic wt. of structure

Z I Sa
= × ×
2 R g

W = total seismic wt. of structure

 Seismic weight = DL + a part of LL

Live Load Part of Live Load

 3 KN/m2 25%

 3 KN/m2 50%

 Zone factor (Z) :-

Zone II III IV V
Z 0.10 0.16 0.24 0.36

Ahmedabad  zone III

Bangalore`  zone II

Mumbai  zone III

Delhi  zone IV

 Z value is based on MCF value (maximum considered earthquake value) & service life
of the structure in zone.
 𝑍⁄ is reduced the MCF value to design basic earthquake value that should be
2
considered for design life on max. intensity of earthquake expected at least once during
the design life of the structure.

 Importance factor (I) :-

 For normal building like residential building I = 1.
 For important building i.e. school, hospital I = 1.5.
 As per IS : 1893 : 2016, for residential of commercial buildings with occupancy more
than 200 person importance factor I = 1.2.
 Page 126

 Response Reduction Factor (R) :-

 Ordinary RC moment resisting france – 3.
 Special RC moment resisting frame – 5
 Unreinforced masonry (load bearing) – 1.5.
 Reinforced Masonry – 2.5.
 Ordinary RC shear wall – 3.
 Ordinary RC shear wall with OMRF – 3.
 Ordinary RC shear wall with SMRF -4.
 Ductile shear wall with OMRF – 4.5.
 Ductile shear wall with SMRF – 5.

 Average response accelaraiton coefficient 𝑺𝒂⁄𝒈 :-

 Depends upon type of soil, time period, height and base dimension of building.

 Time period (T) :-

1. For moment resisting frame without brick in fill.

T = 0.075 h 0.75  RCC

= 0.085 h 0.75  Steel

2. For moment resisting frame with brick in fill.

0.09 ℎ
T=
√𝑑

Where, h = height of building

D = base dimension along the considered direction of lateral force.

 Mass Irregularity :-
 In old code mass variation of any floor with respect to near floor was allowed 200%
which has been reduced to 150% in new code.

 Vertical Geometric Irregularity :-

 In old code variation of horizontal dimension of lateral load resisting system was
allowed up to 150% which has been restricted in new code up to 125%.
 Damping Ratio :-
 2%  for old code
 5%  for new code

Note :- The structure should be designed as strong column weak beam theory and
strong footing weak column theory.
 Page 127

 WATER TANK

 IS : 3370 – 2009

 Exposure condition :-
 For the purpose of this standard parts of the structure retaining the liquid or enclosing
the space above the liquid shall be considered as subjected to ‘sever’ condition as per
IS : 456 In case of member exposed to ‘very sever’ or ‘extreme’ conditions the relevant
provision of IS : 456 shall apply.

 Min cement content max wc ratio. Min grade of cencrote :-

Concrete min cement max w/c min. grade of

content concrete
PCC 250 0.50 M20
RCC 320 0.45 M30
PSC 360 0.40 M40

Note :- For small capacity tanks up to 50m3 at location where there is difficulty in
providing M30 grade concrete, the min. grade of concrete may be taken as M25.
However, this exception shall not apply in coastal areas.

 Max. cement content :-

 For RCC & PSC the cement content not including fly ash, and ground granulated
blast furnace slag in excess of 400kg/m3 should not be used unless special
consideration has been given in design to the increased risk of cracking due to drying
shrinkage in thin section. Or to early thermal cracking & to increased risk of damage
due to alkali silica reactions.

 Nominal cover to reinforcement :-

 The min. nominal cover to all reinforcement shall be as per IS : 456 for relavant
exposure condition. i.e. sever condition  45mm.

 Method of crack control in water tank :-

 Concrete used should have low permeability.
 Use of porous oggregate shall be avoided.
 The most imp. Factor affecting drying shrinkage is the amount of water per unit of
concrete. Water can be reduced by use of both plastizer admixture and by using min.
amount of cement consistent with quality. The concrete mix should have the largest
particles coarse aggregates as this will reduce the cement content
 In cases where structure under construction are exposed to high wind, high temp & low
humidity, adequate measure shall be taken for protection from surface drying such as
 Page 128

covering concrete surface by polythelene sheets curing shall be done for at least 14
days. Small size bars with less spacing shall be provided.
 Cracking of concrete can be to some extent controlled by slow filling of the tank first
time. The rate of filling shall not be more than 1m per 24hrs.
 Risk of cracking shall be minimized by reducing the restrain on the free expansive or
construction of the structure.
 Member may be design by allowing tensile stress.

 Limit state method :-

 The max. Calculated surface width of cracks for direct tension & flexure or restrained
temperature & moisture effects shall not exceed 0.2mm with specified cover. (No crack
is permitted in water retained face.)
 Crack width for reinforced concrete members in direct tension & flexural tension may
be deemed to be satisfactory. If steel stress under service conditions does not exceed
115N/mm2 for plain bars & 130 N/mm2 for HYSD bar.

 Working stress design :-

 It is based on adequate resistance to cracking & adequate strength.
280
 Modular ratio, m =
3.𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐

cbc = permissible stress in concrete. In bending compression.

 In calculation of stress for flexure, direct tension or combination of both to resistance

to cracking, the whole ×– section of concrete including the cover together with the r/f
can be taken into account provided the tensile stress in concrete is within the
permissible limit.
 In strength calculation, the tensile strongth of concrete is neglected.

 Permissible stress on concrete :-

1. Resistance to cracking :-

Permissible concrete stresses:-

Grade direct tension bending tension

M25 1.3 1.8
M30 1.5 2.0

2. Strength calculation :-

Grade direct tension bending

tension
M25 6 8.5
M30 8 10
 Page 129

 Permissible stress in steel :-

1. Resisitance ro cracking :-

Tensile stress in steel = m  permissible strength tenile of concrete.

2. Strength calculation :-

Type of stress in Mild steel HYSD bar

steel
Tensile stress in 115 130
membersUnder
direct
tensionBending &
shear
Comp. stress in 125 140
column Sub. To
direct load

 Members subjected to axial tension & B.M. for un cracked section.

 It is checked for following eqn.

𝜎𝑐𝑡 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑡
𝜎𝑐𝑡
+
𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑡
 1

ct = cal. Direct tensile stress in concrete.

ct = permissible direct tensile stress in concrete.
cbt = cal. Tensile stress due to bending in concrete.
cbt = permissible tensile stress due to bending in concrete.

 Min R/f :-
 The min r/f in walls, floor & roof slab in each of the two direction at right angle within
each surface zone shall be more than 0.35% of surface zone (for HYSD) & 0.64% of
the surface zone (for MS).
 The min r/f may be reduced to 0.24% for HYSD & 0.4% for MS bar, when max
dimension of the tank is less than 15m.
 In walls of less than 200mm thick, the calculate r/f may be placed in one face.
 In ground slab with less than 300 mm thickness, the calculated r/f shall be placed in
one face as near as possible to the upper surface with appropriate cover.
 For liquid faces of parts of member either in contact with the liquid or enclosing space
above the liquid. The min cover (clear) to all r/f should be 45 mm. (sever exposure
condition).
 The r/f spacing shall not exteed 300 mm or the thickness of section, whichever is less.
 The min r/f is based on effective distribution of crack.
 Page 130

 The critical steel ratio i.e. the min ratio of steel area to gross are of the whole
concrete section required to distribute the crack is
𝑓𝑐𝑡
ct = when fct → permissible direct tensile stress in immature concrete.
𝑓𝑦
ct = critical steel ratio
𝐴𝑠𝑡
=
𝑏.𝐷

Grade M25 M30 M35

fct 1.15 1.30 1.45
Mpa Mpa Mpa