Springs

UNIT 13 SPRINGS
Structure
13.1 Introduction
Objectives
13.2 Close Coiled Helical Springs
13.2.1 Spring Subjected to Axial Load
13.2.2 Spring Subjected to Axial Couple

13.3 Open Coiled Helical Springs

13.3.1 Spring Subjected to Axial Load
13.3.2 Spring Subjected to Axial Couple

13.4 Compound Springs

13.5 Leaf Springs
13.6 Summary
13.7 Answers to SAQs

13.1 INTRODUCTION
Springs are generally used to control shocks and vibrations. These are adopted in
automobiles and railway buffersete. They are classified as helical springs and leaf
springs. Helical springs are formed by coiling a wire into a helix. When the helix angle is
less than 18o, it is called as close coiled helical springs. When the helix angle is
significant it is known as open coiled helical springs.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• understand the different types of springs,
• find the stresses, deflection and stiffness of springs, and
• design the springs.
Definitions
Proof Load
The maximum load the spring can carry without failure.
Proof Stress
The stress in the spring under proof load.
Proof Resilience
The strain energy stored in the spring under proof load.
Spring Constant
It is the stiffness of the spring. It is the load per unit deflection : units
are N/m.

13.2 CLOSE COILED HELICAL SPRINGS

A helical spring is formed by winding a wire in the form of a circular cylindrical helix.
These may be subjected to axial load or torsional loads. The angle made by the coil with
the horizontal is known as helix angle (α). If α is less than 18, it is known close coiled
helical springs.
161
Stresses in Shafts and Shells Each coil can be regarded as lying in a plane at right angle to axis of the helix. The wire
that makes close coiled helical spring is under torsion.
13.2.1 Spring Subjected to Axial Load
Let us consider a close coil helical spring subjected to axial load W.
Let R = Mean coil radius,
D = Mean coil diameter,
d = Wire diameter,
n = Number of coil,
l = Length of the wire,
α = Helix angle, and
Δ = Axial deflection.
W

+ =
α
A A
T = WR
R 4w 16 T
τ1 = τ1 = τm = τ1 + τ2
πd πd
2 3
W

(b) (c) (d) (e)

(a)
Figure 13.1 : Close Coiled Helical Spring under Axial Load

Figure 13.1(a) shows a helical spring schematically. The force W acts along axis of the
spring. Though in practice the axis can assume any position, for convenience it is
regarded vertical AA represents a horizontal plane. α is the helix angle which is made by
a coil with the horizontal plane. The angle is exaggerated in the figure. It is actually
smaller. In practice, the close coiled helical carrying tensile load have their coils touching
each other. The compression springs may have some clearance between the coils.
Figure 13.1(b) shows the spring lower portion cut after second coil, thus, the spring wire
section, which is circular is exposed. In a close coiled spring a normal on the section will
be horizontal. It may be pointed out that if spring is open coiled then the section cut by a
vertical plane will not be a circle but a larger section. The Figure 13.1(c) is free body
diagram on which an upward force W is axial and is balanced by a downward force W on
the section in its plane and a moment T = W R acting on the section about its axis.
Moment, T = W . R . . . (13.1)
From Figure 13.1(b),
As explained earlier, T may have two components :
W R cos α and W R sin α
But since α is small sin α→ 0 and cos α → 1.
Hence, T=WR . . . (i)
But a direct shearing force W is also acting upon the wire section.

162
Thus, the wire section is subjected to direct shearing stress τ1 and torsional shearing Springs
stress τ2. The distributions of τ1, τ2 and resultant stress τm = τ1 + τ2 are shown in
Figure 13.1(c).
4W
τ1 =
πd2

16T
τ2 =
πd3

16 ⎛ Wd ⎞
∴ τm = 3 ⎜
WR + ⎟
πd ⎝ 4 ⎠

16WR ⎛ d ⎞
= 3 ⎜
1+ ⎟
πd ⎝ 4R ⎠

16WR ⎛ d ⎞
or, τm = 3 ⎜
1+ ⎟ . . . (13.2)
πd ⎝ 2D ⎠

d
In such cases where d < < D, may be neglected in comparison with 1. There
2D
16WR
τm = . . . (13.3)
πd3

Otherwise τm is expressed as
16WR
τm = K . . . (13.4)
πd3

where K is stress concentration factor on the inside of the coil. K is also called Whal’s
factor.

⎛ d ⎞
K = ⎜1 + ⎟ . . . (13.5)
⎝ 2D ⎠
Deflection
Under the axial load the free end of the spring will move vertically down. The
amount by which the free end moves is called the deflection of the spring, denoted
by Δ. Apparently the free end moves because of twist in the wire of the spring
which can be regarded as a shaft of length l,
l = 2π R n . . . (13.6)

where n = Number of coils.

The amount by which the open section of wire will move down is R × twist.
T Gθ Tl
The angle of twist of length l from = is θ = and substituting for l from
J l GJ
Eq. (13.6)
π 4
J = d and T = WR
32

2WR 2 n π × 32 64W R 2 n
θ= =
G πd4 Gd4

∴ Δ=Rθ
163
Stresses in Shafts and Shells 64WR3 n
or Δ= . . . (13.7)
Gd4
Strain energy stored in spring
1
U = W Δ
2
32W 2 R3 n
or U = . . . (13.8)
Gd4
It may be good to check that strain energy per unit volume
τ22
u= . . . (13.9)
4G
πd2
(Divide Eq. (13.8) by volume = × l ).
4
Stiffness is defined as load per unit deflection i.e.
W
K=
Δ
Gd4
or K= . . . (13.10)
64 R3 n

13.2.2 Spring Subjected to Axial Couple

Let us consider a close coiled helical spring subjected to a couple M shown in
Figure 13.2(a). Two components maybe considered if α = angle of helix.
Mt = M cos α
T = M sin α
Out of these T → 0 as sin α → 0, since α is small. But Mt → M since cos α → 1. Hence,
the spring is subjected to a torque about axis, of magnitude M. The effect of M will be to
wind or unwind the coil of the spring, resulting into increase or decrease in radius of the
coil. This effectively is the bending of the rod of the spring.
M

Figure 13.2

Let us say due to M acing on the spring, the radius of the coil changes from R to R′. The
BM from theory of bending is given by
⎛1 1⎞
M = EI ⎜ − ⎟ . . . (13.11)
⎝ R′ R ⎠
This twisting of the spring (not the twisting of spring rod) or bending of the rod of the
spring will change the number of turns from n to n′ while length l will remain same.
Note l = 2π n R = 2π n′ R ′

1 1 2π
∴ − = (n′ − n) ...
R′ R l
(i)
164
Use (i) in Eq. (13.11) to find Springs

2π EI (n − n′)
M = . . . (13.12)
l
You would remember that E = modulus elasticity of spring material and I = moment of
inertia for rod section. The total twist in the spring or rotation
φ = 2 π ( n′ − n ) . . . (13.13)
Hence, from Eq. (13.12)
Ml
φ= . . . (13.14)
EI
M 2π n R 128 n M R
or φ= = . . . (13.15)
⎛ π⎞ 4 E d4
E⎜ ⎟d
⎝ 64 ⎠
The rod of the spring is subjected to BM
32 M
∴ Bending stress σ = . . . (13.16)
πd3
Strain energy in bending
M2l 1
U = = Mφ . . . (13.17)
2 EI 2

If U is divided by volume of the rod, the strain energy per unit volume.
σ2
u= . . . (13.18)
8E

(Check above equation by dividing).

Example 13.1
A close coiled helical spring is made of 6 mm diameter wire. The coil diameter is
80 mm, number of coil is 10. If the maximum stress in the spring is not to exceed
180 MPa, determine
(a) the proof load, and
(b) the extension of the spring.
Take G = 80 GPa.
Solution
Proof load is the load corresponding to maximum shearing stress in spring wire.
D
d = 6 mm, D = 80 mm, R = = 40 mm , n = 10, τmax = 180 N/mm 2 , G = 80 GPa
2
d 6
Check = = 0.0167
2 D 2 × 180
Hence, K=1
πd3
(a) Proof load, W = τmax .
16 R

π (6)3
= 180 × = 191 N
16 × 40
165
Stresses in Shafts and Shells 64 W R3 n
(b) Extension, Δ =
Gd4

64 × 191 × 403 × 10
= = 75.5 mm
80 × 103 × 64
Example 13.2
For a close coiled helical spring subjected to an axial load of 200 N having
10 coils of wire of diameter 18 mm and made with coil diameter of 200 cm, find
(a) strain energy stored,
(b) axial deflection, and
(c) maximum shear stress in the wire.
Take G = 80 GN/m2.
Solution
D
W = 200 N, n = 10, d = 8 mm, D = 20 cm = 200 mm, R = = 100 mm
2
d
Neglecting effect of direct shear since < < 1.
2D

64 W R3 n
Axial deflection, Δ =
Gd4

64 (200) (100)3 (10)

= = 15.24 mm
(80 × 103 ) (18) 4
1
Strain energy, = W Δ
2
1 ⎛ 15.24 ⎞
= × 200 × ⎜ ⎟ = 1.524 N-m
2 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
16 W R
Maximum shear stress, τmax =
πd3
16 (200) (100)
= = 17.5 N/mm 2
π (18) 3

Example 13.3
A close coiled helical spring has mean diameter of 80 mm, has spring constant of
100 kN/m. It has 10 coils. The maximum shear stress is 200 MPa. What is
diameter of spring wire? What is the maximum load the spring can carry?
Take G = 80 GPa.
Solution
80
D = 80 mm, R = = 40 mm , k = 100 kN/m, n = 10
2
64 W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4

W Gd4
=
Δ 64 R3 n

166
 Springs
(80 × 103 ) d 4
100 = ∴ d = 15 mm
64 (40)3 (10)
16 W R
τmax =
πd3
16 W × 40
200 = ∴ W = 3313.4 N = 3.3 kN
π (15)3
Example 13.4
A close coiled helical spring has a stiffness of 1 kN/m in compression with a
maximum load of 50 N and a maximum shearing stress of 150 N/mm2. The solid
length of the spring is 45 mm. Find the wire diameter, mean coil radius, and
number of coils. Take G = 40 GPa.
Solution
W = 50 N, k = 1 kN/m = 1 N/mm, τmax = 150 N/mm2, solid length = 45 mm, d = ?,
R = ?, n = ?
Use Eq. (13.10) for stiffness
W Gd4
k= =
Δ 64 R3 n

(40 × 103 ) d 4
or 1=
64 R3 n

R3 n
∴ = 625 . . . (1)
d4
Use Eq. (13.3) for maximum shearing stress with K = 1
16 W R
τmax =
πd3
16 × 50 × R
or 150 =
π d3
R
∴ = 0.6 . . . (2)
d3
or R = 0.6 d3
Note solid length of spring is length when all coils are touching each other, so that
n d = 45
45
n= . . . (3)
d
Use R from Eq. (2) and n from Eq. (3) in Eq. (i)
⎛ 45 ⎞ 1
(0.6 d 3 )3 ⎜ ⎟ 4 = 625
⎝d ⎠d
or d 4 = 64.3
∴ d = 2.83 mm
From Eq. (3)
45
n= = 15.9 (say 16)
2.83
R = 0.6 d 3 = 0.6 (2.83)3 = 13.6 mm
167
Stresses in Shafts and Shells Example 13.5
A close coiled helical spring has to extend by 120 mm under an axial force of 1200
N. If mean coil radius is 40 mm and maximum shear stress is 300 MPa, find the
wire diameter, number of coils and length of the spring. Take G = 80 GPa.
Solution
Δ = 120 mm, W = 1200 N, R = 40 mm, τmax = 300 MPa ,
G = 80 GPa = 80 × 103 N/mm2, d = ?, n = ?, l = ?
Use Eq. (13.3) for maximum shearing stress
16W R
τmax =
πd3

16 × 1200 × R
or 300 =
πd3

R
∴ 3
= 0.049 or R = 0.049 d 3 . . . (1)
d
40
or d = 9.35 mm . . . (2)
0.049
From Eq. (13.7)

64 W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4

6 4 × 1200 × R3 n
∴ 120 =
80 × 103 × d 4

R3 n
or = 125
d4
Using values of R and d,

403 × n
= 125
9.354
∴ n = 14.9 ; 15

l=2πRn
= 2 π (40) (15)
= 3770 mm
Example 13.6
A close coiled helical spring has to absorb 100 N-m of energy when compressed to
10 cm. The coil diameter is 10 times the wire diameter. The number of coils is 12.
Find the diameter of wire, mean radius and the maximum shear stress.
Take G = 80 GPa.
Solution
Remember from Section 13.2.1
1
U= W Δ
2
168
 1 Springs
∴ 100 × 103 = × W × 100
2
∴ W = 2000 N
D = 10 d or R = 5 d
G = 80 GPa = 80 × 103 MPa = 80 × 103 N/mm2

6 4 W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4

6 4 × 2000 × (5d )3 × 12
∴ 100 =
(80 × 103 ) d 4

or d = 24 mm
R = 5d = 5 × 24 = 120 mm

16 W R 16 × 2000 × 120
τmax = = = 88.4 N/mm 2
πd 3
π (24)3

Example 13.7
Design a close coiled helical spring which will deflect 100 mm under a load of 600
N. The radius of the coil is 6 times the wire diameter. The maximum shear stress is
not to exceed 8 MPa. G = 80 GPa. What suddenly applied load will elongate the
spring by 100 mm?
Solution

Δ = 100 mm, W = 600 N, R = 6d, τmax = 80 N/mm 2 ,

G = 90 GPa = 80 × 103 N/mm2
16 W R
τmax =
πd3

16 × 600 × (6d )
⇒ 80 =
πd3

∴ d = 15.14 mm
R = 6d = 90.84 mm

64 W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4

64 × 600 × 90.843 × n
⇒ 100 = = n = 14.6
(80 × 103 ) (15.14)4

A suddenly applied load will cause double the stress caused by same load if
applied gradually. Hence, in this case if same stress is to be induced in spring wire
W 600
cross-section by suddenly applied load it will be = = 300 N .
2 2
Example 13.8
A close coiled helical spring deflects 25 mm under a certain axial load. Find the
deflection of the second spring under the same load if the effective length of the
wire is same but the diameter of coils is 20% greater and that of the wire is 10%
greater.
169
Stresses in Shafts and Shells Solution
64 W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4
R2 = 1.20 R1, d2 = 1.1 d1
l1 = l2
G and W are same for two springs.
If we call two springs 1 and 2 then they have the same length but different coil
radius and number of coils
∴ l1 = l2 or 2π R1 n1 = 2π R2 n2
But R2 = 1.2 R1 (20% greater)
n1
∴ R2 n1 = 1.2 R1 n2 or = 1.2
n2
Take the ratio of deflections of two springs
3
⎛ Δ 2 ⎞ ⎛ R2 ⎞ ⎛ n2 ⎞ ⎛ d14 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ . ⎜ ⎟ . ⎜⎜ 4 ⎟⎟
⎝ Δ1 ⎠ ⎝ R1 ⎠ ⎝ n1 ⎠ ⎝ d 2 ⎠
3 4
⎛ Δ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 1.20 R1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ d1 ⎞
4
(1.2)2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
⇒ ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = . ⎜ ⎟ = 0.984
⎝ 25 ⎠ ⎝ R1 ⎠ ⎝ 1.20 ⎠ ⎝ 1.1 d1 ⎠ (1.2) ⎝ 1.1 ⎠
∴ Δ 2 = 0.984 × 25 = 24.59 mm
Example 13.9
A close coiled helical spring has a stiffness of 10 N/mm. Its length when fully
compressed, with adjacent coils touching each other is 400 mm. G = 80 GPa.
(a) Determine the wire diameter and the mean coil radius, if their ratio
is 0.02.
(b) If the gap between any two adjacent coils is 2 mm, what maximum
load can be applied before the adjacent coils touch?
(c) What is the corresponding maximum shear stress in spring?
Solution
k = 10 N/mm, nd = 400 mm, G = 80 GPa = 80 × 103 N/mm 2 , d = ?, R = ?,
d
= 0.02 ∴ R = 5d , Gap = 2 mm, W = ?, τmax = ?
R
W Gd4
(a) k= =
Δ 64 R3 n

W Gd4
∴ =
Δ 64 R3 n

80 × 103 × d 4
or 10 =
⎛ 400 ⎞
64 (5d )3 . ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d ⎠
∴ d = 20 mm
R = 5d = 5 × 20 = 100 mm
400 400
n= = = 20
d 20
170
 (b) Gap between adjacent coils = 2 mm Springs

Total gap = 2n = 2 × 20 = 40 mm, i.e. spring has to deflect 40 mm if coils

are to touch each other.
64 W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4

64 × W × 1003 × 20
∴ 40 =
80 × 103 (20)4
or W = 400 N
16 W R 16 × 400 × 100
∴ τmax = = = 25.5 N/mm 2
πd 3
π (20) 3

Example 13.10
A vehicle weighing 28 kN and running at 2.5 m/sec is to be brought to rest by a
buffer springs. Find the number of springs required to absorb the kinetic energy if
n = 20
Compression of each spring = 200 mm
Diameter of wire = 30 mm
Radius of coil = 100 mm
G = 80 GPa
Solution
1 1 ⎛ 28 × 103 ⎞
KE = mV 2 = ⎜ ⎟⎟ × 2.5 = 8919.5 N-m
2
2 ⎜
2 ⎝ 9.81 ⎠

64 W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4

64 × W × 1003 × 20
⇒ 200 =
(80 × 103 ) × (30)4
∴ W = 10125 N
1 1 200
For one spring, U = W Δ = × 10125 × = 1012.5 N-m
2 2 1000
KE 8919.5
∴ Numbers of springs, N = = = 8.8 ; 9.0
U 1012.5
Example 13.11
A close coiled spring is subjected to an axial moment of 16 N-m. If the spring has
15 coils with wire diameter of 10 mm and mean coil radius of 10 cm. Find :
(a) the strain energy stored,
(b) maximum bending stress, and
(c) axial twist.
Take E = 200 GN/m2.
Solution
M = 16 N-m = 16 × 103 N-mm , n = 15, d = 10 mm, R = 100 mm,
π 4 π
l = 2 π R n = 2π × 100 × 15 = 9434.8 mm , I = d = (10)4 = 490.9 mm 4
64 64
171
Stresses in Shafts and Shells M2l (16 × 103 )2 × 9424.8
(a) U = = = 12287.4 N-m = 12.3 N-m
2 EI 2 × (200 × 103 ) (490.9)

32 M 32 × 16 × 103
(b) σ= = = 163 N/mm 2
πd 3
π × 10 3

1
(c) U= M φ
2
1
⇒ 12.3 = × 16 × φ
2
∴ φ = 1.54 rad
Example 13.12
A close coiled helical spring of circular section extends 1 mm when subjected to
an axial load of W and then given an angular rotation of 1 radian when a moment
M
M is independently applied about the axis. Find the ratio .
W
Solution
For a close coiled spring :
64 W R3 n
Δ= (Δ = 1 mm)
Gd4

Gd4
∴ W = . . . (1)
64 R3 n
128 M R n
φ=
Ed4

Ed4
∴ M = . . . (2)
128 R n
Eq. (2) divided by Eq. (1), we get
M E d4 64 R3 n
= ×
W 128 R n Gd4
E 2
= R E = 2 G (1 + ν )
2G
M
= R 2 (1 + ν)
W
Example 13.13
A circular rod of diameter d and length l is fixed at one end and a torque T applied
at the other. Now, if a close coiled helical spring is made of the same rod and
applied same moment T about the axis, determine ratio of strain-energy stored.
E = 200 GPa; G = 80 GPa.
Solution
Circular Rod
J = 2I
Tl
θ=
GJ
172
 Springs
T2l Tl
U1 = = . . . (1)
2G J 4G I

Helical Spring
Ml Tl
φ= =
EI EI

1 T2l
U2 = M φ= . . . (2)
2 2E I

U1 E 200
= = = 1.25
U 2 2 G 2 × 80

SAQ 1
(a) A weight of 200 N falls freely from a height of 600 mm on a close coiled
helical spring which is compressed by 120 mm under the impact. Find the
instantaneous stress produced by the impact and the number of coil if wire
diameter is 25 mm and mean coil radius is 100 mm. G = 80 GPa.
(b) A trolley of weight 20 kN and moving at 3.6 kmph has to be brought to rest
by a buffer spring. Find how many springs each of 12 coils will be required
to store the KE for compression of 120 mm. Wire diameter = 20 mm, mean
coil radius = 100 mm. G = 80 GPa.
(c) Find the maximum possible load a close coiled helical spring can carry if it
is made out of 6 mm × 6 mm square root with 10 coils of 40 mm mean
radius, if the maximum shearing stress is limited to 70 N/mm2. Find the
deflection of the load. G = 80 GPa.
(d) A close coiled helical spring is subjected to an axial moment of 15 N-m. If
the spring has 10 coils with wire diameter of 16 mm and mean coil radius of
150 mm, find
(i) the strain energy stored,
(ii) maximum bending stress in the wire, and
(iii) axial twist.
Take E = 200 GPa.
(e) Two close coiled helical springs are made from the same wire of a same
diameter, one wound on a 30 mm radius core and the other on a 15 mm
radius core. Calculate the ratio of spring coefficients of both the springs if
each has 10 coils.
(f) A close coiled helical spring is made up of 6 mm diameter steel rod having
12 coils with 45 mm mean radius. If the spring is subjected to 1 N-m,
determine the bending stress and increase in the number of turns.
Take E = 200 GPa.
(g) Determine the poisson’s ratio if mean radius of coil is 30mm, a load of 80 N
extends the spring by 80 mm and a torque of 1.2 N-m produces an angular
π
rotation of radians.
3
(h) A close coiled helical spring is required to just slide over a bar of 30 mm
diameter. The spring is to carry a maximum load of 500 N and deflect under
this load by 2 mm. The shear stress is limited to 25 MPa and G = 80 MPa.
Find diameter of wire, mean coil radius, and number of coils.
173
Stresses in Shafts and Shells (i) A close coiled helical spring is used to connect two shafts which transmit
2.4 kN of power at 200 rpm. Calculate the maximum normal stress and
wind-up angle in the spring. The diameter of the wire = 10 mm. Mean radius
= 30 mm. E = 200 GPa. Numbers of coils = 10.
(j) If two close coiled helical springs of same material are subjected to same
axial load, find the ratio of deflection for the same length of wires for the
two springs.
(k) Design a close coiled helical spring which coil deflect 100 mm under a load
of 500 N. The mean radius is 5 times the wire diameter, maximum shear
stress is not to exceed 60 MPa and G = 80 GPa. What suddenly applied load
will elongate the spring by 100 mm?

13.3 OPEN COILED HELICAL SPRINGS

In these, the coils of the spring are not close to each other. The angle of helix is greater
than 18.
13.3.1 Spring Subjected to Axial Load
Let us consider an open coiled helical spring subjected to axial load as in Figure 13.3(a).
The geometry is defined by R, d and α. These and other properties are defined below.
R = Mean radius of the coil.
d = Diameter of the wire,
n = Number of coils,
α = Angle of helix,
G = Modulus of rigidity,
Δ = Axial deflection of the spring, and
θ = Angle of twist.
An axial force, W acts along the axis. The lowest coil is cut by a vertical plane through
the axis, exposing a section AB of the wire. Due helix angle α being considerable
(> 180o) AB, which is shown enlarged in Figure 13.3(b) is not a circle. The circular cross-
section is inclined at α to AB and shown as AO′C in Figure 13.3(b). Note that normal to
AB makes an angle α with normal to AC. Thus, three lines
(a) normal to section AB,
(b) normal to cross-section AC, and
(c) vertical axis of cross-section AC passing through its centre O′, are in the
same plane.
The effect of axial W is to cause a moment T = W R about normal to AC. This moment is
broken into two components, shown in Figure 13.3(c), viz. :
(a) W R cos α about axis which is perpendicular to the cross-section of the wire,
and
(b) moment W R sin α about AO′C, a vertical axis of the cross-section and
parallel to spring axis.
Thus, apparently, an axial load W, on an open coil helical spring has dual effect of
174
 (a) twisting the spring wire and inducing torsional shearing stress due to torque Springs
W R cos α, and
(b) bending the spring wire and inducing bending stress due to BM W R sin α.
Both torque and BM will cause axial deflection.
W
R` A A
WR
α WR
O′
d α
O O′
α B
C
C
WR Cos α WR Sin α

WR A
α C
B
α

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 13.3 : Open Coiled Helical Spring Subjected to Axial Load

Moment, M = W . R . . . (13.19)
Moment about the axis of the spring, (bending moment)
Mb = WR sin α . . . (13.20)
Moment about normal to the wire cross-section, (Torque)
T = WR cos α . . . (13.21)
Total length of the spring,
2πRn
l= . . . (13.22)
cos α
Work done by axial load,
1
WΔ . . . (13.23)
2
Strain energy due to bending,

M b2 l
U1 = . . . (13.24)
2E I
Strain energy due to torque,
T2l
U2 = . . . (13.25)
2G J
Total strain energy,
U = U1 + U 2

M b2 l T2l
= +
2 E I 2G J

(W 2 R 2 sin 2 α ) l (W 2 R 2 cos 2 α) l
= +
2E I 2G J

W 2 R 2 l ⎡ sin 2 α cos 2 α ⎤
U = ⎢ + ⎥ . . . (13.26)
2 ⎣⎢ E I G J ⎦⎥

This strain energy should be equal to the external work done.

175
Stresses in Shafts and Shells
1 W 2 R2 l ⎡ sin 2 α cos 2 α ⎤
∴ WΔ= ⎢ + ⎥
2 2 ⎢⎣ E I G J ⎥⎦

⎡ sin 2 α cos 2 α ⎤
⇒ Δ = W R2 l ⎢ + ⎥
⎢⎣ E I G J ⎥⎦

⎛ 2πRn ⎞ ⎡ sin 2 α cos 2 α ⎤

= W R2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎢ + ⎥ . . . (13.27)
⎝ cos α ⎠ ⎢⎣ E I G J ⎥⎦

π 4 π 4
I= d ; J = d
64 32
Substituting the values of I and J into the Eq. (13.26), we can get

64 W R 3 n sec α ⎡ 2sin 2 α cos 2 α ⎤

Δ= ⎢ + ⎥ . . . (13.28)
d4 ⎣⎢ E G ⎦⎥

Both W R cos α (T) and W R sin α (Mb) will cause rotation of the coil also.
13.3.2 Spring Subjected to Axial Couple
Consider an open coiled helical spring subjected to an axial couple ‘T’ as shown in
Figure 13.4.
T

Figure 13.4

Consideration similar to these in Section 13.2.2 will show that an axial torque will have
two components T sin α and T cos α. Out of these the former is the torque which twists
the spring wire, while the latter is the BM which bends the spring wire.
Bending moment component,
M b = T cos α . . . (13.29)

This changes the curvature of coils.

Torque component,
T1 = T sin α . . . (13.30)

This causes the twist in the wire.

Let φ = angle of twist at the free end of the spring, caused by axial torque, T
1
∴ Work done = Tφ . . . (13.31)
2

176
 Springs
M2l
Strain energy due to BM , U1 = b
2E I

(T 2 cos 2 α)
or U1 = . . . (13.32)
2E I

T12 l
Strain energy due to torque, U 2 =
2G J

(T 2 sin 2 α)
or U2 = . . . (13.33)
2G J

Total strain energy,

U = U1 + U2
(T 2 cos 2 α) (T 2 sin 2 α)
= +
2E I 2G J

T2l ⎡ cos 2 α sin 2 α ⎤

= ⎢ + ⎥ . . . (13.34)
2 ⎣⎢ E I G J ⎦⎥

Equating the total strain energy to work done, we can get

⎡ cos 2 α sin 2 α ⎤
∴ φ=Tl ⎢ + ⎥ . . . (13.35)
⎣⎢ E I G J ⎦⎥

where l = 2 π R n cos α

π d4 π d4
I = and J =
64 32

64 T R n sec α ⎡ 2cos 2 α sin 2 α ⎤

φ= ⎢ + ⎥ . . . (13.36)
d4 ⎢⎣ E G ⎥⎦

Bending stress,
M b 32 M b
σb = =
z π d3

32 T cos α
= . . . (13.37)
π d3
Shear stress,
16T1
τ=
π d3

16 T sin α
= . . . (13.38)
π d3
Principal stress,

32 T cos α (32 T cos α)2 (16 T sin α) 2

σ1, 2 = ± +
2π d 3 2π d 3 π d3

16 T
= (cos α ± 1) . . . (13.39)
π d3
177
Stresses in Shafts and Shells ⎛ σ − σ2 ⎞
Maximum shear stress = ⎜ 1
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
16T
= . . . (13.40)
π d3
Example 13.14
An open coiled helical spring is made having 10 turns of a mean radius of 60 mm.
The wire diameter is 10 mm and coils make an angle of 38o with a plane
perpendicular to the axis of the coil. Find
(d) the axial extension with a load of 200 N, and
(e) the angle of rotation of free end.
E = 200 GPa, G = 80 GPa.
Solution
n = 10, R = 60 mm, d = 10 mm, α = 38, E = 200 GPa, G = 80 GPa
(a) Axial Extension

64 W R 3 sec α ⎛ cos 2 α 2sin 2 α ⎞

Δ= ⎜⎜ + ⎟
d4 ⎝ G E ⎟⎠

64 (200) (60)3 (10) sec 30 ⎛ cos 2 30 2sin 2 30 ⎞

= ⎜ + = 36.7 mm
104 ⎜ 80 × 103 200 × 103 ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
(b) Angle of Rotation at Free End
64 W R3 sin α ⎛ 1 2⎞
φ= ⎜ − ⎟
d 4
⎝G E⎠

64 (200) (60)3 (10) sec 30 ⎛ 1 2 ⎞

= ⎜⎜ − 3⎟
= 0.0567 radian
10 4
⎝ 80 × 10
3
200 × 10 ⎟⎠

Exampled 13.15
Find the mean radius of an open coiled spring of helix angle of 38o, to give a
vertical displacement of 20 mm and an angular rotation of 0.02 radian at free end
under an axial load of 30 N. The material available is 6 mm diameter steel bar.
Take E = 200 GPa, G = 80 GPa.
Solution
α = 30o, Δ = 20 mm, φ = 0.02 radian, W = 30 N, E = 200 GPa, G = 80 GPa

64 W R 3 sec α ⎛ cos 2 α 2sin 2 α ⎞

Δ= ⎜⎜ + ⎟ . . . (1)
d4 ⎝ G E ⎟⎠

64 W R3 sin α ⎛ 1 2⎞
φ= ⎜ − ⎟ . . . (2)
d 4
⎝G E⎠
Eq. (2) divided by Eq. (1), we get
⎡ cos 2 α 2sin 2 α ⎤
⎢ + ⎥
Δ R ⎣ G E ⎦
∴ =
φ sin α cos α ⎡1 2⎤
⎢⎣ G − E ⎥⎦

178
 Springs
⎡ cos 2 30 2sin 2 30 ⎤
⎢ + ⎥
20 R ⎣ 80 × 103 200 × 103 ⎦
∴ =
0.02 sin 30 cos 30 ⎡ 1 2 ⎤
⎢ − ⎥
⎣ 80 × 10 200 × 103 ⎦
3

R (0.115)
1000 =
0.433 × 0.025

∴ R = 94 mm
Example 13.16
In an open coiled spring of 10 coils the stresses due to bending and twisting are
120 N/mm2 and 150 N/mm2 respectively when the spring is loaded axially.
Assuming the mean radius of the coil is 5 times the wire diameter, find the
maximum permissible axial load and the wire diameter for a maximum extension
of 20 mm.
E = 200 GPa, G = 80 GPa.
Solution

n = 10, R = 5d, Δ = 20 mm, E = 200 GPa = 200 × 103 N/mm 2 , τ = 120 N/mm2,
G = 80 GPa = 80 × 103 N/mm 2 , W = ?, d = ?

32 W R sin α
σb = = 120 N/mm 2
πd 3

16 W R cos α
τ= = 150 N/mm 2
πd 3

τ
Taking ratio of
σb

120
2 tan α =
150
tan α = 0.4

sin α = 0.37; sin 2 α = 0.14

cos α = 0.93; cos 2 α = 0.86 , sec α = 1.075

64 W R3 sec α ⎛ cos 2 α 2sin 2 α ⎞

Δ= ⎜⎜ + ⎟
d4 ⎝ G E ⎟⎠

64 W (5d )3 (10) ⎡ 0.86 2 × 0.14 ⎤

⇒ 20 = ⎢ + ⎥
d × 0.93
4
⎣⎢ 80 × 10
3
200 × 103 ⎦⎥

W
∴ = 19.99 . . . (1)
d
32 × W × (5d ) × 0.37
= 120
π d3

W
⇒ = 6.37 . . . (2)
d2 179
Stresses in Shafts and Shells Eq. (1) divided by Eq. (2), we get
d = 3.0 m
W = 19.99 × 3 = 1145.43 N
Example 13.17
In an open coiled helical spring having α = 38o, if the inclination of the coil is
ignored, calculate the percentage by which the axial extension is under estimated.
E = 200 GPa, G = 80 GPa.
Solution
64 W R3 n ⎡ cos 2 α 2sin 2 α ⎤
Δ= ⎢ + ⎥
d 4 cos α ⎢⎣ G E ⎥⎦

K ⎡ cos 2 α 2sin 2 α ⎤
= ⎢ + ⎥
cos α ⎣⎢ G E ⎦⎥

0.115
α = 38o , Δ1 = K × × 10− 4 = K × 0.0147
0.866
If α is neglected,
α = 0, Δ 2 = K × 0.0125
Δ1 − Δ 2
% Error = × 100
Δ1
0.0147 − 0.0125
= × 100 = 14.96%
0.0147
Example 13.18
An open coiled helical spring having 10 complete turns is made of 16 mm
diameter steel rod, the mean radius of the coil being 50 mm. The angle of helix is
28o. Calculate the deflection under an axial load of 300 N. Also calculate the direct
and shear stress induced in the section of the wire. If the axial load of 300 N is
replaced by an axial moment of 9000 N-mm, determine the axial deflection and
angle of rotation.
Take E = 200 GPa, G = 80 GPa.
Also, calculate the axial torque which will cause a bending stress of 12 N/mm2.
Solution
n = 10, d = 16 mm, R = 50 mm, α = 28o, W = 300 N
64 W R3 n ⎡ cos 2 α 2sin 2 α ⎤
Δ= ⎢ + ⎥
d 4 cos α ⎣⎢ G E ⎦⎥

64 × 300 × 503 × 10 ⎡ cos 2 20 2sin 2 20 ⎤

= ⎢ + ⎥
164 × cos 20 ⎢⎣ 80 × 10
3
200 × 103 ⎥⎦

∴ Δ = 4.74 mm
32 W R sin α 32 × 300 × 50 × sin 20
σb = = = 12.8 N/mm 2
πd 3
π × 16 3

16 W R cos α 16 × 300 × 50 × sin 20

τ= = = 17.5 N/mm 2
πd 3
π × 163
180
 Principal stresses, Springs

2
σb ⎛σ ⎞
σ1, 2 = ± ⎜ b ⎟ + τ2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
12.8 ⎛ 12.8 ⎞
= ± ⎜ ⎟ + 17.5 = 6.4 ± 18.6 = 25 N/mm − 12.2 N/mm
2 2 2
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
σ1 − σ2 25 − (− 1.22)
Maximum shear stress = = = 18.6 N/mm 2
2 2
M = 9000 N-m

64 M R n ⎡ 2cos 2 α sin 2 α ⎤
φ= ⎢ + ⎥
d 4 cos α ⎢⎣ E G ⎥⎦

64 × 9000 × 50 × 10 ⎡ 2cos 2 20 sin 2 20 ⎤

= ⎢ + ⎥
(16) 4 cos 20 ⎣⎢ 200 × 10 80 × 103 ⎦⎥
3

φ = 0.048 radians
64 M R 2 n sin α ⎡ 1 2⎤
φ= ⎢ − ⎥
d 4
⎣G E ⎦

64 × 9000 × 502 × 10 × sin 20 ⎡ 1 2 ⎤

= ⎢ − 3⎥
⎣⎢ 80 × 10 200 × 10 ⎦⎥
4 3
(16)

= 0.19 mm
32 T cos α
σb =
π d3

32 T × cos 20
⇒ 12 =
π × 163

∴ T = 5135.2 N-mm

SAQ 2
(a) The elongation of an open coiled helical spring is 1.8% greater than that of a
close coiled helical spring, otherwise they are similar in every respect.
Calculate the helix angle.
Take E = 20 GPa, G = 80 GPa.
(b) In an open coiled helical spring having α = 38, if the inclination of the coils
is neglected, calculate the percentage error in the value of stiffness.
E = 200 GPa, G = 80 GPa.
(c) An open coiled helical spring of wire 4 mm is diameter is coiled to a mean
radius of 20 mm. It is loaded with an axial load only. Calculate the helix
angle which would cause an error of 3% in deflection if the spring is
assumed to be closely coiled.
Take μ = 0.25.
(d) The error in calculating the elongation of helical spring subjected to an axial
load assuming the close coiled formula is not to exceed 1%. Calculate the
angle of helix.
Take E = 2.5 G.
181
Stresses in Shafts and Shells (e) An open coiled helical spring is made of steel wire having 3 mm diameter. It
has 6 coils of 25 mm radius and 25 mm pitch. The spring is acted upon by a
winding torque about the axis of the spring resulting in an increase of coils
by 0.5, the length remaining 150 mm. Determine the torque required and the
minimum elastic limit strength of steel to permit this amount of winding.
Take E = 200 GPa. G = 80 GPa.

13.4 COMPOUND SPRINGS

Sometimes, more than one spring may be used. The springs may be used in parallel or in
series. This combination is called the compound springs.
Springs in Parallel
Figure 13.5 shows two springs connected in parallel. The springs are provided side
by side.
W

1 2

Figure 13.5 : Springs in Parallel

In this case :
(a) Sum of the individual loads carried by each spring is equal to the load
carried by compound spring
W1 + W2 = W . . . (13.41)
(b) The deflections of both the springs as well as the combination are
same
i.e. Δ1 = Δ 2 = Δ . . . (13.42)
∴ K1 + K 2 = K . . . (13.43)
where K = Spring constant or stiffness of spring.
Springs in Series
Figure 13.6 shows two springs connected in series. The springs are provided end to
end.

Figure 13.6 : Springs in Series

In this case
182
 (a) The load carried by each spring is the same as that carried by the Springs
compound spring
W1 + W2 = W . . . (13.44)
(b) The total deflection is equal to the sum of the deflection in each
spring.
Δ = Δ1 + Δ 2 . . . (13.45)
Δ Δ1 Δ 2
i.e. = +
W W W
1 1 1
∴ = + . . . (13.46)
K K1 K 2
Example 13.19
In a compound helical spring, the inner spring is arranged within and concentric
with the outer one, but is 10 mm shorter. The outer spring has 10 coils of mean
radius 12 mm, and the wire diameter is 3 mm. Find the stiffness of the inner spring
if an axial load of 150 N causes the outer one to compress 20 mm.
If the radius clearance between the springs is 1.5 mm, find the wire diameter of the
inner spring when it has 8 coils. G = 80 GPa.
Solution
Springs are in Parallel
Load carried by outer spring :
64 W1 R3 n
Δ1 =
Gd4

64 × W1 × 123 × 10
=
80 × 103 × 34
∴ W1 = 117 kN
Load carried by inner spring, W2 = 150 –117 = 33 N
Compression, Δ 2 = 20 − 10 = 10 mm
33
Stiffness, K 2 = = 3.30 N/mm
10
64 W2 R3 n
Δ2 =
Gd4

64 × 33 × (9 − 0.5 d )3 × 8
=
80 × 103 × d 4

⇒ (18 − d )3 = 379 d 4
Since d is small compared with 18, for a first approximation :
5830
d =4 = 1.98 mm
379
Second approximation

16.023
d =4 = 1.80 mm
379
Third approximation 183
Stresses in Shafts and Shells
16.23
d =4 = 1.83 mm
379
Fourth approximation

16.173
d =4 = 1.83 mm
379
∴ d = 1.83 mm
Example 13.20
A composite spring has two close-coiled helical spring connected in series, each
spring has 10 coils at a mean radius of 15 mm. Find the diameter of one if the other
is 2.5 mm and the stiffness of the composite spring is 750 N/mm. Calculate the
greatest load that can be carried by the composite springs, and the corresponding
extension, for a maximum shearing stress of 200 N/mm2.
G = 80 GPa.
Solution
For spring in series, W is same.
Δ = Δ1 + Δ 2 . . . (1)
1 1 1
= + . . . (2)
K K1 K 2

64 W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4

64 W × 153 × 10
Δ1 =
80 × 103 × 2.54
W
= K1 = 1.45 N/mm . . . (3)
Δ1
K = 750 N/m = 0.75 N/mm . . . (4)

64 W × 153 × 10
Δ2 =
80 × 103 × d 4
W
= K 2 = d 4 (0.037) . . . (5)
Δ2
Using (2), (3), (4) and (5), we get
1 1 1
= +
0.75 1.45 0.037 × d 4
∴ d = 2.55 mm
16 W R
τmax =
π d3
16 W × 15
⇒ 200 =
π (2.5)3
∴ W = 40.9 N
W 40.9
Total extension, Δ = = = 54.5 mm
K 0.75
Example 13.21
184
 Two close-coiled helical springs are compressed between two parallel plates by a Springs
load of 1000 N. The springs have a wire diameter of 10 mm and radii of the coils
are 50 mm and 75 mm. Each spring has 10 coils and of the same initial length. If
the smaller spring is placed inside the larger one,
calculate
(a) the total deflection, and
(b) the maximum stress in each spring.
Take G = 40 GPa.
Solution
In this case, the springs are connected in parallel.
Δ1 = Δ 2

64 W R3 n
Δ=
G d4

64 W1 × 503 × n 64 W2 × 753 × n
=
Gd4 Gd4
∴ W1 = 3.375 W2
W1 + W2 = 1000
⇒ 3.375 W2 + W2 = 1000
∴ W2 = 229 N
∴ W1 = 1000 – 229 = 771 N
64 × 771 × 503 × 10
Δ1 = Δ 2 = = 6.168 mm
40 × 103 × 104
16 W R 16 × 771 × 50
τmax1 = = = 196.3 N/mm 2
πd 3
π × 10 3

16 W R 16 × 229 × 75
τmax 2 = = = 87.5 N/mm 2
πd 3
π × 10 3

Example 13.22
Two concentric springs are subjected to an axial load of 60 kN. The maximum
allowable deflection of the springs is 45 mm and the solid length is 55 mm. If the
springs are of the material having G = 80 × 103 N/mm2 and the maximum
allowable shear stress is 800 N/mm2, calculate
(a) load shared by the springs, and
(b) wire diameter and outer spring radius.
Take inner spring radius = 40 mm and radial clearance = 3 mm.
Solution
The springs are in parallel. Deflection of both the springs is same.
64 W R3 n
Δ=
G d4

64 × W1 × 403 × n1
45 =
80 × 103 × d14

185
Stresses in Shafts and Shells W1 n1
= 0.88 . . . (1)
d14
16 W R
τmax =
π d3
16 W1 × 40
800 =
π d13
W1
= 3.93 . . . (2)
d13
551
n1 d1 = 55 mm ⇒ n1 = . . . (3)
d1
From Eq. (1) and (3), we get
W1 × 55
= 0.88
d15
W1
= 0.016 . . . (4)
d15
From Eq. (2) to Eq. (1), we get
d12 = 245.6 mm 2
∴ d1 = 15.67 mm ; 15.7 mm

W1 = 3.93 × 15.73 = 15 129 N = 15.1 kN

W1 + W2 = 60 kN
∴ W2 = 44.9 kN
Outer Spring
80 + 15.7 + 2 × 3 + d 2
R2 = = (50.85 + 0.5 d 2 ) mm
2
16 W R
τ max =
π d3

16 × 44.9 × 103 × (50.85 + 0.5 d 2 )

800 =
π × d 23
∴ d 2 = 24.4 mm

∴ R2 = (50.85 + 0.5 × 24.2) = 63.05 mm

Example 13.23
The table below gives particulars of a compound spring consisting of two co-axial
close-coiled springs. If the spring is subjected to an axial load of 450 N, determine
for each spring
(a) the change in length,
(b) the amount of load carried, and
(c) the maximum shearing stress.
Take G = 80 × 103 N/mm2.

186
 Springs
Mean Coil Radius Diameter of Wire n Free Length
(mm) (mm) (mm)
Outer Spring 25 5 10 100
Inner Spring 15 4 8 80

Solution
The free length of outer spring is more than the inner spring by
(100 – 80) = 20 mm. Load carried by the outer spring for a deflection of 20 mm is
given by,
64 W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4

64 × W1 × 253 × 10
⇒ 20 =
80 × 103 × 54
∴ W1 = 100 N
Now the springs are in parallel. Load to be shared by the two springs
= 450 − 100 = 350 N

64 W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4

64 (W11 ) 253 × 10
⇒ Δ=
80 × 103 × 54

∴ W11 = 5 Δ . . . (1)

64 (W21 ) 153 × 8
Δ=
80 × 103 × 44

∴ W21 = 11.9 Δ . . . (2)

W11 + W21 = 350 N

⇒ 5 Δ + 11.9 Δ = 350
∴ Δ = 20.7 mm
Change in length, Δ = 20.7 mm

W11 = 5 Δ = 5 × 20.7 = 103.5 N

W21 = 11.9 Δ = 11.9 × 20.7 = 246.5 N

Load taken by outer spring = 203.5 N.
Load taken by inner spring = 246.5 N.
16 W R
τ max =
π d3
16 × 203.5 × 25
τmax is outer spring = = 207.3 N/mm 2
π×5 3

16 × 246.5 × 15
τmax in inner spring = = 294.2 N/mm 2
π × 43
∴ Maximum shearing stress = 294.2 N/mm2 (inner spring).
187
Stresses in Shafts and Shells Example 13.24
A rigid bar of negligible weight transmits a load W to a combination of 3 springs
as shown in Figure 13.7. The three springs are made of the same material and are
of equal diameters. They are of the same length before loading. The number of
coils in three springs are 10, 12 and 15 respectively, while the mean radii of coils
are in the proportion 1 : 1.2 : 1.5 respectively. Find the distance x such that the
rigid bar remains horizontal after the application of the load.
W
x

Rigid Bar

1 2 3

Figure 13.7
Solution
Since the springs are in parallel, Δ is same.
W1 + W2 + W3 = W . . . (1)
G is same, d is same.
R2 = 1.2 R1
R3 = 1.5 R1
n1 = 10; n2 = 12; n3 = 15

64 W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4

Δ Gd4
⇒ W =
64 R3 n
K
W =
R3 n
K 0.1 K
W1 = =
R13 × 10 R13
K 0.048 K
W2 = =
(1.2 R1 ) × 123
R13
K 0.02 K
W3 = =
(1.5 R1 ) × 153
R13
0.168 K
W = W1 + W2 + W3 =
R13
The FBD of bar shown in Figure 13.8.
W
X
D B C
A
l l
W1 W2 W3

Figure 13.8
188
 Now, taking moments about A, Springs

W . x = W2 × l + W3 × 2l

⇒ 0.168 × x = 0.048 × l + 0.02 × 2l

∴ x = 0.52 l
SAQ 3
(a) The following data refers to two close-coiled helical springs A and B.
Spring n R (mm) d (mm) Uncompressed Axial Lengths
(mm)
A 8 50 6 70
B 10 40 5 80

Spring B is placed inside A and both are compressed between a pair of

parallel plates until the distance between the plates measures 60 mm.
Calculate
(i) the load applied to the plates, and
(ii) the maximum shear stress in the spring.
Take G = 80 GPa.
(b) Two close-coiled springs A and B are connected in series to form a
composite spring of stiffness 1000 N/m. The spring A has 20 effective turns
with a wire diameter 2 mm while B has 30 effective turns. If the spring
index of the springs A and B is 8, find the wire diameter of spring B. Also
calculate the maximum tensile load that can be applied to the composite
spring and the maximum extension of the composite spring under this load.
τmax = 200 N/mm2, G = 80 GPa. Neglect the effect of spring index on shear
stress.
(c) A close-coiled helical spring held with axis vertical is built in at both ends.
If an axial load W is applied at an intermediate point on it such that the
number of coils above the point of application of load is 16 and below this
point is 12, calculate how the load W will be shared between top and bottom
of application point.

13.5 LEAF SPRINGS

These are known as laminated, carriage or built-up springs. These are used in cars,
lorries, automobiles and railway wagons.
These are made of number of leaves of equal width and thickness, but varying length.
The number of leaves decreases towards the end of the spring. The spring is designed
such that the maximum bending stress is same at all sections.
Types of leaf springs :
(a) Semi-elliptic type, and
(b) Quarter-elliptic type.
189
Stresses in Shafts and Shells Semi-elliptic Type Leaf Springs
Figure 13.9 shows a carriage spring carrying a central load W.
W

l/2 l/2

W/2 W/2
Figure 13.9

Let l = Span,
b = Width of leaves,
t = Thickness of leaves,
W = Load,
y = Rise of crown,
n = Number of plates, and
R = Initial radius of curvature of plates.
bt 2
Section modulus of single plate = .
6
⎛ nbt 2 ⎞
Z for the whole spring = ⎜
⎜ 6 ⎟⎟
.
⎝ ⎠
Wl
Maximum BM, M =
4
M = σb . Z
⎛W l ⎞
⎜ ⎟
= ⎝
M 4 ⎠ 3 Wl
σb = = . . . . (13.47)
Z ⎛ bt ⎞ 2 nbt 2
2
n ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
From geometry of circles, because each leaf is assumed to be bent in form of a part
of a circle.
l l
y (2 R − y ) = ×
2 2
l2
∴ y= . . . (13.48)
8R
M 1 1
= −
E I R R0
⎛−Wl⎞
⎜ ⎟
⇒ ⎝ 4 ⎠ = 8 (y − y )
0
⎛ nbt 3 ⎞ l 2
E . ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠
190
 Springs
3W l 3
∴ Deflection, Δ= . . . (13.49)
8 nbt 3 E

1 3W 2 l 3
U = WΔ= . . . (13.50)
2 16 nbt 3 E

W 8 E nbt 3
Spring constant = = . . . (13.51)
Δ 3l 3
Proof Load : Load required to make the spring flat.
Quarter-elliptic Type Leaf Springs
Figure 13.10 shows a quarter elliptic spring carrying an end load W at free end
nbt 2
Z =
6
M = −Wl

M 6W l
σb = = . . . (13.52)
Z nb 2

W
l

Figure 13.10

From geometry of circles,

y (2 R − y ) = l × l

l2
y=
2R
M 1 1
= −
E I R R0

(− W l ) 2
⇒ = 2 ( y − y0 )
⎛ nbt ⎞ l
3
E ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠

6W l 3
∴ Δ= . . . (13.53)
nbt 3 E

1 3W 2 l 3
U = WΔ= . . . (13.54)
2 nbt 3 E
Example 13.25
A laminated steel spring, simply supported at the ends and centrally loaded, with a
span of 0.8 m; is required to carry a proof load of 8 kN; and the central deflection
is not to exceed 50 mm; the bending stress must not exceed 400 kN/mm2, plates 191
Stresses in Shafts and Shells are available in multiples of 1 mm for thickness and 4 mm for width. Determine
suitable values of width, thickness and number of plates, and calculate the radius to
which the plates should be formed. Assume width = 12 × thickness.
E = 200 GPa.
Solution
Simply Supported Spring
l = 0.8 m
W = 8 kN = 800 N
Δ = 50 mm
σb = 400 N/mm2
b = 12 t
E = 200 GPa = 200 × 103 N/mm2
3W l 3
Δ=
8 nbt 3 E

3 × 8000 × 8003
⇒ 50 =
8 × n (12 t ) t 3 (200 × 103 )

∴ nt 4 = 12,800 . . . (1)
3W l
σ=
2 nbt 2
3 × 8000 × 800
⇒ 400 =
2 n (12 t ) t 2

∴ n t 3 = 2,000 . . . (2)
From Eq. (1) to Eq. (2), we get
⇒ t = 6.4 mm = 7 mm
b = 12 t = 12 × 7 = 84 mm

nt 3 = 2,000

⇒ n × 73 = 200
∴ n = 5.8 ; 6
Actual deflection under the proof load,
3 (8000) (800)3
Δ0 = = 44.4 mm
8 × 6 × 84 × 73 × 200 × 103
Initial radius of curvature,
l2 (800) 2
R0 = = = 1802 mm
8 Δ 0 (8 × 44.4)
Example 13.26
A laminated spring of the quarter elliptic type, 0.6 m long, is to provide a static
deflection of 80 mm under an end load of 2000 N. If the leaf material is 60 mm
wide and 5 mm thick, find the number of leaves required and the maximum stress.
From what height can the load be dropped on to the undeflected spring to cause of
maximum stress of 8000 N/mm2? E = 200 GPa.
Solution
192
 Quarter Elliptic Leaf Spring Springs

l = 0.6 m
Δ = 80 mm
W = 2000 N
b = 60 mm
t = 5 mm
n=?
σb = ?

6W l 3
Δ=
nbt 3 E

3 × 2000 × 6003
⇒ 80 =
n × 60 × 53 × 200 × 103

∴ n = 21.6 (say 22 leaves)

6W l
σb =
nbt 2

6 × 2000 × 600
= = 369 N/mm 2
22 Δ × 60 × 5 2

For maximum stress of 800 N/mm2

6 × W × 600
800 =
22 × 60 × 52

⇒ W = 7333.3 N

6 × 7333.3 × 6003
Corresponding deflection = = 288 mm
22 × 60 × 53 × 200 × 103
Loss of PE = Gain of KE
1
2000 (h + 288) = × 7333.3 × 288
2
∴ h = 240 mm
Example 13.27
A carriage spring, centrally loaded and simply supported at its ends, has 12 steel
plates each 60 mm wide by 6 mm thick. If the longest plate is 700 mm, find the
initial radius of curvature if the maximum stress is 150 N/mm2 and the plates are
finally straight.
Neglecting loss of energy at impact, determine the height from which 200 N can be
dropped centrally on the spring. E = 200 GPa.
Solution
Simply supported carriage spring :
n = 12
b = 60 mm
t = 6 mm
193
Stresses in Shafts and Shells l = 700 mm
σb = 150 N/mm2
E = 200 GPa = 200 × 103 N/mm2
3W l
σb =
2 nbt 2
∴ W = 3703 N
3W l
Δ=
8 nbt 2 E

3 × 3703 × 7003
= = 15.3 mm
8 × 12 × 60 × 63 × 200 × 103

l2 7002
R0 = = = 4003 mm = 4 mm
8 Δ 8 × 15.3
U = Change in PE
1
× 3703 × 15.3 = 200 × (h + 15.3)
2
∴ h = 126 mm
Example 13.28
A leaf spring having a span of 1.40 m consists width and thickness of leaves to be
100 mm and 12 mm respectively. The maximum bending stress is 150 N/mm2 and
the spring must absorb 125000 N-mm when straightened. Calculate the number of
leaves and initial curvature. Take E = 200 GPa.
Solution
d = 1400 mm
b = 100 mm
t = 12 mm
σb = 150 N/mm2
U = 125000 N-mm
n=?
R0 = ?
E = 200 × 103 N/mm2
3W l
σb =
2 nbt 2
3W × 1400
⇒ 150 =
2 n (100) (12) 2
∴ W = 1029 n . . . (1)
3W l 3 3 (1029 n) (1400)3
Δ= = = 30.6 mm
8 n E bt 3 8 n (200 × 103 ) (100) (12)3
1
U = WΔ
2

194
 30.6 Springs
⇒ 125000 = 1029 n ×
2
∴ n = 79 ; 8

l2 (1400) 2
R0 = = = 8007 mm
8 Δ 8 × 30.6

SAQ 4
A quarter elliptic leaf spring of length 450 mm has 4 leaves of thickness 9 mm. An
end load of 2500 N causes a deflection of 40 mm and E = 200 GPa. Calculate the
width of the leaves.

13.6 SUMMARY
Close Coiled Helical Springs
Under axial load
16W R
τ=
π d4

64W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4

Open Coiled Helical Springs

Under axial load

64W R 3 n ⎡ cos 2 α 2sin 2 α ⎤

Δ= ⎢ + ⎥
d 4 cos α ⎣⎢ G E ⎦⎥

Semi-Elliptic Springs
3W l
σ=
2 nbt 2

3W l 3
Δ=
8 nbt 2 E

Quarter-Elliptic Springs
3W l
σ=
2 nbt 2

6W l 3
Δ=
nbt 3 E
195
Stresses in Shafts and Shells
13.7 ANSWERS TO SAQs
SAQ 1
(a) P = 200 N d = 25 mm
h = 600 mm R = 100 mm
Δ = 120 mm G = 80 GPa = 80 × 103 N/mm2
1
p ( h + Δ) = .W . Δ
2
1
∴ 200 (600 + 120) = × W × 120
2
∴ W = 2, 400 N
16W R 16 × 2400 × 100
τmax = = = 78.2 N/mm 2
πd 3
π (25) 3

64W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4

64 × 2400 × 1003 × n
∴ 120 =
80 × 103 × (25)4
∴ n = 24.4 ; 25
(b) Weight of trolley = 20 kN = 20,000 N
3.6 × 5
V = 3.6 kmph = = 1 m/sec.
18
1
KE = m v2
2
1 ⎛ 20000 ⎞ 2
= ⎜ ⎟ × 1 = 1019.4 N-m
2 ⎝ 9.81 ⎠

64W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4

64 W (100)3 × 12
∴ 120 =
80 × 103 × 204
∴ W = 2,000 N
1
U = WΔ
2
1
= × 2000 × 120 = 120 × 103 N-mm
2
KE 1019.4 × 103
∴ N= = = 8.5 ; 9
U 120 × 103
(c) d = 6 mm, n = 10,
R = 40 mm, τmax = 70 N/mm2
G = 80 GPa = 80 × 103 N/mm2
W = ?, Δ=?
196
 16W R Springs
τmax =
π d3
16 × W × 40
∴ 70 =
π (6)3
∴ W = 74.2 N
64 W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4

64 × 74.2 × 403 × 10
= = 29.3 mm
80 × 103 × 64
(d) M = 15 N-m, n = 10,
d = 16 mm, R = 150 mm,
E = 200 GPa
l = 2 π R n = 2π × 150 × 10 = 9424.8 mm
π 4 π
I= d = (16)4 = 3217 mm 4
64 64
M l (15 × 10)3 (9424.8)
φ= = = 0.22 rad
E I (200 × 103 ) (3217)

1 1
U = M φ = × 15 × 0.22 = 1.65 N-m
2 2
32 M 32 × 15 × 103
σb = = = 37.3 N/mm 2
πd 3
π × 163

64 W R3 n
(e) Δ=
Gd4

W Gd4
K= =
Δ 64 R3 n
d is same.
G is same.
n is same.
A
K1 =
R13
A
K2 =
R23
2
K1 R23 ⎛ 15 ⎞ 1
= 3 =⎜ ⎟ =
K 2 R1 ⎝ 30 ⎠ 8

(f) d = 6 mm, n = 12,

R = 45 mm, M = 1 N-m
E = 200 GPa
32 M 32 × 1 × 103
σb = = = 47.2 N/mm 2
π d3 π × 163
197
Stresses in Shafts and Shells l = 2 π R n = 2π × 45 × 12 = 3392.9 mm

π d 4 π × 64
I = = = 63.6 mm 4
64 64
M l (1 × 10)3 (3392.9)
φ= = = 0.27 rad
E I (200) × 103 × 63.6
2 π ( Δ n) = φ
Δ n = 0.043
Here Δ n = increase in number of turn.
(g) R = 30 mm, M = 1.2 N-m,
π
W = 80 N, φ= radians ,
3
Δ = 80 mm
64 W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4
n is same.
d is same.
64 × 80 × 303 × n
⇒ 80 =
Gd4

Gd4
= 1728 × 103 = 1.73 × 103 . . . (1)
n
Ml
φ=
EI

π (1.2 × 103 ) × (2π × 30) × n

⇒ =
3 ⎛ π × d4 ⎞
E ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 64 ⎠
E d4
= 4.4 × 106 . . . (2)
n
Dividing Eq. (2) by Eq. (1), we get
E
⇒ = 2.5
G
2 G (1 + μ)
= 2.5
G
∴ μ = 0.25
(h) Let d = diameter of wire.
Diameter of bar = 30 mm
⎛ d⎞
R = ⎜15 + ⎟ mm
⎝ 2⎠
W = 500 N
Δ = 2 mm
198
 τmax = 25 MPa Springs

G = 80 GPa = 80 × 103 N/mm2

d=?
R=?
n=?
16W R
τmax =
π d3

⎛ d⎞
16 × 500 × ⎜ 15 + ⎟
⇒ 25 = ⎝ 2⎠
πd 3

⇒ d 3 − 50.9 d − 1527.9 = 0
By trial and error,
d = 13 mm
d 13
R = 15 + = 15 + = 21.5 mm
2 2
64 W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4

64 × 500 × 21.53 × n
⇒ 2=
80 × 103 × (13) 4

∴ n = 14.4 ; 15
(i) Shaft
2π N T
P=
60
2 π × 200 × T
⇒ 2.4 × 103 =
60
∴ T = 115. N-m
Spring
M = T = 11.5 N-m
d = 10 mm
R = 30 mm
E = 200 GPa
n = 10
l = 2 π R n = 2π × 30 × 10 = 1885 mm

π d 4 π × 104
I = = = 491 mm 4
64 64
32 M 32 × 11.5 × 103
σb = = = 117.1 N/mm 2
π d3 π × 103

M l (11.5 × 10)3 (1885)

φ= = = 0.22 rad
E I (200 × 103 ) × (491)
199
Stresses in Shafts and Shells (j) G, W, d and R1 n are same.
64 W R3 n
Δ=
πd4
A A
Δ1 = , Δ2 =
π d14 π d 24
4
Δ1 ⎛ d 2 ⎞
∴ =⎜ ⎟
Δ 2 ⎝ d1 ⎠
(h) Δ = 100 mm, W = 500 N, R=5d
τmax = 60 MPa, G = 80 GPa = 80 × 103 N/mm2
d=? R=? n=?
16 W R
τmax =
πd3
16 × 500 × (5d )
⇒ 60 =
π d3
∴ d = 14.6 mm ; 15 mm
R = 5d = 5 × 15 = 75 mm

64 W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4

64 × 500 × 753 × n
⇒ 100 =
(80 × 103 ) (15) 4
∴ n = 30
1
×W × Δ = P × Δ
2
1 1
⇒ P= × W = × 500 = 250 N
2 2
SAQ 2
64 W R 3 n ⎡ cos 2 α 2sin 2 α ⎤
(a) Δ1 = ⎢ + ⎥
d 4 cos α ⎢⎣ G E ⎥⎦

64 W R3 n
Δ2 =
Gd4
Δ1 = 1.018 × Δ 2
1 ⎡ 2 2G 2 ⎤
⇒ ⎢ cos α + E sin α ⎥ = 1.018
cos α ⎣ ⎦

⇒ cos 2 α + 0.8 sin 2 α = 1.018 cos α

⇒ cos 2 α + 0.8 (1 − cos 2 α ) = 1.018 cos α

⇒ cos 2 α − 5.09 cos α + 4 = 0

∴ cos α = 0.97

∴ α = 14.07o
200
 64 W R3 n ⎡ cos 2 α sin 2 α ⎤
Springs
(b) Δ= 4 ⎢ + ⎥
d cos α ⎢⎣ G E ⎥⎦

For α = 38,
⎛ 64 W R 3 n ⎞ −4 −4
Δ1 = ⎜ ⎟⎟ × 0.133 × 10 = 0.133 × 10 A
⎜ 4
⎝ d ⎠
For α = 8, Δ2 = 0.125 × 10– 4 A
W ⎛ W⎞
K1 = = 7.5 × 104 B ⎜B = ⎟
Δ1 ⎝ A⎠

W
K2 = = 8 × 10− 4 B
Δ2

K1 − K 2
% error = × 100
K1

7.5 − 8
= × 100 = − 6.67%
7.5
(c) d = 4 mm, R = 20 mm, μ = 0.25
E = 2G (1 + μ) = 2.5 G
64 W R 3 n ⎡ cos 2 α 2sin 2 α ⎤
Δ1 = ⎢ + ⎥
d 4 cos α ⎣⎢ G E ⎦⎥

64 W R3 n
Δ2 =
Gd4
Δ 2 = 0.97 Δ1

0.97 ⎡ 2 2G 2 ⎤
⇒ 1= ⎢cos α + E sin α ⎥
cos α ⎣ ⎦

⇒ cos α = 0.97 cos 2 α + 0.78 sin 2 α

⇒ 0.19 cos 2 α − cos α + 0.78 = 0

∴ cos α = 0.952

∴ α = 17.82o

64 W R 3 n ⎡ cos 2 α 2sin 2 α ⎤
(d) Δ1 = ⎢ + ⎥
d 4 cos α ⎢⎣ G E ⎥⎦

64 W R3 n
Δ2 =
Gd4

Δ1 − Δ 2
× 100 = 1
Δ1

⇒ Δ1 − Δ 2 = 0.01 Δ1

⇒ Δ 2 = 0.99 Δ1

0.99 ⎡ 2 2G 2 ⎤
⇒ 1= ⎢cos α + E sin α ⎥
cos α ⎣ ⎦ 201
Stresses in Shafts and Shells
⇒ cos α = 0.99 cos 2 α + 0.79 sin 2 α

⇒ 0.2 cos 2 α − cos α + 0.79 = 0

∴ cos α = 0.983

∴ α = 10.6o
(e) d = 3 mm, n = 6, R = 25 mm

p = 25 mm, E = 200 GPa = 200 × 103 N/mm 2

G = 80 GPa = 08 × 103 N/mm 2

p 25
tan α = =
2π R 2π × 25
sin α = 0.16 cos α = 0.99

sin 2 α = 0.02 cos 2 α = 0.97

Deflection due to axial load, W

64 W R 3 n ⎡ cos 2 α 2sin 2 α ⎤
Δ1 = ⎢ + ⎥ . . . (1)
d 4 cos α ⎣⎢ G E ⎦⎥

Deflection due to axial couple, M

64 M R 2 n ⎡1 2⎤
Δ2 = sin α ⎢ − ⎥ . . . (2)
d 4
⎣ G E ⎦
Δ1 + Δ 2 = 0

⇒ Δ1 = − Δ 2

64 W R3 n ⎡ cos 2 α 2sin 2 α ⎤
⇒ = ⎢ + ⎥
d 4 cos α ⎢⎣ G E ⎥⎦

64 M R 2 n sin α ⎡ 1 2⎤
=− ⎢ − ⎥
d 4
⎣G E ⎦

W .R ⎡ cos 2 α 2sin 2 α ⎤
⇒ =⎢ + ⎥
sin α cos α ⎢⎣ G E ⎥⎦

⎡1 2⎤
=−M ⎢ − ⎥
⎣G E ⎦

W × 25 ⎡ 0.97 2 × 0.02 ⎤
⇒ ⎢ + ⎥
0.16 × 0.99 ⎢⎣ 80 × 10
3
200 × 103 ⎥⎦

⎡ 1 2 ⎤
=−M ⎢ −3
− ⎥
⎢⎣ 80 × 10 200 × 103 ⎥⎦

⇒ 19.45 W = − 0.025 M

M = − 778 W . . . (3)

φ = 0.5 coil = 0.5 × 2π = π radians

202
 Angle of rotation due to axial load, W Springs

64 W R 2 n sin α ⎡ 1 2⎤
φ1 = ⎢ − ⎥
d 4
⎣G E ⎦

64 W (25) 2 (6) (0.16) ⎡ 1 2 ⎤

= ⎢ − ⎥
34 ⎢⎣ 80 × 10 200 × 103 ⎥⎦
3

φ1 = 102 × 10− 3 W

Angle of rotation due to axial couple, M

64 M R n ⎡ 2cos 2 α sin 2 α ⎤
φ2 = ⎢ + ⎥
d 4 cos α ⎣⎢ E G ⎦⎥

64 (− 778 W ) (25) (6) ⎡ 2 × 0.97 0.16 ⎤

= ⎢ + ⎥ = − 1.09 W
⎣⎢ 200 × 10 80 × 103 ⎦⎥
4 3
3 (0.99)

φ1 + φ2 = π

⇒ 1.2 × 10− 3 W − 1.09 W = π

W = − 2.9 N

M = − 778 W = 2245 N-mm

32 M 32 × 2245
σb = = = 847 N/mm 2
πd 3
π×3 3

SAQ 3
(a) Springs are in parallel
W = W A + WB
16 W R
τmax =
π d3

64 W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4
For Spring A
Δ = 70 − 60 = 10 mm

64 × WA (50)3 × 8
10 =
(80 × 103 ) (6) 4
∴ W A = 16.2 N
For Spring B
Δ = 80 − 60 = 20 mm

64 × WB × 403 × 10
20 =
(80 × 103 ) × 54
∴ WB = 24.4 N
∴ Total laod, W = W A + WB = 16.2 + 24.4 = 40.6 N
203
Stresses in Shafts and Shells 16 × 16.2 × 50
τmax for spring A = = 19.1 N/mm 2
π × 63

16 × 24.4 × 40
τmax for spring B = = 39.8 N/mm 2
π × 53

∴ Maximum shear stress = 39.8 N/mm2

(b) For spring in series.
Spring index = 8
D
=8
d
R = 4d
WA = WB = W . . . (1)

Δ = Δ A + ΔB . . . (2)

64 W R3 n
Δ=
Gd4

W W
Δ= ⇒ = 1 N/mm
K Δ
Δ =W . . . (3)

64 (W ) (4 × 2)3 × 20
ΔA = = 0.512 W . . . (4)
(80 × 103 ) (2) 4

64 (W ) (4 d B )3 × 30 1.54 W
ΔB = = . . . (5)
(80 × 10 ) (d B )
3 4 dB

Eq. (3) = Eqs. (4) + (5)

1.54 W
⇒ W = 0.512 W +
dB

∴ d B = 3.2 mm

Maximum Load
16 W R
τmax =
π d3

16 × W × 8
200 =
π × 23

∴ W = 39.3 N

16 × W × 12.8
200 =
π × 3.23

∴ W = 100.5 N

Maximum load = 39.3 N (less)

Δ = 39.3 mm
204
 W2
(c) W1 Springs

n = 12 n = 12

W1 W2

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
For springs,
Δ1 + Δ 2 = 0

64 W1 R13 n1 64 W2 R23 n2
⇒ − =0
π d14 π d 24
⇒ W1 n1 = W2 n2
⇒ W1 × 16 = W2 × 12
W1 = 0.75 W2 . . . (1)
W1 + W2 = W . . . (2)
W1 = 0.43 W
W2 = 0.57 W
SAQ 4
Quarter-elliptic Leaf Spring
l = 450 mm, n = 4, t = 9 mm

W = 2500 N E = 200 GPa = 200 × 103 N/mm 2

Δ = 40 mm b=?
6 W l3
Δ=
n E bt 3

6 × 2500 × 4503
⇒ 40 =
4 × (200 × 103 ) × b × 93

∴ b = 58.6 mm

205
Stresses in Shafts and Shells
FURTHER READINGS
Aggarwal, S. K., and Gupta P. K., Strengths of Materials, Metropolitan Book Company,
New Delhi.
Singh, Surendra, Strength of Materials, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi.
Prasad, Jainti, Strength of Materials, CBS Publishing and Distributors.
Timoshenko, Stephen, (1989), Strength of Materials – Part I and II, CBS Publishers and
Distributors.
Schaum’s Outline Series, (1989), Strength of Materials, Second Edition, McGraw Hill
Book Company.
Popov, E. P., (1993), Mechanics of Materials, Second Edition, Prentice Hall of India
Private Limited.
Ryder, G. H., (1993), Strength of Materials, Educational Low Priced Books Scheme.
Case, John, Chilver, L., Ross, Carl, T. F., (1993), Strength of Materials and Structures,
Third Edition, Educational Low Priced Books Scheme.

206
 Springs
STRESSES IN SHAFTS AND SHELLS
Engineering materials, used singly or in combinations, are subjected to stresses and
strains under practical working conditions. It is, therefore, necessary to visualise and
compute these parameters for appropriate design of structural members. This block deals
with these aspects of Strength of Materials.
This block contains five units.
Unit 9 deals with deflection of beams. This unit introduces different methods to calculate
slopes and deflection of beams. It also discusses slopes and deflection of different types
of beams like simply supported, continuous and overhanging and cantilever beams. It
also outlines the application of deflection of beams.
Unit 10, in relation to torsional forces, discusses deformations undergone by both solid
and hollow circular shafts while transmitting power. It also outlines the criteria for their
design; and discusses the behaviour of stepped and non-circular shafts. Lastly, the
analogy between membrane problem and torsion problem, as well as calculations for
fully plastic torque in various structural sections are presented.
Unit 11 presents concepts of thin and thick cylinders; deals with stresses, strains and
deformation in thin cylinders; and discusses stresses in a wire-bound pipe. Lastly, it
analyses the behaviour of a thick cylinder as well as a compound cylinder.
Unit 12 analyses thin shells (spherical, doubly curved and conical) in respect of stresses
and strains.
Unit 13 deals with various types of spring, i.e. close coiled, open coiled and leaf springs.
It also presents the methodology of computation of stresses, deflection, proof load, and
stiffness for different types of spring.

207