Unit 3 :

( 1 ) Explain 2D Geographic Coordinate System using a suitable example ?

> The 2D Geographic Coordinate System (GCS) is a system that helps us find the exact
location of any place on Earth using two values: latitude and longitude. It is widely used in
maps, GPS, navigation, and satellite systems.

> Main Components of the 2D Geographic Coordinate System :

1. Latitude (φ) - Measures North-South Position :

●​ Latitude tells how far a place is from the equator (0° latitude).

●​ It is measured in degrees (°) from 0° to 90° in both north and south directions.

●​ Lines of latitude are called parallels because they run parallel to the equator.

> Key Latitudes:

●​ Equator (0°) – Divides the Earth into Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

●​ North Pole (90° N) and South Pole (90° S) – The extreme points.

●​ Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N) and Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° S) – Important for climate
zones.

●​ Arctic Circle (66.5° N) and Antarctic Circle (66.5° S) – Mark the polar regions.

2. Longitude (λ) - Measures East-West Position :

●​ Longitude tells how far a place is from the Prime Meridian (0° longitude).

●​ It is measured in degrees (°) from 0° to 180° east and west.

●​ Lines of longitude are called meridians and run from the North Pole to the South Pole.

> Key Longitudes :

●​ Prime Meridian (0°) – Passes through Greenwich, UK and divides the Earth into Eastern
and Western Hemispheres.

●​ International Date Line (180°) – The line where the date changes by one day.
> Example :

> Let’s take New York City (USA):

●​ Latitude: 40.7128° N → It is 40.7128 degrees north of the equator.

●​ Longitude: 74.0060° W → It is 74.0060 degrees west of the Prime Meridian.

So, the geographic coordinates of New York City are (40.7128° N, 74.0060° W).

> Key Features of the 2D Geographic Coordinate System:

●​ Global Positioning: Used to find locations anywhere on Earth.

●​ Unique Identification: Every place has a unique latitude and longitude.

●​ Essential for GPS and Maps: Used in Google Maps, GPS systems, and navigation
tools..

> Why is the 2D Geographic Coordinate System Important?

●​ It Helps in Navigation: Used in GPS devices for travel.

●​ Essential for Mapping: Used to create maps and locate places accurately.

●​ Used in Science and Research: Helps in studying Earth, climate, and ocean movements.

●​ It Supports Satellite Communication: Used by satellites for positioning and tracking.

( 2 ) What are Map projections? What are the different classifications of Map projections?
Explain any two?

> A map projection is a way of drawing the round Earth on a flat surface like a paper or
computer screen. Since the Earth is curved, we need a method to convert its 3D shape into 2D
for making maps.

> Classifications Of Map Projections :

> There are three main types of map projections :

1. Cylindrical Projection :

●​ The Earth’s surface is wrapped around a cylinder.

●​ When the cylinder is flattened, it looks like a rectangle.

●​ Example: Mercator Projection – Used for world maps and navigation maps.

●​ Distortion: Areas near the poles look bigger than they really are.

2. Conical Projection

●​ The Earth’s surface is wrapped around a cone.

●​ When the cone is opened, it looks like a semi-circle.

●​ Example: Albers Equal-Area Projection – Used for country or continent maps.

 ●​ Distortion: The edges of the map may look stretched.

3. Azimuthal (Plane) Projection :

●​ The Earth’s surface is projected onto a flat plane.

●​ Example: Polar Projection – Used for maps of the North and South Poles.

●​ Distortion: Areas far from the center look stretched.

> Two Types of Map Projections

1. Mercator Projection (Cylindrical Projection) :

●​ It was Made by Gerardus Mercator in 1569.

●​ It’s Used for navigation because it shows straight-line routes.

 ●​ Problem: It makes land near the poles look much bigger than in reality. Example:
Greenland looks larger than Africa, but Africa is much bigger.

2. Albers Equal-Area Projection (Conical Projection)

●​ It’s Used for large regions like USA, Europe, or India.

●​ It Keeps area sizes correct, but may change shapes slightly.

●​ Best for regional maps where land size accuracy is important.

( 3 ) Explain Root Mean Square (RMS) and how it is used to measure location accuracy?
Explain. ?

> Root Mean Square (RMS) is a mathematical method used to calculate the average error in
measurements.

●​ It is commonly used in statistics, engineering, and geospatial studies to measure the

accuracy of data.

●​ RMS gives a single value that represents the typical error or variation in a set of values.

2. Formula for RMS :

> The RMS value is calculated using the formula:

> Where:

●​ Error = Difference between the measured and actual values.

●​ n = Total number of measurements.

3. How RMS is Used to Measure Location Accuracy?

●​ In GPS and satellite-based positioning, RMS helps determine how accurate a given
location reading is.

●​ It measures the difference between the actual location and the GPS-calculated location.

●​ A lower RMS value means higher accuracy, while a higher RMS value indicates more
errors.

4. Steps to Measure GPS Accuracy Using RMS :

●​ Take multiple GPS measurements for the same location.

●​ Compare each measurement with the true location.

●​ Calculate the error for each measurement.

 ●​ Square the errors and find their average.

●​ Take the square root of the average to get RMS.

5. Importance of RMS in GPS Accuracy :

●​ It Helps to determine the reliability of GPS readings.

●​ Used in mapping, navigation, and surveying to check accuracy.
●​ It Allows engineers to improve GPS system performance.

6. Example of RMS in GPS

●​ If a GPS device records locations with errors of 2m, 3m, and 4m from the actual point,
the RMS error is calculated as:

●​ This means the GPS has an average accuracy error of 3.1 meters.
( 4) What is Geoid and Ellipsoid & Explain with a suitable diagram ?

> 1. Geoid :

●​ The Geoid is the true shape of the Earth, considering gravity variations.

●​ It represents the mean sea level extended across the entire planet.

●​ It is not a perfect shape; instead, it has small bumps and dips due to uneven gravity.

●​ It is used to measure heights (elevation) of mountains, valleys, and other landforms.

●​ The Geoid is determined by studying sea levels over a long period using tide gauges.

●​ Scientists use it as a reference surface for measuring land elevations.

> Example:

●​ When we say Mount Everest is 8,848 meters high, we measure its height from the Geoid
(sea level).

> Diagram :

2. Ellipsoid :

●​ The Ellipsoid is a mathematically perfect, smooth shape used to model the Earth.

●​ It is slightly flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator due to Earth's rotation.

●​ Unlike the Geoid, it is regular and uniform, making it ideal for mapping and GPS
calculations.
 ●​ Scientists use different ellipsoid models, such as WGS84, for accurate positioning.

●​ The Ellipsoid helps in determining longitude and latitude for navigation.

●​ GPS and satellite systems rely on Ellipsoid models to calculate locations.

> Example:

●​ Google Maps and GPS use an Ellipsoid model to find exact locations accurately

> Diagram :

> Key Differences Between Geoid and Ellipsoid :

1. The Geoid is the actual shape of the Earth, while the Ellipsoid is a smooth, mathematical
model.

2. The Geoid has an irregular shape due to gravity changes, while the Ellipsoid is uniform and
even.

3. The Geoid is used to measure elevation (height), while the Ellipsoid is used for GPS and
mapping.

4. The Geoid is based on real sea level measurements, while the Ellipsoid is based on
mathematical formulas.

5. Both are important for navigation, geography, and satellite-based applications.

( 5 ) Write a note of kriging ?

> Kriging is a statistical method used to estimate unknown values from known sample points.

●​ It was originally developed for mining to estimate mineral deposits.

●​ It is widely used in geology, agriculture, weather prediction, and environmental science.

2. Why is Kriging Used?

●​ Simple interpolation methods (like nearest neighbor or linear interpolation) may not
always give accurate results.

> Kriging is useful when:

●​ Data points are scattered irregularly.

●​ Values change gradually over a large area.

●​ When Accurate predictions are needed for decision-making.

3. Steps in Kriging :

1. Create a Semi-Variogram: This graph helps understand how values change over distance.

2. Calculate Weights for Interpolation: The semi-variogram helps assign importance to each
sample point.

3. Estimate Unknown Values:The method uses spatial relationships between points to predict
new values.

4. Types of Kriging :

●​ Ordinary Kriging – Assumes a constant average value.

●​ Universal Kriging – Assumes data has a trend that changes over the area.

●​ Simple Kriging – Assumes the average value is known in advance.

4. Applications of Kriging :

●​ Geology – Predicting mineral deposits.

 ●​ Agriculture – Estimating soil moisture and crop yield.

●​ Weather Forecasting – Predicting rainfall and temperature.

●​ Environmental Science – Mapping pollution levels

> Advantages of Kriging

●​ More accurate than basic interpolation methods.

●​ Works well even when sample points are not evenly distributed.
●​ Can be used for both small and large-scale predictions.

> . Disadvantages of Kriging

●​ Requires good knowledge of geostatistics.

●​ Can be complex and time-consuming to calculate.
●​ Needs a large number of sample points for best results.
( 6 ) What is Satellite-Based Positioning & Explain the working of GPS?

> Satellite-based positioning is a method of determining a location on Earth using satellites in

space.

●​ It provides high accuracy and is used in mapping, navigation, military operations, and
surveying.

●​ Satellites send signals to receivers on Earth, which calculate their position based on the
signals received.

2. Components of a Satellite Positioning System :

> A satellite positioning system has three main parts:

1. Space Segment – Satellites orbiting Earth send signals.

2. Control Segment – Ground stations track and control satellites.

3. User Segment – GPS receivers (e.g., in mobile phones, cars) calculate location.

3. How Does GPS Work?

●​ GPS (Global Positioning System) is the most commonly used satellite-based positioning
system. It was developed by the United States and became fully operational in 1994.

●​ GPS consists of 24 satellites orbiting at 20,200 km altitude.

●​ These satellites send radio signals containing their location and time.

●​ A GPS receiver on Earth picks up signals from at least four satellites and calculates its
exact position using triangulation.

●​ The GPS system works 24/7, in any weather and anywhere on Earth.
4. Other Satellite Positioning Systems :

●​ GLONASS (Russia) – Similar to GPS, but mainly used by the Russian military.

●​ Galileo (Europe) – Developed by the European Union to reduce dependence on GPS,

with 27 satellites planned.

5. Uses of GPS :

●​ Navigation – Used in cars, ships, and aircraft for route guidance.

●​ Mapping & Surveying – Helps create accurate maps and measure land.
●​ Military & Defense – Used for missile guidance and troop movement.

6. Advantages of GPS :

●​ It Provides high accuracy in positioning.

●​ It Works anywhere on Earth, 24/7.
●​ It Helps in navigation, tracking, and emergency services.

7. Disadvantages of GPS :

●​ Signals can be blocked by buildings, trees, or tunnels.

●​ It Needs a clear view of the sky to work properly.
●​ Battery consumption is high in GPS-enabled devices.