UNIT-1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

CONTENTS

1. GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER.

2. BLOCK DIAGRAM AND ITS COMPONENTS.

3. CLASSIFICATION & LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER.

4. MEMORY.

 RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY.

 READ ONLY MEMORY.

 FLASH MEMORY.

5. SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICE

FIRST GENERATION COMPUTER
• The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to
using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions.

• First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language
understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a
time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.

• The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The
UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census
Bureau in 1951.

•
Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

• Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The
transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late
1950s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become
smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation
predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the
computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation
computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.

• Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic,

or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level
programming languageswere also being developed at this time, such as early versions
of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in
their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

• The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

• The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors,
which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards andmonitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to
run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and
cheaper than their predecessors

Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

• The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated

circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room
could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the
components of the computer—from the central processing unit and memory to input/output
controls—on a single chip.

• In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many
areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.

• As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation
computers also saw the development ofGUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.
• BLOCK DIAGRAM & COMPONENTS

• COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER

• A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics. They can solve highly complicated
problems quickly and accurately. A computer as performs basically five major computer
operations or functions irrespective of their size and make. These are

• 1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input,

• 2) it stores data,

• 3) it can process data as required by the user,

• 4) it gives results in the form of output, and

• 5) it controls all operations inside a computer.

• Input: • This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system.

• Computer inputs raw data and performs some processing giving out processed

• The input unit takes data from us to the computer in an organized manner for processing.

2. Storage: • The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage.
 • Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts because the processing
speed of CPU is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed.

• Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing

• All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.

• Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.

3. Processing: • The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
process.

• The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and
makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data
provided.

• It is then sent back to the storage unit.

4. Output: • This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information.

• The output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere
inside the computer before being given to you in human readable form.

• The output is also stored inside the computer for further processing.

• 5. Control: • The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are
performed.

• • Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit.

• • It takes care of step by step processing of all operations inside the computer.

• FUNCTIONAL UNITS

• In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the computer allocates
the task between its various functional units. The computer system is divided into three
separate units for its operation. They are

• 1.Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)

Logical Unit :After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage unit.
The actual processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The
major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and
comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the
output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored
2.Control Unit (CU)

The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that
things are done in proper fashion. Control Unit is responsible for co ordinating various operations
using time signal. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and
instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main memory,
interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer to execute
them. It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer
simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they
perform the input and output.

3.Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit. You may
call CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major decisions,
makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer functions by activating and
controlling the operations.

CLASSIFICATION AND LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER

computers are classified as :

 Analog Computer

An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of computer that

uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model
the problem being solved

 Digital Computer

A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as digits,
usually in the binary number system

 Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)

A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital and
analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost effective method of performing
complex simulations

On the basis of Size

The fastest and most powerful type of computer Supercomputers are very expensive and are
employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations.
For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers include
animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum exploration.

The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels
all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power
to execute many programs concurrently.

Mainframe Computer

A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users
simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches, for example)
at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below
supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they
support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than
a mainframe.

Mini Computer

A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie between workstations and mainframes.
In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred,
however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a
minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from 4 to about 200 users
simultaneously.

Micro Computer or Personal Computer

• Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk.

• Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and keyboard. It is
generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than a notebook computer.

• Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer. Palmtops have no

keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output device.

Workstations

A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context, workstation is just a generic term for a
user

'Limitations of Computers

a. No Self Intelligence
Today, a computer is able to do a work which is impossible for man. Computers are used to do
risky and dangerous work and where sharp actually is needed. But it does not have any
 intelligence of its own. It works according to the instruction only.

b. No Decision-Making power
Computer cannot take any decision of its own. It does only those tasks which are already
instructed to it.

c. No learning power
Computer has no learning power. Once you give instructions to a computer how to perform a
task, the very task is cannot perform if you do not give it any instructions for the next time. For
example, when you are taught how to solve a problem and it same type of problem is given to
you to solve, then you can do it because you have learned how to solve the problem.

MEMORY
The computer memory is a temporary storage area. It holds the data and instructions that the
Central Processing Unit (CPU) needs. Before a program can be run, the program is loaded from
some storage medium into the memory. This allows the CPU direct access to the program.
Memory is a need for any computer.
A computer is usually an electrical device, which understands only electricity on and electricity
off. This is expressed by using two symbols – 0 and 1 – which are
called binarydigits or bits. Numbers and text characters are represented as codes, which are
made up of combinations of 0s and 1s. Simple character codes are called ASCII (the American
Standard Code for Information Interchange), and Unicode. In ASCII, eight bits – any combination
of 0s and 1s – form one character or symbol. For example, the letter A is denoted by the code
01000001. The basic working unit of the computer's memory is a group of eight bits, which is
called a byte.
The computer's memory consists of many millions of bytes. To make it easier, the unit K
(for kilobytes) can be used to express memory capacity. One K equals 1,024. For example, 64K
bytes of memory is the same as 65,536 (1,024 × 64 = 65,536) bytes. For larger memory
capacities, the units mega and giga can be used. One megabyte of computer memory usually
means 1024 kilobytes, which is 1,048,576 bytes, whereas one gigabyte means 1024 megabytes,
which is 1,073,741,824 bytes.
The CPU calls instructions and data from the computer's memory. Because the same computer
performs different tasks at different times, the memory is erasable—much likeaudio cassette.
But there are some programs and instructions which the computer needs. It does not matter
what function you are performing. These programs often are permanently recorded in the
memory. So they cannot be destroyed. As a result, the computer's memory usually consists of
two parts:
1. Random access memory(RAM)
2. Read only memory(ROM)

Read only memory(ROM)

Read only memory (ROM) is the permanent memory which is used to store important control
programs and systems software to perform a variety of functions, such as bootingup or starting
up programs. ROM is non-volatile. That means the contents are not lost when the power is
switched off. Its contents are written at the time of manufacture, but in modern (2012)
computers may be changed using special software.

Random access memory(RAM)

Random access memory (RAM) is used as the working memory of a computer system. It stores
input data, intermediate results, programs, and other information temporarily. It can be read
and/or written. It is usually volatile, that is all data will be lost when the power is turned off. In
most cases it is loaded again from hard disk which is used as data storage.

Flash Memory
Flash memory is a type of electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM).
Whew, that's a mouthful. The name comes from how the memory is designed -- a section of
memory cells can be erased in a single action or in a "flash." A common use of flash memory is
to store the BIOS settings in a computer's ROM. When the BIOS needs to be changed, the flash
memory can be written in blocks, rather than bytes, making it easy to update. Most modems use
flash memory for the same reason.
Though flash memory was orginally used inside computers, it has invaded many other areas
outside the box. Flash memory cards used for digital cameras, cellular phones, networking
hardware, and PC cards. Though the memory's read/write speed is not lightning fast, it is nice to
be able to tote around a little card rather than a cumbersome hard drive.

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICE

Secondary Storage Device
Alternatively referred to as external memory,secondary memory, and auxiliary storage,
asecondary storage device is a non-volatiledevice that holds data until it is deleted or
overwritten. Secondary storage is about two orders of magnitude cheaper than primary storage.
Consequently, hard drives (a prime example of secondary storage) are the go-to solution for
nearly all data kept on today's computers.
The image shows three types of storage, but off-line storage is a subset of secondary storage as
they both serve the same purpose and do not interact directly with the CPU. The key differences
being that off-line storage is used as a way to physically transport information, generally has
less capacity, and isn't accessible without human interaction.