ISC3701 MODULE ORIENTATION & OVERVIEW

CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1
II. PURPOSE OF THE MODULE .............................................................................. 2
III. MODULE OUTCOMES ......................................................................................... 2
IV. WHAT TO EXPECT FROM THE STUDY GUIDE ................................................. 2
V. WHAT WE EXPECT OF YOU AS A STUDENT IN THIS MODULE ...................... 2
VI. STUDY MATERIAL FOR THIS MODULE ............................................................. 3
VII. TUITION AND ASSESSMENT .............................................................................. 4
VIII. SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES ....................................................................... 4
IX. ORIENTATION TO USING MYUNISA .................................................................. 4
X. ICONS ................................................................................................................... 5
XI. CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 7

INTRODUCTION

WELCOME
Dear ISC3701 students,
Welcome to the Instructional Studies in Context (ISC3701) module. This module will take
you through general teaching and learning principles, and the various styles and models
of instruction that will equip you to be a good designer of teaching events or lessons.
Please read through this OVERVIEW OF THE MODULE page, as it has all the important
information about the lessons (learning units) and about how to use the study guide.
Please do not hesitate to contact us at isc3701@unisa.ac.za if you need any help or
clarity on any content related matter, grades, assignments, or exams. Always use your
myLife email address to avoid your email being sent to the junk mailbox, and not being
attended to in time.
We wish you every success with your studies!
Kind regards,

Open Rubric
The ISC3701 Team

PURPOSE OF THE MODULE

The purpose of this module is to provide a foundation and scaffolding for teaching methodologies
and strategies in education. Students who complete this module will be able to understand the
teaching methodologies and strategies in education, and design effective learning activities. This
module focuses on designing effective instruction for diverse learning contexts. Additionally, it
equips student teachers with essential skills related to integrating technology into their teaching
practices.

MODULE OUTCOMES

• Outcome 1: Explain the nature and key concepts related to instructional design
across diverse contexts.
• Outcome 2: Evaluate various viewpoints and alternative teaching methodologies
and teaching strategies in education.
• Outcome 3: Design instruction for a learning event such as a lesson, a training
session, or a tutoring class.
• Outcome 4: Put it all together by designing your own instructional event, and
reflecting on your design.

WHAT TO EXPECT FROM THE STUDY GUIDE

The study guide is divided into five learning units, each consisting of the following:

• Unit specific outcomes – these are the things you should be able to do and
understand once you have worked through the unit.
• The table of contents in each unit provides information on the focus of that unit.
• Activities are intended to help you engage actively with your study material and
with your environment.
• The checklist of outcomes at the end of each learning unit will help you
determine whether you have gained as much as possible from reading the unit.
Where relevant, you may need to access additional reading material.
• The icons on the left-hand side of the page inform you of the kind of activity you
will be working on.

WHAT WE EXPECT OF YOU AS A STUDENT IN THIS MODULE

Unisa is an open distance e-learning (ODeL) higher education institution. Teaching and
learning in an ODeL context involves multiple modes of delivery ranging from blended to
fully online learning. The Instructional Studies in Context (ISC3701) module is a fully
online module, which means that all of the information is available via the internet. Thus,
we use myUnisa as our virtual campus. This is an online system that is used to administer,
document, and deliver educational material to you and to support our engagement with
you. Because this is a fully online module, you will need to use the myUnisa Leaning
Management System (LMS) available at (https://my.unisa.ac.za) to study and to complete
the learning activities for this module.
You are encouraged to log into the module site on myUnisa regularly (that is, at least
three times per week). The module website code is ISC3701-24-Y.
ODeL is a different way of learning. Click here to read more on what is it like to be an
ODeL student.

As you start this module, we assume that you can:

• read academic texts with understanding;

• learn from academic texts in the language of instruction;
• write academic essays in the language of instruction;
• relate the concepts you learn to practical real-life situations;
• use electronic devices to type your work;
• study independently in a distance education environment;
• appreciate academic integrity and submit assessment work which is a product of
your own effort;
• use, and have the necessary tools and devices to complete the required tasks in
this module.

STUDY MATERIAL FOR THIS MODULE

Your study material for this module includes the following:

• Tutorial Letter 101 (available under the “Official Study Material” tab on the myUnisa
module site)
• Tutorial Letter ISC3701
• Any other tutorial letters that you may receive throughout the year
• E-reserve articles on the library’s e-reserves site
• Any additional electronic communications you receive (e.g., announcements from
your lecturer).
TUITION AND ASSESSMENT

This is a fully online module, which means that it is delivered via the myUnisa Leaning
Management System (LMS), the internet, and other myUnisa tools. Your lecturers will
interact with you on myUnisa and via e-mail. It is critical that you familiarise yourself with
the myUnisa LMS and Tutorial Letter 101 (see section VI of this tutorial letter), as this is
where you will find the assessment plan, as well as important information and guidelines
on how to study this module online. The tutorial letter is available on myUnisa under
“Official Study Material”.

SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

We have prepared self-assessment activities which appear throughout the learning units.
The activities require you to either give your opinion, read sections of the study guide,
read articles related to the module, or link the content in the study guide to your everyday
life experiences and prior knowledge. These tasks will:

• make learning more interesting;

• help you remember information better, as you will be actively involved in learning by
doing;
• link theory and practice;
• involve you in the search for answers;
• acknowledge that you are an adult learner, and give you a chance to incorporate your
own knowledge into your study material;
• motivate you because the activities will help you check your own progress;
• help you to collect and arrange information that could be used in essay-type
assignments;
• give you a chance to think about interesting ideas and arguments you may come
across for the first time.

As you work through the study material, use a notebook to make your own notes and
complete the various activities in the study guide. This will assist you when it comes to
preparing for the assignments and for the non-venue examination for this module. Your
textbook was selected as a guide to support you throughout your degree, and you will
continue to find it useful once you have qualified and are working as a teacher.

ORIENTATION TO USING myUNISA

You need to be able to use the various menu options on the myUnisa site, as
they will enable you to participate actively in the learning process.
The options include the following:
 myUnisa menu option What you will find here
Official Study Material Your study guide and tutorial letters can be found under this
option.
Announcements From time to time, the lecturer will use this facility to share
important information about this module. You will receive an email
notification of the new announcements posted on myUNISA.
Calendar This tool shows important dates (e.g., examination dates and
deadlines for assignments). You need this information to help you
manage your time and plan your own schedule.
Additional Resources The lecturer may use this folder to provide you with additional
learning material that might help you in your studies for this
module. You will receive an email notification when documents
are uploaded in this folder.
Assessment Info This tool allows you to submit your assignments electronically,
and monitor your results. For information on how to submit your
assignments, consult Tutorial Letter 101.

When interacting online, always be mindful of, and respectful towards your fellow students
and lecturers. The rules of polite behaviour on the internet are referred to as netiquette –
a term that means “online manners”. Access the website below to learn more about
netiquette:
http://www.carnegiecyberacademy.com/facultyPages/communication/netiquette.html
Please observe the rules of netiquette during your normal, online communication with
your fellow students, lecturers, and the administrative staff. Remember to be courteous
when using the discussion forums. Netiquette also applies when communicating with your
lecturers via email or telephone.

ICONS

Look out for the following icons as you work through the study guide:

Icon Description
The icon indicates the start of the outcomes for that learning unit.
 This activities icon means that you need to write down your
answers for the activity. These activities are not for grading
purposes.

This means that the section is dealt with in your prescribed

textbook, and that you need to read the section in your textbook
before continuing.

This means that you need to log into myUnisa for a resource or
an activity.

The open book indicates that you need to do additional reading

Here is a brief overview of the module lessons (learning units):

Learning unit Main content

1: Instructional studies in • What is instruction?
context • Concepts related to teaching
• Roles and responsibilities of teachers
regarding instruction
• Curriculum concepts
• African perspectives on teaching
2: Practices and possibilities in • Instructional styles
instruction • Instructional contexts
• Instructional forms
• Instructional approaches and strategies
• Instruction at different levels
3: Models and theories of • The ADDIE model
instruction • Instructional design for teachers model (ID4T)
• Understanding by design (UbD)
• Merrill’s five principles of instruction
• Gagne’s nine events of instruction
• Dick and Carey’s model of instructional design
• Gardner’s multiple intelligences
• Kolb’s learning styles
• Honey and Mumford’s learning styles
 4: Putting it all together: • Designing a learning event
designing your own • Reflecting on and improving the design
instructional event, and
reflecting on your design
• Reflecting as a teacher

CONCLUSION

We hope you will find this module interesting and engaging. If you have academic queries
about the content of this module, do not hesitate to contact your lecturers via email or
telephone.

We wish you every success with your studies!

The ISC3701 Team

 LEARNING UNIT 1

Instructional Studies in Context

Contents

1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Understanding instruction 2
1.3 Characteristics of practices 6
1.4 Key concepts relating to instruction 9
1.5 The place, importance and value of instruction 12
1.6 Teacher roles and responsibilities in instruction 13
1.7 African teaching philosophies and perspectives 18
1.8 Curriculum concepts 21
1.9 Conclusion 23
1.10 Learning outcomes checklist 23
References 24

Learning outcomes
When you have worked through this study unit, you should be able to:

• Explain the nature of and concepts associated with instruction.

• Develop and demonstrate an understanding of your role and responsibilities in the context of
instruction.
• Define a curriculum and apply its concepts.
• Have developed an appreciation for, and give due consideration to the African perspectives on
education and instruction that have been neglected and suppressed.

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 1.1 INTRODUCTION

This study unit offers an understanding of the nature of instruction and its related concepts. It helps student
teachers gain clarity on when and where instruction can be given to ensure its value. Therefore, it is essential
for student teachers to understand their roles and responsibilities in the context of instruction, taking into
consideration African teaching philosophies and perspectives.

1.2 UNDERSTANDING INSTRUCTION

Instruction can relate to being told or informed about something, and is also about communicating how
something should be done. Practitioners in the fields of education, teaching and training use the term
‘instruction’ extensively. In this module, we will consider instruction in its role in formal education. Instruction
can also entail being told what to do without another person doing the instructing (e.g. following a written
method or a computer program). However, in the context of education, we talk about instruction that involves
people. A teacher is involved with the theory of instruction. Teaching is how instruction manifests itself within
a school or classroom. In this module, I will use the terms ‘teaching’ and ‘instruction’ interchangeably, even
though instruction often relates to getting people to the point where they are able to do something, while
teaching can be considered as stimulating their thinking. Instruction therefore relates to the aspect of
teaching that is planned and purposeful. Teaching is often more holistic, as it involves more than just the
instructional component.

Stop for a few minutes to consider the following question. Speak to other people (this could include other
students) and write down some ideas.

Activity 1.1

What is teaching?

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Feedback
Did you notice that different people have different interpretations of the concept of teaching?

Please share your own definitions by participating in the myUnisa discussion forum for this
module. Did you notice that some definitions relate to teaching as knowledge, teaching as
a skill, or even teaching as an art form? All of these would be correct. Teaching is a very
complex endeavor.

In the next section, I would like you to form an overview of the concept of teaching. You already know quite
a lot about teaching. You would not be here, reading this module, if you did not. You have been a student
for many years in school, and also perhaps in college, and you have probably also done some teaching. Let
us find some examples of teaching to help us to think about teaching as an activity. For a start, recall three
examples of teaching from your own experience.

Activity 1.2

(1) Briefly describe three examples of teaching that you have experienced. Try to think
of three examples that are as different as possible from each other. Identify each
example with a few words, or a sentence or two. Label your examples (a), (b), and
(c) to make it easier to refer to them later.
(2) Think about your three examples by answering the following eight questions:

(a) Are all three of your examples cases of teaching that take place in schools?
(b) Are all the teachers in your examples people who are employed as teachers in
schools?
(c) Are you the teacher in any of your examples?

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 (d) Are any of your examples cases in which more than one teacher was involved?
(e) Are any of your examples cases of teaching in which the teacher was younger
than the learners?
(f) Are any of your examples cases in which the learners were not school or
college students?
(g) Are any of your examples cases in which only one learner was involved?
(h) Are any of your examples cases of teaching that took place over a long time
(more than the length of a school lesson)?
(i) Is there another question that could be added here?

Feedback

The purpose of the questions in activity 1.2 is to try to break the common idea that
teaching only takes place in classrooms, in schools and colleges, and in formal
institutions of learning. Your three examples, (a), (b), and (c), are probably examples of
this specialized kind of teaching.

1.2.1 The common picture of teaching

From your own experience, you know that teaching is not only found in classrooms of formal institutions of
learning. You know that in everyday life, mothers teach their children how to eat their food properly,
grandfathers teach their grandchildren how to grow vegetables, older brothers and sisters teach their
younger siblings how to dress themselves or clean their teeth, and school-going children might teach an
older relative how to speak English or read. When we think carefully about teaching, we are reminded that
teaching is an activity which is constantly present in the everyday lives of normal human communities. In
fact, most teaching takes place outside of the walls and timetables of schools and colleges, and most
teaching is done by anyone who knows something that someone else does not, and not only by people who
are in the teaching profession.

The common picture of teaching is too narrow, as it only covers a restricted range of examples of teaching.
This is why it is misleading to try to find out what is the distinctive activity of teaching when considering the
activity clearly and within the appropriate shaping of its internal time and space. In introducing Activity 1.2,
one of the things we suggested is that you already know a lot about teaching because “you have been a
student for many years in school”. We can now see that this might have led you onto a specific path. To say
that you have been a ‘student’ for many years is different from saying that you have been a ‘learner’ for
many years. You have been a learner for many more years than you have been a student, and many of the
things that you have learnt, have been learnt outside of schools and colleges. Additionally, a lot of what you
have learnt has been taught to you by people who were not officially teachers. In the first five or six years
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of your life, before you ever went to school, you learnt some of the most important skills you will ever use,
such as how to speak and the social etiquette of a human being. Throughout your life, many different people
with whom you have come into contact have taught you many different things.

Further, in the introduction of Activity 1.2, we suggested that you “have probably done some teaching”.
Perhaps you took this to mean that you have probably already taught in a school, or in some other formal
institution of learning. However, thinking in terms of the general activity of teaching, it is extremely unlikely
that you have done no teaching at all. Think of examples such as mothers teaching children how to use a
spoon to eat their food, uncles teaching their nephews how to restart a car which has stopped, siblings
teaching each other or their friends how to dress fashionably or play a game, or a grandmother teaching
their grandchild how to thread a needle. As a normal member of a society, you must be able to think of the
many examples of teaching that you have done, although they might not have come to mind when you were
thinking of examples for Activity 1.2.

Also think about of how teaching some kinds of skills can take extended periods, perhaps even years. For
example, the time it takes to teach a person how to read or write, and the time it takes to teach a person
how to speak a language fluently. These examples also help us think about another way in which the
common picture of teaching can be very misleading, as that picture suggests that in all cases of teaching,
only a single teacher is involved. However, we know that we were taught how to read or write by a series of
teachers, over a number of years. We can also think of other examples in which a number of teachers are
involved – i.e., a novice motorcar mechanic might be taught his skills by the half a dozen experienced
mechanics already working in the garage.

Now think of some additional examples of teaching, examples that break free of the common picture of
teaching.

What have we learnt so far?

Here are the main points of our discussion which explain how we can tell whether
someone is teaching:

(1) A person who is teaching must be engaging in some appropriate action, and must
be engaging in that action with appropriate intentions.
(2) We can tell what the appropriate actions and intentions are only in terms of the
formal purpose that defines the activity of teaching.
(3) The formal purpose of an activity is a concept that is shared in a community; it is
neither personal nor subjective.

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 1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF PRACTICES

Here we briefly introduce the five characteristics of practices:

(1) Practices are necessarily social.

(2) Practices have histories and traditions.
(3) Practices are flexible in relation to changing conditions.
(4) A practice can change, but only within the boundaries of our understanding of what
makes it a distinctive practice.
(5) Practices have their own internal standards of success and excellence.

1.3.1 Practices are necessarily social

In a manner that is more evident than in the case of some other activities, practices are shared and
sustained in communities of practitioners. To see something as a practice, places much more emphasis on
its social aspect. This is not merely a point about how some activities are inherently social, for example
when playing a team game or having a discussion, where it is necessary to involve a number of participants
who act in co-ordination with each other (i.e., a person cannot play hockey or chess, or teach by
themselves.) However, it is a point about how what is considered to be participation in an activity cannot
just be a matter of personal intentions or individual decisions. Even though there are some practices such
as writing a novel, which might be done by a single person working on their own, what counts as writing a
novel cannot be a matter of an individual decision.

We have already considered examples of this kind, in relation to Pat doing the housework and Martha doing
the gardening. Our shared understanding of housework and gardening draws a boundary around what could
count as an example of participating in the practices of housework or gardening. This boundary might not
be very sharp, but we know that there is a boundary because we know that for example, dozing in front of
the TV cannot be considered to be any form of housework or gardening. This boundary was established by
the agreement amongst those who participate in the activity, and the people who talk and think about these
things. The origins of this understanding is unlikely to have been an explicit agreement at a particular
moment, such as agreeing to name a newborn child Thandi. However, there is implicit agreement about the
concepts which we use to understand our world. Because this understanding is shared and communal,
rather than individual or personal, we can say that it is based on inter-personal agreement. And in this way,
practices are essentially social.

1.3.2 Practices have histories and traditions

Unlike some other activities, practices have histories and traditions. The practices of cooking, building
shelters, playing soccer, thinking scientifically, and of course school teaching, all have histories during which

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particular traditions were developed of how to participate in the practice, and of what counts as good or
excellent participation. To become a participant in a practice involves critically appropriating its history and
traditions, and anyone who imagines themselves as having invented a practice without having taken
account of its history and traditions, is simply naïve or ignorant.

1.3.3 Practices are flexible in relation to changing conditions

The traditions that are embedded in a practice, and that serve partly to define it, are not rigid or static.
Practices can be thought of as being open and ongoing projects that stop changing only when they cease
to have vitality and significance in our communal lives. Over time practices change, sometimes gradually,
but sometimes quite rapidly. What brings about such changes, are changes in our knowledge of the practice
and how its definitive goals can be better served, changes in relevant technologies and circumstances, and
creative innovations from some of its participants. In these ways, practices remain open to revision and
improvement.

1.3.4 A practice can change, but only within the boundaries of our understanding
about what makes it a distinctive practice

Although practices are open to revision, those revisions and improvements remain within the broad
boundaries that mark out the scope of the practice. There are important distinctions between improving a
practice, abandoning the practice or substituting it for a different practice. Over time, a practice just as with
the game of cricket, changes, although the question of whether such changes count as improvements is
always a matter of controversy. The practice of playing cricket doesn’t change simply by everyone ceasing
to play cricket, or by substituting it for another game, such as baseball. There is something essential to the
practice of playing cricket and the changes that take place within, as we might put it – the framework of that
essence – otherwise the changes in question are not changes in the practice of cricket at all.

If we think back to what we have discovered in the formal purpose of the activity of teaching, we can see
how this might work. That formal purpose is now being seen as the formal purpose of the practice of
teaching, and it creates the conceptual and practical boundary of what we are prepared to accept as an
example of teaching. The formal purpose of teaching is to bring about in practical terms, how someone tries
to learn something. How this might be done is not specified for this purpose, and we know that there are
many ways of doing this. Improvements in the practice of teaching might arise from changes in relevant
technology, changes in our knowledge of the conditions for learning, or even from a practitioner discovering
a way of accomplishing this purpose in a manner that had not been previously thought of.

1.3.5 Practices have their own internal standards of success and excellence

A very important fifth characteristic of these practices is that they have internal standards of success and
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excellence. Someone can participate well or poorly in the practice of cooking for example. Some participants
are much more successful than others when it comes to cooking, and some even achieve excellence in this
practice. The criteria for success or excellence is internal to the practice. For example, one cannot judge
the excellence of a choir singing in terms of the criteria appropriate for judging the excellence of participating
in the practice of gymnastics, as such judgments are not subjective or of a personal opinion. We can add,
that when the standards of success and excellence of one practice are used in judging success and
excellence in another practice, that practice can be corrupted or distorted.

Activity 1.3

Write some notes under each of the five headings about the practices related to teaching
as a practice. Can you think of practical examples from your own experience? How does
teaching manifest itself as a social, flexible, historically rich, and changing within
boundaries and standards-based practice?

Feedback

Are you beginning to see that teaching and instruction is a very complex endeavor, and that even after
a number of years of studying to be a teacher, you will be involved in life-long learning?

There are many forms of teaching, and teaching is often defined in different ways. Let’s look at some
definitions of this concept.

1.4 KEY CONCEPTS RELATING TO INSTRUCTION

Let us take a look at some of the concepts commonly associated with instruction. These definitions are
not exhaustive, but they do provide you with a starting point from which to formulate your own
understanding and formulation of these concepts.

Fraser, Loubser and Van Rooy (1990, p.3) state that “teaching is an activity which aims at presenting
certain (learning) content to somebody else in such a way that person learns something from it”, they
add that teaching is “intentional, dynamic, systematic, and well founded”. Teaching is intentional
because it has an educational aim, it is dynamic because it should yield learning results, it is systematic
because it is deliberately planned, and it is well founded because it is based on definite guidelines (e.g.
a curriculum document), and it is evaluated continuously.

Orlich, Harder, Callahan, Trevisan and Brown (2010) explain that teaching is both a science and an art.
It is an art because it requires a teacher to make decisions, and it is a science because it requires the
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knowledge of techniques.

You will notice that it is very difficult to separate ‘teaching’ from ‘learning’. The science of teaching is
called didactics, while pedagogy refers to a more holistic study of the educational process involving not-
yet-adult learners.

Are there other words that are similar in meaning to the word ‘teaching’? How many similar words can
you find?

Teaching: The goal of teaching is to ensure that meaningful learning takes place. This means that
teaching is more than instructing, and presenting lessons – teaching involves all the teacher’s activities
before, during, and after lessons. Smith and Ragan (1999) make the following distinction between
teaching and instruction: teaching is a learning experience facilitated by a person, whereas instruction
does not always involve human interaction – for instance, you could receive instructions on your phone
or via a computer app. The definitions of teaching are varied and complex. If we look at the roles you
are expected to fulfill as a teacher, you will understand why teaching is a multi-faceted and complex
endeavour.

These roles should be understood as the everyday functions of the collective of all educators at a school.
These functions seldom have to be carried out completely, in all their detail, or all of the time by individual
teachers. However, teachers carry out the roles that are appropriate to their specific position in the
school. All classroom teachers are developed in the seven roles as appropriate to their practice. These
roles are specified in the Revised Policy on Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education
Qualifications, which appears in Government Gazette no. 38487 (Department of Higher Education and
Training, 2015).

Teacher: A professionally qualified person who undertakes to teach in a formal environment such as a
school or college. In informal contexts, it could refer to anyone who teaches something to someone
else.
Instruction: The teaching and learning activities that are planned and executed during a lesson.
Instruction is designed with a specific purpose in mind and to achieve certain goals. The ultimate
decision a teacher makes regarding instructional choices must contribute to learning and must be of
educational value to learners. The term ‘instruction’ can include various forms such as training,
teaching, facilitating, mentoring, and tutoring. Smith and Ragan (1999:3) consider instruction to be
the delivery of a focused educational experience.
Training: Smith and Ragan (1999) describe training as a form of instruction where specific job-related
skills are taught. Often the skills learnt will be used almost immediately. Training is also used in terms

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 of sporting activities or military exercises, so repetition is involved.
Mentoring: The Oxford Learner’s dictionary defines a mentor as an experienced person in a company
or educational institution who trains and counsels new employees or students (Oxford Learners
Dictionaries.com). Mentoring can involve two adults, one of whom advises and trains the other.
Lancer, Clutterbuck and Megginson (2016:6) state that “the mentor has wisdom and experience, but
uses them to help the mentee become courageous and develop their own wisdom rather than to
impart knowledge.”
Facilitating: A facilitator normally works with a group. The role of a facilitator is to make things easier
for the group, but not to tell them what to do or give them the solution. The group normally has a
problem to solve, and the facilitator enables them to reach their solution collectively. The facilitator
also assists with group dynamics. Hogan (2002) explains that facilitators may direct learning by
making planning decisions for the group. The facilitator may act as negotiator by helping learners
share ideas, or the facilitator may delegate roles to group members so that they can become more
independent.
Tutoring: Oxford Learner’s dictionary tells us that this word stems from the Latin word tūtor meaning to
guard or to watch (Oxford Learners Dictionaries.com). Tutoring entails one person assisting an
individual or small group. A tutor is in many instances, a personal teacher who assists a learner with
a particular subject. Sometimes tutors have less experience or are less qualified than a professional
teacher or lecturer. Gagne (1987:319) states that cross age and peer tutoring can take place as the
tutor adapts the instruction for the learner.
Learners/pupils/students: These terms are sometimes used synonymously (i.e., to mean the same
thing). Generally, any person who is learning can be considered to be a learner. In the South African
school context, we often use the term ‘pupil’, and in South Africa we refer to post-school learners as
‘students’. Internationally, the term ‘students’ is also used to refer to learners of school-going age.
Learning: This is the goal of teaching and instruction. Broadly, it refers to the acquisition of knowledge
and skills. It also refers to an understanding of concepts that could not be understood, or an ability
to do something that could not be done before the teaching or instruction took place.
Teaching methods: These are those specific teacher and learner activities that you plan and execute
during a lesson. The methods depend on your learners, the content, and the aims of your lesson.
A teacher needs to consider how to optimise learning through the choice of teaching methods. Liu
and Shi (2007) tell us that a teaching method is characterised by a set of principles, procedures, or
strategies to be implemented by teachers to achieve desired learning in students. These principles
and procedures are determined partly by the nature of the subject matter to be taught, and partly
by our beliefs or theories about how students learn. As such, defining a teaching method is not as
simple as one might first think. Carl (2015:115) explains that there is a “close connection between

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learning experiences, learning opportunities, and teaching methods.” Carl (2015: 115) further
describes the connection as arising from the fact that both the teacher’s and the learner’s actions
result in a learning opportunity where the learner could be actively involved, and a meaningful
experience could result from this involvement. Carl (2015: 116) defines a teaching method as the
“ways or means, which will acquaint the learners with the content in a manner that will lead to
learning.”

Activity 1.5

1.1. How many synonyms (words with the same meaning) can you find for the word
teaching? Create a list here:

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

1.2. Show how the synonyms in your list can be used in the school context.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

2. How many teaching methods do you know? Identify as many as you can by
consulting books and the internet.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

3. In some circles, learning to become a teacher is called teacher training, while in

others it is called initial teacher education. What are your thoughts about the
difference between the two? Is learning to teach about acquiring a set of skills, or is
11
 learning to teach a deeper, life-long process? Is training part of learning to teach?

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

Feedback

Perhaps the term ‘education’ is more holistic than the term ‘training’ as it encompasses growing and
developing the whole student. Education refers to developing a holistic knowledge, and the skills and
values related to teaching, whereas training refers to just a narrow set of skills.

1.5 THE PLACE, IMPORTANCE, AND VALUE OF INSTRUCTION

Lowery and Hayes (2014:xiii) introduce the concept of teaching as “an essential part of life [that has
been] on this earth for a very long time”. People throughout the ages have so valued their cultures and
traditions, that handing these traditions down to their children was an important part of life. Therefore,
teaching and instruction have always been part of human existence. Teaching was often undertaken by
the most educated people in a community (Hoadley & Jansen, 2014), which led to a high regard for
teachers. Teaching has changed, and the days when teachers were mere transmitters of knowledge to
passive, uninvolved learners are long gone (Khoza, 2015). Today, teachers need to involve learners
creatively in their learning, and incorporate relevant technology. Kruger (1997) explains that teachers
need to be knowledgeable regarding up-to-date instructional methods. They also need to know how to
adapt these methods to learners at different levels and to individual learners. Khoza (2015) reminds us
that teachers must have a holistic view of teaching that involves physical, cognitive, social and moral
aspects, and volition, and not just knowledge and intellect. Teachers are the most critical layer of the
curriculum, since they breathe life into the curriculum and integrate what they know about their learners
and their communities into the instructional environment. A teacher’s role in forming and building
knowledge, skills, orientations, beliefs, and values should never be underestimated.

1.6 TEACHER ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN INSTRUCTION

As a teacher, you will be making many decisions every day. Orlich et al. (2010) remind us that with
decision-making comes responsibility, but they point out that some decisions are made on behalf of
teachers, such as the curriculum, the number of learners in the class, and the time school starts.
Teachers, however, still make many other decisions every day. You may not even be aware of the
decisions you are making, as you will make them almost automatically. Orlich et al. (2010) note that
12
teachers who take responsibility for decision-making, try to get as much information as possible about
their students and their subject, and then develop a teaching plan aimed at success.

One of your roles and responsibilities regarding instruction is to align your teaching to the relevant
curriculum. The CAPS documents are underpinned by the wider framework of the South African
Constitution. This wider framework has set out some general aims for the curriculum. Let’s have a look
at these.

General aims of the South African curriculum

(a) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R–12 gives expression to the knowledge,
skills, and values worth learning in South African schools. This curriculum aims to ensure
that children acquire and apply the knowledge and skills in ways that are meaningful to
their own lives. In this regard, the curriculum promotes knowledge in local contexts, while
being sensitive to global imperatives.
(b) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R–12 serves the purpose of:
• equipping learners, irrespective of their socio-economic background, race, gender,
physical ability, or intellectual ability with the knowledge, skills, and values necessary
for self-fulfillment and meaningful participation in society as citizens of a free country;
• providing access to higher education;
• facilitating the transition of learners from education institutions to the workplace; and
• providing teachers with a sufficient profile of a learner’s competences.

(c) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R–12 is based on the following principles:
• Social transformation to ensure that the educational imbalances of the past are
redressed, and that equal educational opportunities are provided for all sections of
the population;
• Active and critical learning to encourage an active and critical approach to learning,
rather than the rote and uncritical learning of given truths;
• High knowledge and high skills which are the minimum standards of knowledge and
skills to be achieved at each grade. These are specified, set high, and achievable
standards found in all subjects;
• Progression in the content and context of each grade which shows progression from
simple to complex;
• Human rights, inclusivity, environmental and social justice which pertain to the
infusing of the principles and practices of social and environmental justice, and human
rights as defined in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa. The National

13
 Curriculum Statement Grades R–12 is sensitive to issues of diversity such as poverty,
inequality, race, gender, language, age, disability, and other factors;
• Valuing indigenous knowledge systems by acknowledging the rich history and
heritage of this country as important contributors to nurturing the values contained in
the Constitution; and
• Credibility, quality, and efficiency in providing an education that is comparable in
quality, breadth, and depth to that of other countries.

(d) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R–12 aims to produce learners that are
able to:
• identify and solve problems, and make decisions using critical and creative
thinking;
• work effectively as individuals and with others as members of a team;
• organise and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and effectively;
• collect, analyse, organise, and critically evaluate information;
• communicate effectively using visual, symbolic and/or language skills in various
modes;
• use science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility towards
the environment and the health of others; and
• demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by
recognising that problem-solving contexts do not exist in isolation.
(e) Inclusivity should become a central part of the organisation, planning, and teaching at
each school. This can only happen if all teachers have a sound understanding of how to
recognise and address barriers to learning, and how to plan for diversity.
The key to managing inclusivity is ensuring that barriers are identified and addressed by all the
relevant support structures within the school community, including teachers, district-based support
teams, institutional-level support teams, parents, and special schools as resource centres. To
address barriers in the classroom, teachers should use various curriculum differentiation strategies
such as those included in the Department of Basic Education’s Guidelines for Inclusive Teaching
and Learning.

Source: Department of Basic Education (2011).

You should always have the greater aims of the curriculum in mind, even if you are not following the
CAPS curriculum, as this will assist you in making some of the decisions that you will need to make
when planning instruction. In terms of instruction, your other roles and responsibilities include:

• Analysing learning needs. This means that you design lessons that cater for the needs of the
learners in your classroom by adapting, refining, and redesigning learning activities to optimise the
learning for your specific learners.
• Articulating your learning intentions. You write out your lesson planning to ensure that you have
14
 considered the detail of how your lesson will proceed. You have clear learning goals and outcomes.
These aims and outcomes allow you to make a good selection of the content, material, and teaching
methods. When you are doing lesson planning, these are usually the first things that you formulate.
• Selecting content to enable you to achieve your teaching aims and learning
outcomes/objectives. You do this by considering your curriculum.
• Selecting the relevant teaching and learning material. Learning material is often referred to as
teaching resources, or LTSM (learner-teacher-support material). Analysing your learning needs
carefully and writing out your aims, goals, outcomes, and objectives will guide you in your choice of
learning material.
• Selecting appropriate teaching methods to achieve your teaching aims and learning
outcomes/objectives. This will be the driving force of your lesson. How will the teaching and learning
take place? Who will do what?
• Planning for both the formal and informal formative assessment as well as for the summative
assessment. Formative assessment guides your actions as a teacher in terms of how learners are
progressing towards meeting the lesson aims and outcomes.

Formative assessment provides feedback to the learners while they are learning. Summative
assessment is the way in which you will evaluate student learning at the end of the lesson, section
of work or term.
• Reflecting on your lesson. Spend time thinking about how learning could be enhanced or supported.
Too many teachers consider teaching and learning only after they have marked a test or an
examination. Reflection on your teaching should be built into your day. Do not only consider the
lesson from your own perspective; think about how the learners experienced your lesson.
• Keeping abreast of the latest ideas in teaching as these relate to methods and technology. Do not
be afraid to try new ideas. This will involve reading current journal articles and books, and attending
professional development workshops.

Ultimately, your role and responsibility regarding instruction relates to learning. Nowadays, teachers are
held accountable for the learning and assessment results in their classrooms to a greater degree than
in the past. If you look at some of the criteria for teaching method selection, it is clear that the selection
of a teaching method is not undertaken in a haphazard manner, but it must be carefully considered and
chosen by the teacher. This choice is part of the responsibility of teaching.

Activity 1.6

Spend some time thinking about these questions and write down your ideas. Expand

15
your answers in your notebook.

(1) Which of the CAPS overarching aims will you find a) the easiest, and b) the most
difficult to meet? Why do you say so?

........................................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................................

(2) Which of the above roles and responsibilities will you find a) the easiest, and b) the
most difficult to fulfil?

Why do you say so?

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

(3) Why do you think some teachers use the same methods for all their lessons?

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

(4) How can you ensure that you offer a greater variety of teaching methods once you
are a teacher?

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

16
 .......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................
.

Feedback
Never lose sight of the fact that as a teacher, you have a huge responsibility. If you examine the CAPS
document, you will notice that a great deal is expected of you. In terms of making a difference in the
classroom, your choice of a specific method or methods is going to have an enormous influence on the
learners and how they learn – which is your primary responsibility.

The following section in your textbook deals with the intricacies of selecting a teaching method. Selecting
and implementing a teaching method is a complex and multifaceted endeavour. It is one of your primary
responsibilities as a teacher, and will have consequences for learning.

Prescribed reading: Textbook chapter 2

Do you see that you can select either teacher-centred approaches or learner-centred approaches? Each
strategy you select has its own advantages and disadvantages, and you will need to weigh these up in
order to make your decision. You cannot say that only one approach should be used all the time.

1.7 AFRICAN TEACHING PHILOSOPHIES AND PERSPECTIVES

In this section we are going to talk about African perspectives on teaching and instruction. African-based
perspectives are community oriented. Many of the more modern ideas of inclusive education and
connectivism can be traced to African roots.

Ngara (2007, pp.7-9) offers this insight:

In the African sense, a child is a child of every adult in the community. Teaching the child in
traditional Africa was therefore not the monopoly of the biological parents. Every responsible adult
could teach any child about the community’s ways (etiquette, survival, welfare, etc.). There was
a division of labor and specialization whereby youths were apprenticed to skilled masters of
healing arts, blacksmithing, hunting, midwifery, craftwork, etc. Any adult who happened to be free
could enjoy teaching children traditional games including counting, puzzles, riddles, and reciting
17
 children’s poems (to the new moon, to the rain, to the sun, etc.). Grandparents were not relegated
into seclusion by virtue of old age, but they remained with the family, imparting their acquired
wisdom and philosophical ideas of the community. Children would congregate at the home of
well-known storytellers whose services they reciprocated by bringing firewood.

As you can see, in this context instruction is communal and based on rich traditions rather than being
individual and atomistic, as more Western approaches tend to be. Dei (2010, p.35) talks about the “cult
of individualism” in Western countries as opposed to a “community of leaders” or “collaborative
responsibility,” which is more in tune with African philosophy. Dei (2010) states that within the Western
paradigm, students who do well, do not feel an obligation to assist those who are struggling. Dei (2010)
suggests that learners should develop a sense of obligation towards one another, and he gives
examples of cooperative learning, study groups, and working in pairs as ways to foster this mutual
obligation. Dei (2010) explains that within the Western paradigm, failure is individual, while an African
perspective views failure as a collective problem. Dei (2010) further explains that African-centred
educational philosophy supports inclusive education as it makes provision for a diversity of learners who
come from different backgrounds. Dei (2010, p.42) further proposes that learners develop a
connectedness and identification with their schools, and suggests that teachers should aim to get
students to “own” their knowledge. Adult–peer mentorship encourages ties between teachers, learners,
the family, and the community, and this in turn promotes leadership in learners. You can see from Dei
(2010) that although these concepts have surfaced in recent thinking about education, connectedness
and inclusivity can be traced back to their African roots.

Reagan (2005), as expanded in the work of Fafunwa (2022), identifies the following goals of traditional
African education:

• To develop the child’s latent physical skills;

• To develop character;
• To inculcate respect for elders and those in positions of authority;
• To develop intellectual skills;
• To acquire specific vocational training and a healthy attitude toward honest labour;
• To develop a sense of belonging and to participate actively in family and community affairs; and
• To understand, appreciate and promote the cultural heritage of the community at large.

In citing Moumouni’s (1968) four features of traditional African education, Reagan (2005) presents
similar ideas to those of Dei (2010):

• The great importance attached to it, and its collective and social nature;

18
• Its intimate tie with social life, in both a material and a spiritual sense;
• Its multivalent character, in terms of both its goals and the means employed; and
• Its gradual and progressive achievements, in conformity with the successive stages of the
physical, emotional, and mental development of the child.

Integrated within the discourse on African philosophy is the notion of ubuntu. Letseka (2000:179) defines
this concept as “an important measure of human wellbeing or human flourishing in traditional African
life. Botho or ubuntu is treated as normative in that it encapsulates moral norms and virtues such as
kindness, generosity, compassion, benevolence, courtesy, and respect and concern for others.”
Letseka (2000) emphasises the human aspect arising from our connection to other people. African ways
of knowing cannot be separated from ways of living, which include language, knowledge, cultural
practices, and heritage.

Carruth (2011), in reviewing the book, Non-Western perspectives on learning and knowing: perspectives
from around the world explored some of Kim and Merriam (2011) findings. In the book, the African
perspective was cited as an example of a non-Western perspective. Carruth (2011) notes that in the
book, non-Western perspectives are cited as valuing knowledge that is learnt informally or from
experience, and that there is a focus on interdependence in non-Western perspectives as opposed to
the independence that is favoured in the Western context. Carruth (2011) also draws attention to
Merriam’s (2007) finding that in non-Western contexts, knowledge has a number of dimensions
(spiritual, emotional etc.), but that in terms of Western perspectives knowledge is compartmentalised.

Dei (2010, p.42) reminds us that “African-centred philosophical ideals are not simply for Black and
African students. African-centred ideas are shared by many Indigenous communities and are relevant
to global humanism. For this reason, the African school is defined by its philosophical grounding rather
than its racial characteristics”. Ngara (2007) reaffirms that pedagogy in Africa should include different
layers of knowledge and that indigenous knowledge has a vital role to play in education.

As you work through the remaining units in this module, please look out for the ties between some of
the concepts we will be dealing with and for African perspectives. For example, there are parallels
between social constructivism or connectivism, and African thinking and perspectives on education. You
will also find communalism and ubuntu mirrored in some Western ideas.

Activity 1.7

(1) Why is it important that as teachers in Africa, we have a good understanding of

19
 African teaching perspectives?
(2) What aspects of African-based teaching can you integrate into your own teaching
philosophy?
(3) How will this be of benefit to you, the learners, and your school?
(4) Dei (2010) mentions that individualism is a non-African concept, while African
concepts are more community based. What is your experience in this regard at the
schools you have attended or have visited?
(5) Reagan (2005) states that one of the goals of African education is to instill a sense of
belonging. What is your experience in this regard at the schools you have visited?
How can schools improve this sense of belonging?

Feedback
It is important that you consider different cultural approaches to issues in education. You will find that many
of the ideas about education across the world are based on similar philosophies.

1.8 CURRICULUM CONCEPTS

In this section, we define what a curriculum is, and unpack concepts that constitute the curriculum.
Numerous teachers implement/enact a curriculum without fully understanding what a curriculum is
or having a clear notion of its concepts. Hence, the following paragraph outlines the definition of a
curriculum and its layers or presentation.

Hoadley and Jansen (2014) agree with Pinar (1978) that the etymological definition of the word
‘curriculum’ originates from the Greek word currere, which implies ‘to run the course/race’, in other
words, to run the course of teaching or learning. As such, a curriculum is a “plan for teaching or
learning”, also known as a syllabus (Van den Akker et al., 1999, p.9). Thus, the intended syllabus
is referred to as a curriculum by the developers or designers who develop it into a document that
is intended, and officially planned for teaching and learning (Chisholm & Wildeman, 2013).
However, when the curriculum is at the actual implementation stage by teachers, or is being
achieved by learners and assessed (Le Grange & Reddy, 2017), it is defined as “a plan of
teaching/learning” (Pinar, 2012 p.3). This suggests that the reconceptualisation of the word
curriculum requires teachers to understand the different layers and presentation of the curriculum
which include the intended (planned/official curriculum), the implemented (actual curriculum), and
the achieved (assessed curriculum).

From latter studies, a curriculum is defined as a plan of, or for teaching and learning. It may be

20
 represented by three main layers. The first layer (representation) is the intended, planned, or
prescribed curriculum, which is a formal or written policy of ideas that are framed by the educational
rationale or theories, and by the intentions of teaching and learning that specify the intentions of
the curriculum. The second layer is the implemented, enacted, or practiced curriculum, which is
the interpretation of the intended curriculum as perceived by teachers and the actual process of
teaching in operation. The third layer is the attained, achieved, or assessed curriculum, which are
the learning experiences as perceived by learners and measured through their learning outcomes.

Activity 1.7

(1) Define the term curriculum according to your understanding.

(2) Give examples of documents that represent the intended curriculum
presentation/layer.
(3) Can a lesson plan be presented as an implemented or assessed curriculum?
(4) State activities that are done under the assessed curriculum.

Feedback

The word curriculum can be defined in different ways by different authors in the discipline of
curriculum and instructional studies. Thus, the Department of Basic Education provides teachers
with official policy documents as an intended curriculum, and teachers are therefore expected to
prepare lesson plans from the documents (implemented curriculum) for teaching and learning.
Additionally, summative, formative, or peer assessment tasks form part of the assessed curriculum
in order to evaluate if the learning goals have been achieved.

Furthermore, Hoadley and Jansen (2014) agree with Khoza (2015) that curriculum development and
implementation, particularly in South African schools at a classroom level, is faced with different challenges,
such as being unable to complete the syllabus, and the use of the wrong teaching and assessment
methods, amongst others. In resolving this challenge, Van den Akker et al. (2003) established a more
comprehensive teaching framework (Table 1), known as the curricular spider web, which stipulates ten
fundamental curriculum concepts that teachers should understand for a successful teaching and learning
process.

Table 1: Curricular spider web framework (Van den Akker et al., 2003)
21
Curriculum concept Question
1. Rationale or Vision Why are they teaching?
2. Aims, Objectives, Learning outcomes Toward which goals are they teaching?
3. Content What are they teaching?
4. Learning activities How are they teaching?
5. Teacher role How is the teacher facilitating teaching?
6. Materials & Resources With what are they teaching?
7. Grouping With whom are they teaching?
8. Location Where are they teaching?
9. Time When are they teaching?
10. Assessment How do we measure how far teaching has progressed?

Activity 1.8

1. Why is it important that teachers in South Africa understand the concepts of a

curriculum?
2. Use the concepts of a curriculum to design lesson plans for your teaching subject.

1.9 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we looked at some of the concepts associated with instruction. An important point we agreed
on was that there is no single concept to describe teaching or instruction, and that these terms cannot
be narrowly defined. We also considered some definitions of the concepts closely related to teaching.
In terms of instruction, we examined some of your roles and responsibilities as these relate to the
instructional choices you make as a teacher. An African perspective on pedagogy was presented as an
important contribution to our understanding of teaching. The etymological definition of the curriculum
paved the way to understanding various presentations of the curriculum and the concepts that constitute
the curriculum. In the next unit, we will look at some of the forms, styles, approaches, and strategies
encountered in instruction.

1.10 LEARNING OUTCOMES CHECKLIST

Outcome Can do Can not do
I can explain the nature of and concepts associated
with instruction.

22
I can develop and demonstrate an understanding of
the teacher’s role and responsibilities in the context
of instruction.
I can define a curriculum and apply its concepts.
I developed an appreciation for and give due
consideration to African perspectives on education
and to the instructions that have been neglected and
suppressed.

References
Carl, A. (2015). Teacher empowerment through curriculum development. 5th edition. Cape Town:
Juta.

Chisholm, L. & Wildeman, R. (2013). The politics of testing in South Africa. Journal of Curriculum
Studies, 45(1), 89-100.
Dei, GJS. (2010). Teaching Africa: towards a transgressive pedagogy. Dordrecht: Springer.
Department of Basic Education. (2011). Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement, Grades 7–9.
Pretoria: Government Printers
Department of Higher Education and Training. (2015). Revised policy on the minimum requirements
for teacher education qualifications. Government Gazette 38487. Pretoria: Government
Printers.
Fafunwa, AB. (2022). African education in perspective. In A. Babs Fafunwa and JU. Aisiku (Eds,),
Education in Africa: A Comparative Survey (pp. 9-27). London: Routledge.
Fraser, WJ., Loubser, CP & van Rooy, MP. (1990). Didactics for the undergraduate student. Durban:
Butterworths.

Gagne, R.M. (1987). The conditions of learning and theory of instruction. 4th edition. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.

Hoadley, U & Jansen, J. (2014). Curriculum: Organizing knowledge for the classroom. Cape town:
Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
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Hogan, C. (2002). Understanding facilitation: Theory and principles. London: Kogan Page Publishers.

Khoza, SB. (2015). Student teachers' reflections on their practices of the curriculum and assessment
policy statement. South African Journal of Higher Education, 29(4), 179-197.

Kruger, N. (1997). Human development and learning. In EM Lemmer and DC Badenhorst (Eds.),
Introduction to education for South African teachers (pp. 215–256). Cape Town: Juta.

Liu, QX & Shi, JF. (2007). An Analysis of Language Teaching Approaches and Methods—
Effectiveness and Weakness. Online Submission, 4(1), 69-71.

Lancer, N., Clutterbuck, D & Megginson, D. (2016). Techniques for coaching and mentoring.
Routledge: London.

Le Grange, L & Reddy, C. (2017). Curriculum development and design, in L. Ramrathan, L. Le Grange,
and P. Higgs, (Eds.), Education Studies: for Initial Teacher Development (pp. 125-138). Cape
Town: Juta.
Letseka, M. (2000). African philosophy and educational discourse. In P. Higgs, NCG. Vakalisa, TV.
Mda & NT. Assie-Lumumba (Eds.), African voices in education (pp. 179-193). Cape Town:
Juta.
Lowery, AM & Hayes, W. (2014) The heart and mind in teaching: pedagogical styles through the ages.
Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
Merriam, SB. & Kim, YS. (2011). Non-Western perspectives on learning and knowing. The Jossey-
Bass reader on contemporary issues in adult education, 378-389.
Moumouni, A. (1968). Education in Africa. New York: Frederick Praeger
Ngara, C. (2007). African ways of knowing and pedagogy revisited. Journal of Contemporary Issues in
Education 2(2):7–20
Orlich, DC, Harder, RJ, Callahan, RC, Trevisan, MS & Brown, AH. (2010). Teaching strategies: a
guide to effective instruction. 9th edition. Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Pinar, W. (2012). What is curriculum theory? New York: Routledge.

Pinar, W. (1978). The Reconceptualisation of Curriculum Studies. Journal of Curriculum Studies,

10(3), 205-214.
Reagan, T. (2005). Non-Western educational traditions. 3rd edition. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Smith, PL & Ragan, TJ. (1999). Instructional design. 2nd edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Van den Akker, J., Kuiper, W., Hameyer, U & van den Akker, J. (2003). Curriculum perspectives: An
introduction. Curriculum landscapes and trends, 1-10.

Van den Akker, J. (1999). Principles and methods of development research. Design approaches and
tools in education and training. Dordrecht: Springer.

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 LEARNING UNIT 2

Practices and possibilities in instruction

Contents

2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 Styles of Instruction 18
2.3 Forms of Instruction 20
2.4 Instructional contexts 22
2.5 Basic instructional approaches 24
2.6 Basic instructional strategies 27
2.7 Instruction at different levels in education 33
2.8 Conclusion 34
2.9 Learning Outcomes Checklist 34

References

Learning outcomes
When you have worked through this study unit, you should be able to:

• Explain the nature of and concepts associated with instruction.

• Identify and critically evaluate different standpoints, alternative practices, and exciting possibilities
in instruction.

• Highlight and critically appraise the similarities and differences between the various forms of
instruction.

• Explore the different levels of instruction.

1 ISC3701/1
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter distinguishes between, and evaluates differing standpoints regarding instruction. It further
looks at the different forms of instruction, the different contexts for instruction, and the different
approaches to instruction. Education, teaching, and instruction are not context free, and they cannot be
defined in singular terms. The definitions found in this chapter will be based on different philosophies
and beliefs regarding teaching and learning. This will enable you to make judicious instructional
decisions, and may even present you with new or different ways of understanding instruction, and the
vital role you play in instructional design.

2.2 STYLES OF INSTRUCTION

There are three main styles of instruction which are usually informed by a teacher’s own personality.
They are the permissive, democratic, and authoritative approaches to teaching and learning. A
permissive teaching style is one where the learners can do just about anything they please in a
classroom, as the teacher sets few or no rules. In other cases, the teacher may have set rules, but is
inconsistent in imposing them, and expects the learners to organise and monitor themselves. This can
frustrate learners who are not ready for this responsibility or whose peers take over the classroom. At
the opposite end of the spectrum is the authoritative stance. The teacher who adopts this stance does
not allow learners much input into the lesson: they are there to receive knowledge and follow
instructions. The democratic teacher is one who is flexible within the learning arrangement. Democratic
teachers include their learners in decision-making in the classroom regarding classroom norms and
rules. These teachers consider and value learners as individuals who are able to contribute to their own
learning. A teacher’s style is a personal quality. Many teachers are not aware that they have a leaning
towards a certain style, and teachers often develop a certain style because they experienced it as a
dominant style when they themselves were learners. Your teaching style may also be affected by your
knowledge of the different teaching styles. As a teacher, you need to try a variety of styles and forms of
teaching. This will enable you to determine the best style for certain age groups, subjects, and time
frames.

2.3 FORMS OF INSTRUCTION

The form of instruction should suit the needs of the learners and the outcomes envisaged. Forms of
instruction have been developed to meet various needs. As we discussed in Learning Unit 1, there are
many different words that mean ‘teaching’. Look at this grid and analyse it as a way to differentiate
2 ISC3701/1
 between the different forms of instruction. Do you agree with the positioning of ‘teaching’?

Table 2.1: Teaching in terms of goals and process

Process of learning/thinking is Practical application of

as important as the knowledge knowledge/skills is
and skills important
Long-term goal oriented Teaching Mentoring
Short-term goal oriented Facilitating Training

What would your matrix look like if you had to create one to differentiate between the terms related to
instruction?

A Venn diagram can also help us to understand the similarities and differences between the different
forms of instruction. One interpretation is to see teaching as including all the other forms of instruction, as
illustrated in the diagram below:

Figure 2.1: Possible interpretation of instructional forms

Or would your diagram look like this, perhaps? Would you agree with the arrangement of the words,
with facilitating occupying the largest portion of teaching, and training occupying the smallest? Should
training be there at all? These are things you need to think about when considering the various forms
of instruction.

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 Figure 2.2: Possible interpretation of instructional forms

Perhaps teaching includes fewer instances of the other forms of instruction, and we get a diagram like
this:

Figure 2.3: Possible interpretation of instructional forms

Or are the forms perhaps too different to be placed together in a single diagram? What do you think?

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 Activity 2.1
Were you able to integrate these forms of teaching, and which one/s is driving your
teaching?

Feedback
Depending on the teaching context, a teacher can be driven by one or more forms of instruction.
However, none of these forms are perfect. Each one has its own strengths and opportunities, so it is
wise to choose the right form depending on the context of your teaching.

2.4 INSTRUCTIONAL CONTEXTS

Whenever people interact, there is the potential for teaching and learning to take place.
Instruction can take place in many contexts: it can take place at home, at work, online,
and in specific instructional institutions such as schools or colleges. Bear in mind our
earlier definition of teaching as involving instruction by human beings, while instruction
can take place without the presence of another person (i.e., reading a manual, following
computer instructions).

2.4.1 Formal contexts

These relate to formal institutions such as schools, colleges, and universities, where instruction takes
place in set classrooms or lecture venues. Instruction is organised by means of set timetables, and
learners are grouped according to various criteria: for example, at school level the learners are of a
similar age, while in post-school institutions this may not be the case. These institutions are there to
provide an already agreed upon or policy sanctioned curriculum. Formal institutions are registered with
a relevant body that oversees their functioning and quality of instruction. However, formal contexts also
include distance institutions offering formal programmes. In the modern world, it is necessary not to
focus on the setting as the only determinant of formal education. More and more courses are offered
online, which means that formal learning does not always take place within a specific setting. However,
the module or certificate is part of a formal programme, therefore it is the context that is formal. With
regard to the formal school context, Turner and Meyer (2000, p.70) explain that:

“The instructional context is a distinct but overlapping aspect of the classroom context and
includes the influences of the teacher, students, content area, and instructional activities on

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 learning, teaching, and motivation. The various contexts within a classroom, such as the
instructional context, are naturally difficult to define because they are simultaneous and
interdependent, making them fluid rather than static. In addition, definitions vary widely depending
on whether they have been examined from psychological, educational, sociological, or
anthropological perspectives.”

The EDU/EDPC (2007, p. 5) documents define formal learning as follows:

“[Learners] may learn during courses or during a training session in the workplace; this is formal
learning. The activity is designed as having learning objectives and individuals attend with the
explicit goal of acquiring skills, knowledge or competences. Formal learning contexts therefore
are goal oriented, there are professional or skilled teachers or instructors, and the learning is
measured.”

2.4.2 Informal contexts

The EDU/EDC documents (2007, p.5) state that learners “may learn in activities without learning
objectives and without knowing they are learning; this is informal learning.” This means that informal
learning takes place in most contexts where people interact, and that people could learn something
informally without having any prior intention of learning. You could learn informally through a discussion
with friends, or by watching a movie, as in both of these circumstances you did not deliberately set out
to learn something.

2.4.3 Non-formal contexts

The EPU/EPDC documents (2007, p.5) define non-formal learning as follows:

“[Learners] may learn during work or leisure activities that do not have learning objectives, but
individuals are aware they are learning; this is non-formal learning. Individuals observe or do
things with the intention of becoming more skilled, more knowledgeable and/or more competent.”

People may learn through non-formal activities such as hobbies. They may attend workshops or
seminars relating to their hobbies with the intention of learning more. You could learn in non-formal
contexts such as in cooking classes or by watching YouTube video tutorials.

Activity 2.2

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 (1) Think of what you have learnt in the three instructional contexts we have just
discussed.
(2) What could a learner at school learn formally, informally, or non-formally?

Feedback
As human beings, we are learning all the time, in different contexts and in different situations. As such,
learners learn using written resources, learn among themselves, and also learn from their own personal
experiences.

2.5 BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES

A number of approaches and strategies relating to instruction have developed over time. A number of
instructional approaches have developed out of theories of learning. The three basic theoretical
approaches are based on behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism. As a teacher, you need to
understand these. Please watch the video clip for the activity below which will help you understand the
link between learning theories and instructional theories.
Activity 2.3
Log onto the module site on myUnisa to watch a YouTube clip on learning theories
before continuing with this section. It will be linked under Additional Resources.

Feedback
Can you see how our thinking about learning has evolved? Perhaps you experienced all three
approaches to learning while you were a learner yourself. Let us consider these three approaches in
more detail.

Behaviourism
Behaviourism emphasises behaviour that can be observed (Seels & Glasgow, 1998). Seels and
Glasgow (1998) also explain that this approach focuses on actions that are visible rather than complex
or vague internal processes. In addition, they attempt to find a relationship between a stimulus and a
response. The well-known behaviourist BF Skinner suggested that learning should be broken down into
small bits or steps. Learning is seen as “programming,” so filling in answers or repetition is important to
bring about the desired result (behaviour).

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Cognitivism
Seels and Glasgow (1998) describe cognitive psychology as focusing on the organisation of memory
and thinking, and view the mind as an information-processing system. These authors are interested in
processes such as comprehension and problem-solving.

Constructivism
Constructivist approaches claim that learners can only interpret information in the context of their
experiences. Learners need to actively construct meaning and knowledge. Cohen et al., (2005) explain
that there are two broad types of constructivism, namely cognitive constructivism and social
constructivism. Both see learning as continually developing. Cognitive constructivism considers learning
as a search for meaning that involves language and higher-order thinking, and is derived from
experience. Social constructivism proposes that teachers and other learners provide scaffolding to
support a person’s learning.
In the table below, there are some of the differences between these three approaches. You may have
experienced some of these approaches while you were at school. Today, many of our classrooms are
still based on behaviourism or instructivism.

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Table 2.2: Broad differences in learning theories (Jennings & Surgenor , 2013, p19)

Activity 2.4

(1) Why is it ‘easier’ for a teacher to adopt a behaviourist approach in the classroom?
(2) What is the effect of the behaviourist approach on learning?
(3) If you were a school principal, how might you encourage your teachers to change
from a behaviourist to a constructivist approach?
(4) Which perspective is more closely aligned to African ideas and worldviews?

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Feedback
In terms of African perspectives, a collaborative constructivist approach is dominant. The more Western
perspective is rational and objective, and only recently have Western approaches moved closer to social
constructivist approaches. Teachers may prefer behaviourist approaches because they can tick off
observable behaviour on a checklist as evidence of teaching and learning. However, not all learning is
observable as behaviour. This ties in with an approach being either teacher-centred or learner-centered.
Your textbook provides a brief outline of teacher-centred versus learner-centred approaches.

Furthermore, instructional strategies are an integral part of instructional studies. Morrison et al., (2011,
p.149) suggest the following as pertinent questions to ask before deciding on an instructional strategy:

What is the best way to teach a fact, a concept, a rule, a procedure, an interpersonal skill, or
an attitude?

How can I make the instruction meaningful?

How can I teach an objective that focuses on interpersonal skills?

What is the best way to present the content so that each learner will master the objectives?

Start by focusing on a broad approach, either a teacher-centred or a learner-centred approach. Direct

instruction or lecture-based instruction is a teacher-centred approach, while inquiry-based strategies
are more learner-centred. To help you choose between the two, think about whether you want your
learners to “reproduce” (what you said or did) or “produce” (their own ideas or actions) in their learning.
Your next level of decision-making involves the actual method or strategy you will use.

2.6 BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

We will focus on a few major forms of instructional strategies. In this module, we take a general look at
these strategies, so that in time you will be able to adapt them to the specific subjects and grades that
you teach.

2.6.1 Constructivist, active, and cooperative instruction strategies

Baviskar et al., (2009) briefly define constructivism as a theory of learning and not a theory of curriculum
design. Therefore, when a lesson is said to be constructivist, it does not necessarily follow a specific
formula. Instead, a constructivist lesson is one that is designed and implemented in a way that creates

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the greatest opportunities for students to learn, regardless of the techniques used. Constructivism is
regarded as the umbrella term for several forms of constructivism, such as radical constructivism and
social constructivism.

Baviskar et al. (2009) set out four criteria that must be met in order for a lesson to be considered to be
constructivist. The first criterion is that prior knowledge must be elicited during the lesson. The second
is the creation of cognitive dissonance. This means that the learners realise that there is a gap between
their current knowledge and the new knowledge. The third criterion is the application of knowledge with
feedback. This is similar to Piaget’s (1977) notions of assimilation and accommodation. When presented
with new knowledge, a student will integrate it with an existing knowledge structure, provided there are
no inconsistencies. However, if a student detects an inconsistency, then the accommodation of the
knowledge structure takes place, and the student re-organises the knowledge. The fourth criterion is an
opportunity for the student to reflect on learning. This means that tasks go beyond the traditional recall
of knowledge.

Carr-Chellman (2016) explains that constructivist classrooms should be characterised by:

• Authentic activities
• Social contexts
• Multiple perspectives
• Knowledge construction (rather than knowledge transmission)
• Metacognition (reflections on own constructions)

Do you notice that active learning within social contexts is highlighted in this approach? Do you also
notice the close ties between this list and African perspectives? Learners are further involved in the
learning process when the teacher allows for multiple perspectives (learners’ own ideas), and meta-
cognition (thinking about how you are learning) which is also important. Constructivist instruction
requires that learners experience something new and then reflect on that experience. Very often the
constructivist view of learning and supporting teaching methodologies proposes active learning or
guided discovery. Your textbook briefly summarises some ideas regarding constructivist approaches to
teaching and learning.
Your textbook provides a comprehensive account of the instructional strategies used in teaching. Let
us talk about the most common (and overused!) one first.

2.6.2 Direct instruction

Direct instruction is a teacher-centred instructional approach that is focused on teacher activity. The
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teacher uses presentation strategies such as lectures, discussions, or explanations, which do not entail
any learner involvement. A transmission model follows – this is what Freire (1978) describes as a
banking model of education. Although more modern approaches that understand how we learn have
been advocated for as being more successful, there are still times when direct instruction is necessary,
even if only for a small part of the lesson. Direct instruction assumes that the learner does not know
anything about the topic or concept, and cannot become involved in developing the knowledge.
However, direct instruction should not only have negative connotations. Your textbook provides a
comprehensive account of the direct instruction clearly:

2.6.3 Discussion

The textbook provides a comprehensive account of the topic.

2.6.4 Small-group work

The textbook provides a comprehensive account of the topic.

2.6.5 Cooperative learning

The textbook provides a comprehensive account of the topic.

2.6.6 Problem-solving

The textbook provides a comprehensive account of the topic.

2.6.7 Inquiry

The textbook provides a comprehensive account of the topic.

2.6.8 Case study

The textbook provides a comprehensive account of the topic.

2.6.9 Role-play

The textbook provides a comprehensive account of the topic.

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 2.6.10 Writing

The textbook provides a comprehensive account of the topic.

Please consider the following questions

Please ensure that you are able to answer the following questions with regard to each of the instructional
strategies you have just read about:

1. What are the important features of the strategy?

2. What are the benefits of, or reasons for using the strategy?
3. What are the issues to consider before selecting the strategy?
4. When should you consider using the strategy, and when should you avoid using it?

Feedback

Later on in this module, I will be asking you to justify your selection of teaching approaches and
strategies in your design of a lesson. This requires you to evaluate each one and be able to discern
when it is appropriate for teaching, and when a better choice is available. Answering the questions
above will help you to do this.

Activity 2.6

The following table deals with the different instructional strategies covered in this section.
As such, choose two subjects that you are familiar with, and write down an activity under
the strategy that would be suitable for them. Try to include an activity for each instructional
strategy.
Small-group work
Direct instruction

Problem-solving
Cooperative
Discussion

Case study

Role-play
Strategy

learning

Writing
Inquiry

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 Subject

1 .....................

Subject

2 ......................

2.6.11 Connectivism and e-learning: The Flipped Classroom

Connectivism is a theory of learning proposed by Siemens (2005) that states that the internet has now
created new ways and opportunities for learning to take place (Gregory, 2016). Siemens (2005)
proposed that learning can take place through people interacting in online spaces. Traditional learning
needs to move towards connected learning (Haung et al., 2013), and it has the following characteristics:

• Building the capacity of knowledge transferability

• A problem-oriented approach – learning may start with the question and not the learning material
• An open classroom as opposed to a “closed” classroom
• Effective use of information technology
• Social interaction is an integral part of connected learning

Take particular note of the third and the fifth bullets. Can you see a link between this ‘modern’ approach
and African perspectives? It can be said that African perspectives on teaching encompass an open
approach and a high level of social interaction. African perspectives also acknowledge the
connectedness of people (e.g. through ubuntu).

In the move away from the cognitive, instructivist, and behaviourist approaches and towards social,
constructivist, and connectivist approaches, Robson (2013) stated that facilitative technologies involve
a greater use of discussion boards and forums, webinars, and wikis. We must not forget that all this is
now happening through mobile technology, which makes learning immediate and personal.

One example from among the many different ideas regarding e-learning is that of the flipped classroom.

To demonstrate the flipped classroom, you are going to have to experience it.

You will need to log onto myUnisa and watch two YouTube clips titled Flipped classroom 1, and Flipped
classroom 2. Then come back to this section of the study guide to continue.

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 Activity 2.7

Log onto myUnisa to watch Flipped classroom 1 and Flipped classroom 2 found under
Additional Resources.

Although these clips show that video is the resource used for the work students have to do at home,
Sams and Bergmann (2016) explain that using videos as a resource is not always necessary. These
authors require that we ask when our learners need us the most – while we are proving the content
(knowledge), or when we want them to apply it? Most teachers will answer that the application of the
provided knowledge is the most problematic, and this application work is usually the homework given
learners based on the knowledge and understanding that teachers have instilled in them in class. In
another YouTube video, Bergmann (2016) explains that traditionally we teach in a group space (teacher
and learners together), and then we expect learners to tackle more difficult areas such as application
and analysis on their own at home – in an individual space. He points out that getting students to cover
the direct instruction in the group space allows for the teacher and students to work collaboratively in
the group classroom space. This allows the teacher to intervene and assist students when and where
they need it.

There are some problems associated with this method. The first of these is the availability and cost of
internet data. How could teachers overcome this? One possibility is to provide students with CD discs
that have the videos or lectures on them, or to allow students to use the school computer laboratory
after school. Another way is to provide students with the content that they can work through at home in
a low-tech way – you could ask them to read a chapter of the textbook in preparation for the next day’s
homework or project, or you could provide them with written notes or a poem they have to read. Try to
think of things that students can do at home to prepare for the next lesson. This still allows you to ‘flip’
the lesson. Bergmann (2016) also suggests that you could allocate time for both (the video and the
homework) in class. He suggests splitting the class into two groups; while one group is watching the
teaching material, the other group starts with the activity, and then after this, they swap. It really
becomes the teacher’s choice regarding when it’s best to work individually and when it’s best to work
as a group.

You may want to make videos of your own lesson or use a screencast (voice recording over a
PowerPoint), or use existing videos (e.g. from YouTube, National Geographic, Khan Academy, OER
Africa). However, if you decide on existing videos, it is vital that you view the material before your lesson
to ensure that the material is suitable. Another important consideration relates to keeping learners safe

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online if you use an internet resource. This is where your own work is the preferred option, or where
they watch outside material under your supervision. Remember that the instructional decision you make
forms part of your responsibility as a teacher.

2.7 INSTRUCTION AT DIFFERENT LEVELS IN EDUCATION

Instruction can take place at all levels of education. The concept of life-long learning definitely applies
to humans. Humans have the capacity to learn from the cradle to the grave, and society provides for
these different levels of instruction. Often, South Africa is criticised for its focus on the matriculation
examination results. The comment is sometimes made that matric begins in Grade 1 or even earlier.
South African schooling is now compulsory from Grade R (when children are 5 or 6 years old), as part
of ECD (Early Childhood Development), for which the programme starts at birth. Formal schooling, from
Grade R to Grade 12, provides for the needs of learners up to Grade 12. Many learners continue their
education through university, while others follow other adult education courses. Some teachers feel
more comfortable with certain age groups over others. As you qualify to become a teacher, consider
the age of learner you have selected. What led you to make this selection? How you feel about teaching
other age groups? Which age group is the most important? And is it important to know about the
instructional principles and pedagogy related to the age groups you do not teach?

Activity 2.8

(1) Find out about the different levels of instruction, specifically what the most important
instruction principles for that particular age group are. Share your ideas on the
myUnisa Discussion Forum.

• Early childhood (ages 0–4)

• Grade R and Foundation Phase (age 5 to Grade 3)
• Intermediate Phase (Grades 4 to 6)
• Senior Phase (Grades 7 to 9)
• Further Education and Training (Grades 10 to 12) Higher Education (beyond
Grade 12)

(2) What is your experience or opinion of multi-grade classrooms? What are the positive
and negative aspects of a multi-grade classroom?
(3) Consider an African perspective where such formal segregation would not take place.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of segregating learners?
16 ISC3701/1
 2.8 CONCLUSION
In this unit, at some point we looked at important instructional concepts. We looked at how different
styles of instruction (permissive, democratic, and authoritative) affect teaching and learning. We also
looked at the various forms of instruction and the differences between them, and how they contribute to
the concept of teaching. Instruction also takes place in different contexts (formal, informal, and non-
formal). The broad instructional approaches (behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism) led us to
look at various instructional strategies that can be implemented in day-to-day instruction. This unit
concluded by considering the three levels of instruction in education, and by reminding you that as
humans we are always learning. However, Learning unit 3 will take a look at some of the theoretical
models that inform instructional practices.

2.9 LEARNING OUTCOMES CHECKLIST

Outcome Can do Can not do

I can explain the nature of and concepts associated with
instruction.
I can Identify and critically evaluate different standpoints,
alternative practices, and exciting possibilities in instruction.
I can highlight and critically appraise the similarities and
differences between various forms of instruction.
I can explore different levels of instruction.

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 References

Baviskar, NS., Hartle, RT & Whitney, T. (2009). Essential criteria to characterize constructivist teaching:
derived from a review of the literature and applied to five constructivist teaching method articles.
International Journal of Science Education 31(4), 541-550.

Bergmann, J. (2016). Simplifying flipped learning. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-

hwu3xqbMKw.

Carr-Chellman, AA. (2016). Instructional design for teachers: improving classroom practice. 2nd edition.
New York: Routledge.

Cohen, L, Manion, L & Morrison, K. (2005). A guide to teaching practice. London: Routledge.

EDU/EDPC. (2007). Terms, concepts and models for analysing the value of recognition programmes.
Available at: http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyondschool/41834711.pdf.

Freire, P. (1978). Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 9th edition. Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra.

Gregory, H. (2016). Learning theories in plain English. Vol 1. https://learning-

theories.com/product/learning-theories-in-plain-english-ebook.

Haung, R, Chen, G, Yang, J & Loewen, J. (2013). The new shape of learning: adapting to social changes
in the information society. In R Huang, Kinshuk & JM Spector, Reshaping learning: frontiers of
learning technology in a global context, pp 2-24. Dordrecht: Springer.

Jennings, D & Surgenor, P. (2013) Exploring educational theory. Available at:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/0BxV1LO6iHp1yN3FYT3dXclB1Vm8/edit?resourcekey=0-
LVJ1vJi7pdNVRJQFqJnCnA

Morrison, GR, Ross, SM, Kalman, HK & Kemp, JE. (2011). Designing effective instruction. New Jersey:
John Wiley & Sons.

Piaget, J. (1977). The development of thought: Equilibration of cognitive structures.(Trans A. Rosin). New
York: Viking.

Robson, R. (2013). The changing nature of e-learning content. In R Huang, Kinshuk and JM Spector,
Reshaping learning: frontiers of learning technology in a global context, pp 177-196. Dordrecht:
Springer.

Seels, B & Glasgow, Z. (1998). Making instructional design decisions. 2nd edition. New Jersey: Prentice-
Hall.

Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: a learning theory for the digital age. International Journal of
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 Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 2(1), 1-9.

Turner, JC & Meyer, DK. (2000). Studying and understanding the instructional contexts of classrooms:
using our past to forge our future. Educational psychologist, 35(2), 69-85.

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LEARNING UNIT 3

MODELS AND THEORIES OF INSTRUCTION CONTENTS

LEARNING OUTCOMES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 THE ADDIE MODEL, ID4T INSTRUCTION MODEL AND UBD MODEL
3.2.1 The ADDIE model
3.2.2 The ID4T model
3.2.3 The UbD model
3.3 MERRILL’S FIVE PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION
3.4 GAGNE’S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION
3.5 DICK AND CAREY’S MODEL
3.6 INSTRUCTIONAL MODELS BASED ON MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND
DIFFERENT LEARNING STYLES
3.6.1 Gardner’s multiple intelligences
3.6.2 Kolb’s learning styles model
3.6.3 Honey and Mumford’s model of learning
3.8 CONCLUSION
3.8 LEARNING OUTCOMES CHECKLIST
3.9 REFERENCES
LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you have worked through this study unit, you should be able
to:

• Identify instructional models and theories in different contexts.

• Plan and design effective instruction.
• Use appropriate design steps to design instruction.
• Reflect on your design.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, we will investigate a variety of instructional models and theories. As Gagne
(1987:244) tells us, these instructional theories are based on learning theories. You
will remember that learning theories can broadly be classified as behaviourist,
cognitive, or constructivist.

Instructional theories propose relationships between instructional events, how these

actions affect learning, and the learning outcomes that are produced by the
instructional event. These instructional theories are not just for school instruction –
they are for all instruction.

We have not mentioned all the possible instructional design models, as there are far
too many! Please compare these models and reflect on how these models are similar
to or different from your own instructional design methods, and how these models can
enable you to develop improved instructional design practices?

In this learning unit, we will cover the following content:

• The ADDIE model

• Instructional design for teachers (ID4T)
• Understanding by design (UbD)
• Merrill’s five principles of instruction
• Gagne’s nine events of instruction
• Dick and Carey’s model of instructional design
• Gardner’s multiple intelligences
• Kolb’s learning styles
• Honey and Mumford’s learning styles
3.2 THE ADDIE MODEL, The ID4T INSTRUCTION MODEL AND THE UbD MODEL

3.2.1 The ADDIE model

The basic instructional design model is called the ADDIE model, and numerous
instructional design models are based on it. The name of this model is in fact an
acronym:

• Analyse needs. In this phase you will do a needs analysis of both the
curriculum and the learners, a task analysis, and an instructional analysis
(Seels & Glasgow 1998:13). This may lead you to write a goal or aim for your
instruction.
• Design instruction. In this phase you will write up objectives, plan instruction,
and develop tests (Seels & Glasgow 1998:13).
• Develop materials. This is where you will write the materials that are needed.
• Implement the instruction. In this phase, the actual teaching takes place.
• Evaluate and revise the instruction. Review the instruction, reflect on learning,
and propose, or develop improvements. This will lead you to a new phase of
analysing needs.

Figure 3.1: The ADDIE model

This model has its history in military applications and has no formal author (Morrison
et al., 2011:13).
3.2.2 The ID4T model

Carr-Chellman (2016:3) proposes the ID4T model, which excludes the analysis of
needs and reformulates the remaining four steps in the following way (Carr-Chellman
2016:10):
Piaget, J. (1977). The development of thought: Equilibration of cognitive
structures.(Trans A. Rosin). New York: Viking.
1. Write instructional goals – this is where you write the aim of the lesson
contained in the form of a fairly short sentence.
2. Write learning objectives – this is where you state what the learners will
do/say/demonstrate to show you that they are achieving the goal. There may
be several learning objectives in a single lesson.
3. Write aligned assessment/test items – set the assessment tasks so that they
match the instructional goals and objectives you have just set out. You do this
to ensure alignment from beginning to end.
4. Analyse learner characteristics or prerequisites – what learners already know
about the concept, how they prefer to learn, and how they have responded in
the past to different teaching approaches and content.
5. Select materials – these are the learner-teacher-support materials (LTSM) that
you will incorporate during the lesson (pictures, books, flashcards, counters
etc.)
6. Select and design activities – here you will design the actual activities that
the learners will be involved in. These activities will enable learners to meet the
aims and objectives of the instruction.
7. Select (and develop) media or technology – find or create media that will
support the activities in the previous step.
8. Implement the plan – this is when the lesson or instruction episode actually
takes place and includes learner assessment.
9. Evaluate and revise the instruction – this is where you assess and reflect on
the lesson and make improvements.

Activity 3.1

Comment on the third step in the ID4T model. Are you surprised that this occurs so
early on in the instruction process? What are the advantages and disadvantages of
planning the assessment before instruction?

Please log onto the module site on myUnisa and listen to PODCAST 4.
3.2.3 The UbD model

The UbD model is set out in the book titled Understanding by design, by Wiggins and
McTighe (2005), from which it takes its name (abbreviated as UbD). The model rests
on a ‘backward design’ (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005:13). These authors propose that
designing instruction should start with identifying the desired results that the instruction
intends to bring about. This could also be considered an outcomes approach. The
focus is on what content is valued and what understandings are necessary in
instruction. Wiggins and McTighe (2005) propose that instructional designers should
then determine what will be accepted as the evidence that this learning or
understanding has taken place. Finally, they suggest planning the learning
experiences and instruction. Their model consists of the following steps, which follow
the sequence of some other models, but in reverse order:

1. Identify the desired results. What should the learners learn?

2. Determine acceptable evidence. What will the learners do to show you that they
have learnt what you wanted them to?
3. Plan the learning experiences and the instruction. What activities and
experiences will you provide so that they can learn what you intended them to
learn?

Activity 3.2

1. Why is this referred to as ‘backward design’?

2. What is your opinion of determining the outcome before you have taught the
lesson?
3. Can you think of an advantage and a disadvantage of doing this?
4. Are some subjects better suited to this type of instructional planning?

Although some models set out long lists while other set out shorter lists, the type of
thinking involved in designing instruction is complex and multifaceted. You may prefer
a particular model to another – however, it is important that as a teacher you consider
other models to add to your growing knowledge of instruction.

3.3 MERRILL’S FIVE PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION

Merrill (2002:44-45) sets out five principles of instruction:

1. Learning is promoted when learners are engaged in solving real-world

problems. Merrill adds to this by stating that in problem-centred learning, learning
is supported when learners are shown what they will be able to do after completing
the lesson, module, or course. Furthermore, he adds that learning is promoted
when learners are engaged on the problem level, and not just on the operation
level. Learners are involved with the whole task, and not just with the individual
tasks in solving the problem.
2. Learning is promoted when existing knowledge is activated as a foundation
for new knowledge. Merrill (2002:46) believes that learners must be asked to
recall, relate, or apply previous knowledge. Furthermore, they must be given new
experiences that will form the foundation of new knowledge, and finally, they should
be encouraged to reflect on a structure to organise their knowledge.
3. Learning is promoted when new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner.
This is facilitated by demonstration that is consistent. This means providing both
examples and non-examples, demonstrating procedures, and providing
visualisations for the procedures. Learners should also be guided towards relevant
information, multiple representations, and comparing multiple demonstrations.
According to Merrill (2002:48), this also means that media plays a relevant role in
instruction. However, he warns that multiple forms of media should not compete
for the learner’s attention.
4. Learning is promoted when the learner applies new knowledge. Merrill (2002)
suggests that problem-solving is guided by feedback and coaching, and that the
coaching should be gradually reduced. Merrill (2022) also contends that learners
are involved in solving a sequence of varied problems.
5. Learning is promoted when new knowledge is integrated into the learner’s
world. Merrill (2002:50) contends that learners should be allowed to demonstrate
their new knowledge or skills publicly. Learners should also be enabled to reflect
on and defend their new knowledge, as well as explore new ways to use their new
knowledge or skills.

Activity 3.3

Merrill’s principles of instruction are really about how learners learn. Re-write each of
the five principles as principles from a teacher’s perspective. For example: A teacher
should …

Do you see how closely teaching and learning are related? Were you able to re-write
all the principles?

3.4 GAGNE’S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION

Gagne was an educational psychologist who formulated instructional principles based

on learning processes (Gagne 1987:304). He viewed the entire process of instruction
as a set of procedures designed to support learning and stated that planning
instruction is a matter of arranging the situation to best support learning.

Gagne’s nine events of instruction (Gagne 1987:246–255)

1. Gaining attention – this involves doing, saying or presenting something that will
stimulate the learners’ interest or curiosity.
2. Informing learners of objectives to motivate them – this can be done by describing
or demonstrating what they will achieve through the instruction. Why is the lesson
important?
3. Stimulating recall of prior knowledge – ask learners to recall something previously
learnt. It can be a rule, concept, knowledge, or skill.
4. Presenting the stimulus material or content.
5. Providing learning guidance – this could include giving a variety of concrete
examples of the concept, providing a verbal description followed by an example,
elaborating on the concept, and using models or continued practice of a motor skill.
6. Eliciting performance – the learner has to demonstrate a newly learnt capability
(by speaking, writing, drawing, making etc.).
7. Providing feedback – the instructor provides feedback regarding the correctness
or degree of correctness of the learners’ performance.
8. Assessing performance – the instructor will provide additional opportunities for
performance, to check that the learning is stable or whether additional learning can
be applied.
9. Enhancing retention and transfer – this normally involves increased practice and
an increase in the variety of practice.

Activity 3.4

Please log onto myUnisa and watch Screencast 1 on Gagne’s nine principles.

3.5 DICK AND CAREY’S MODEL

This model uses a systems approach to instruction. This means that all the
components are important to successful learning, and these components provide both
input and output (Dick & Carey 1996:2). Dick and Carey (1996) view the instructional
process as a system that results in learning, and the components of the instructional
system are learners, instructors, materials, and the learning environment (Dick &
Carey 1996:4). Although these authors based their model on the ADDIE model, their
model does not focus on the needs analysis. Instead, their model starts by determining
the instructional goal. Their model consists of various feedback loops around ten
interrelated concepts:

1. Identify instructional goals

2. Conduct an instructional analysis
3. Analyse learners and contexts
4. Write performance objectives
5. Develop assessment instruments
6. Revise instruction
7. Develop an instructional strategy
8. Develop and select instructional materials
9. Design and conduct formative evaluations for instruction
10. Design and conduct summative evaluations

Activity 3.5

Log onto myUnisa under Additional Resources for this module. Then follow the link
to the diagram representing this model. You can see how the model includes feedback
loops to the various components.

Dick and Carey (1996:5-7) briefly explain their model, and state that instructional
design begins with determining your instructional goal. This comes from your needs
assessment. You then analyse your instructional goal and set out what learners will
need to do to show that they have achieved that goal. You will also need to set out
what knowledge and skills the learners need before instruction can take place. A
corresponding analysis is made of the learners and their context. The next step is to
write out performance objectives. These are what the learners will be able to do after
the instruction. Once the objectives have been written, you design an assessment that
matches the objectives.

Using the information up to this point, you identify a strategy that will assist you in
achieving the learner objectives and the instructional goal. You will need to consider
the presentation of information, practice, and feedback. The instructional strategies
are also based on the content, the knowledge of the learning process, and the
characteristics of learners. In the next step, you will produce the material you need,
such as learner manuals (worksheets), teacher guides or tests. This is followed by a
formative evaluation of your instructional design. The information gathered here helps
you to revise your instruction while conducting summative evaluation, which means
that the value of the instruction is evaluated.

Activity 3.6

Dick and Carey’s model states that the performance objectives must be written. This
means that you must be able to see the student’s learning – the student will write,
draw, act out, dance, and so on. Are there some subjects in which the learning cannot
be written off as a performance objective? Write your examples down.

It may not always be possible to set out all learning as performance and behavioural
objectives. Some learning involves emotions and meta-cognition (how we monitor our
own thinking).
3.6 INSTRUCTIONAL MODELS BASED ON MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND
DIFFERENT LEARNING STYLES

There are a number of theories that propose that we all have different learning styles
or learning preferences. Not all people involved in education agree with these theories
or models. What is important, however, is that we have some knowledge of them and
that we realise that the learners in our classrooms are unique. They all have
preferences and styles that make learning some things easier than learning other
things. It is very important not to label learners. The models and theories are there for
you to use in adjusting and adapting your teaching continually. You should be revising
activities each year to see how you can improve on them and make them more
engaging. Because you know the content, you may find it surprising that the learners
struggle with either the content or the concepts (or both!). Remember to vary your
instructional methods and styles.

3.6.1 Gardner’s multiple intelligences

Howard Gardner set out his theory of multiple intelligences in the mid-1980s. He
considered the traditional conception of intelligence to be too narrow, and also felt that
traditional “pencil and paper tests” do not measure human intelligence accurately
(Gardner 2009:77). He suggested eight intelligences that make up intelligence as a
more holistic concept. They are:

Figure 3.2: Gardner’s eight intelligences (Sajaganesandip, 2015)

Gardner (2006:23) reached the following conclusions derived from this theory: no two
people have the same intellectual profiles, and having a strong intelligence does not
mean that you will necessarily act intelligently. You should avoid “labelling” learners
as having one or the other type of intelligence. An understanding of the different types
of intelligence as set out by Gardner should make you aware of providing different
forms of instruction and assessment in your class. The table below briefly sets out the
key abilities of each intelligence.

Table 3.1: Multiple intelligences

Key abilities (from Baum, Viens, Slatin & Gardner 2005:14-

Intelligence
19)
Perceiving, generating, and sense-making through spoken
Verbal-Linguistic
or written language, even through subtle language meanings
Using and appreciating numbers, logical thinking, and
Logical-Mathematical
abstract relations
Perceiving and understanding patterns of sound, and being
Musical intelligence
able to create and communicate meaning through sound
Visual-Spatial Understanding visual or 3D information, and re-creating
intelligence images from memory
Bodily-Kinaesthetic Using the body or parts of the body to communicate or solve
intelligence problems. Able to control all or some parts of the body.
Interpersonal Sensitive to the feelings and moods of other people. Works
intelligence effectively with others.
Having a good understanding of themselves. Can use that
Intrapersonal
understanding to make decisions or anticipate future
intelligence
reactions.
Understands the natural world well. Good understanding of
Naturalistic intelligence
features of the environment. Good patterning ability.

Many instructional practices are based on theories of learning. In the next section, we
will look at theories of learning related to different learning styles. Although it is
possible to determine a person’s learning preference, very few people show an
inclination to just a single learning style. In terms of designing instruction to suit
different styles of learning, researchers have not reached consensus regarding how
effective this is. What we do know is that learners should be exposed to a variety of
active learning experiences and opportunities.

3.6.2 Kolb’s learning styles model

Kolb formulated the experiential learning theory (ELT), in which four modes of learning
were identified: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract
conceptualisation, and active experimentation (Kolb & Kolb 2012:1699), with nine
distinct learning patterns observed, as you can see in figure 3.3.

The four styles correspond more directly to the learning modes (N, S, W, and E); the
four corners (NW, NE, SW and SE) correspond to two learning modes, while the
central block (C) balances all four modes. Learners in the N, S, W or E blocks use the
dominant mode associated with that side of the grid, while also balancing learning
modes from the other two sides.
So, for instance, learners in the N block emphasise feeling (concrete experiences) but
are equally comfortable in the world of activity and reflection, while learners in the NE
block only balance feeling and reflecting.

CONCRETE EXPERIENCE
(Feeling)

NW N NE
Feeling Feeling Feeling-Reflecting
Reflecting
Accommodating Diverging
Experiencing

W C E
Feeling- Reflecting Reflecting

REFLECTING OBSERVATION
Feeling-Thinking
ACTIVE EXPERIMENTATION

-Thinking Feeling-Thinking
Acting
Balancing Reflecting

(Reflecting or watching)
(Activity or doing)

SW S SE
Thinking Thinking Thinking-Reflecting
Reflecting
Converging Assimilating
Thinking

ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALISATION
(Thinking)

Figure 3.3: Kolb learning styles (adapted from Kolb & Kolb 2005:198)

Activity 3.7

Log onto the module site on myUnisa, where you will find Kolb’s model explained in
Screencast 2.

• Kolb and Kolb (2012:1700-1701) give some characteristics of learners who

display the nine learning styles.

• Learners with an experiential style enjoy working in groups, role-playing,

brainstorming, and fieldwork.
 • Learners with a reflecting style “thrive in learning environments rich in
discussions, interactions, and through readings that provide them with a deeper
understanding of themselves and the world around them”(Kolb & Kolb (2012:
pp. 1700-1701)

• Learners with a thinking style prefer well-structured, logical tasks and may
prefer to work alone.

• Learners with a practical learning style “learn best through real-life projects,
field trips, and hands-on experiments.” (Kolb & Kolb (2012: pp. 1700-1701)
•

• Learners with a divergent learning style prefer to work in groups where they
gather information and are able to listen with an open mind.

• Learners with an assimilating style may prefer “lectures, readings, exploring

analytical models, and having time to think things through.” (Kolb & Kolb (2012:
pp. 1700-1701)

• Learners with a converging style enjoy doing simulations, practical applications,

and laboratory assignments.

• Learners with an accommodating learning style like to work with others, do field
work or find different ways of doing a project.

• Learners with a balancing learning style are able to change their learning style
to match the task.

The focus on nine different learning styles assists teachers in planning for a diverse
range of activities that may suit the different learning styles in the classroom. This is
important, because teachers may be tempted just to provide activities for a learning
style that suits them in particular. Remember that research indicates that learners
should be provided with different learning activities, consequently you may find all nine
styles in a single classroom.

3.6.3 Honey and Mumford’s model of learning

Honey and Mumford (1986) generated profiles of learning based on participant

responses to a questionnaire. People may display a predominant or preferred style
reflective of the following four profiles: activists, reflectors, theorists, and pragmatists.

These authors describe activists as learners who enjoy the “here and the now” and
take pleasure in immediate experiences. They tend to act first and think about the
consequences later. They enjoy brainstorming.

They describe reflectors as students who stand back, watch, and think before taking
any action. They prefer to collect information and embark on research before making
any decisions. They tend to think about things from all angles.
According to Honey and Mumford (1986:25–29), these general aptitudes for each style
may apply.

Table 3.2: Honey and Mumford’s learning styles

Learning style May learn from

Activist New experiences, short activities, high visibility activities, being
thrown in at the deep end of a challenging task, being involved with
others
Reflector Being allowed to watch and think about an activity, undertaking in-
depth research, producing careful analysis and reports, being given
time to make a decision
Theorist Systems, models, concepts, or theories; structured situations with a
clear aim; exploring logical interrelationships between ideas
Pragmatist Activities that are practical, models to emulate, or “real” problems to
solve

The important thing for instruction is that we provide learners with different approaches
to learning, not only to suit their particular learning style, but to also balance them. Fr
instance, learners who are not reflective may benefit from learning via reflection, and
learners who are pragmatic may benefit from reflecting first and then acting.

Did you notice that there are similarities between Kolb’s learning styles and those of
Honey and Mumford? A learner should not be considered as being one particular type
or only having one particular style– we all have a variety of styles that we should
integrate in different ways, depending on the learning or problem situation.

Activity 3.8

(1) Which of the models in this learning unit did you find the most interesting or useful?
Why do you say so?
(2) Which of the models in this learning unit did you find the least interesting or useful?
Why do you say so?

3.8 CONCLUSION
We have looked at a few of the many, many instructional models that exist. This is to
give you some idea of what is out there and to allow you to further explore instruction
models. Many of our instructional practices and models are based on theories of how
learners learn, and I’m sure you can see how the field of psychology of education
integrates with instructional design. It is important that you critically appraise these
models and think effectively about their design and how you can put them to use in a
classroom. As a teacher, you need to make informed educational and instructional
decisions.

The instructional design models we discussed included different types of models

(described by on the EduTech wiki,
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/instructional_design_model) as follows:

Some models describe a strategy in detail (e.g. Gagne’s nine events), some relate to
the quality of the design (Merrill’s first principles), others provide a method to create
instruction (the ADDIE, and the Dick and Carey’s models), while others help us to
enhance instructional design (understanding different learning styles).

In the next learning unit, you will have the opportunity to draw on what you have learnt
from the units you have studied so far in order to design a learning event.

3.8 LEARNING OUTCOMES CHECKLIST

Outcome I Can do I Cannot do

• Identify instructional models and theories in
different contexts
• Plan and design effective instruction.
• Use appropriate design steps to design
instruction.
• Reflect on your design.
3.9 REFERENCES

Baum, S, Viens, J, Slatin, B & Gardner, H. 2005. Multiple intelligences in the

elementary classroom: a teacher’s toolkit. New York: Teachers College Press.
Carr-Chellman, AA. 2016. Instructional design for teachers: improving classroom
practice. 2nd edition. New York: Routledge.
Dick, W & Carey, L. 1996. The systematic design of instruction. 4th edition. New
York: Longman.
EduTech Wiki contributors. 2017. "Instructional design model," EduTech Wiki, A
resource kit for educational technology teaching, practice and research
Available
at: https://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=Instructional_design
_model&oldid=64463.
Gardner, H. 2006. Multiple intelligences: new horizons.New York: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. 2009. Multiple approaches to understanding. In CM Reigeluth (eds),
Instructional design theory and models: a new paradigm of instructional theory.
Volume two. New York: Routledge.
Gagne, RM. 1987. The conditions of learning and theory of instruction. 4th edition.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Honey, P & Mumford, A. 1986. The manual of learning styles. Berkshire: Peter
Honey Publications.
Kolb, AY & Kolb, DA. 2005. Learning styles and learning spaces: enhancing
experiential learning in higher education. Academy of Management Learning &
Education, 4(2):193-212.
Kolb, A & Kolb, DA. 2012. Kolb’s learning styles. In N Seel (ed), Encyclopedia of the
sciences of learning. Berlin: Springer.
Merrill, MD. 2002. First principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research
And Development, 50(3):43-59.
Morrison, GR, Ross, SM, Kalman, HK & Kemp, JE. 2011. Designing effective
instruction. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Sajaganesandip. 2015. A visual representation of Gardner's Multiple Intelligence
Theory. Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Multiple-
intelligence.jpg.
Seels, B. & Glasgow, Z. 1998. Making instructional design decisions. 2nd edition.
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Wiggins, T & McTighe, J. 2005. Understanding by design. Washingtion: ASCD.

3.10 RESOURCES

• Learning Unit 3: Models and theories of instruction

• Screencast 1: Gagne's nine events of instruction
PowerPoint Presentation: Gagne's nine events of instruction
• Screencast 2: Kolb’s model of learning style explained
• PowerPoint Presentation: Kolb and Kolb's theory on learning styles
• Activity 3.4: Dick and Carey Model diagram
LEARNING UNIT 4

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER: DESIGNING YOUR OWN INSTRUCTIONAL EVENT

BY REFLECTING ON YOUR DESIGN

Contents

LEARNING GOALS………………………………………………………………………01
4.1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………..01
4.2 DESIGNING A LEARNING EVENT………………………………………………..02
4.3 INTEGRATING TECHNOLOGY IN INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN AND
DELIVERY…………………………………….……………………………………..03
4.4 REFLECTING ON AND IMPROVING YOUR DESIGN………………………….04
4.5 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………..06
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………06

LEARNING GOALS

When you have worked through this study unit, you should be able
to:

• Use appropriate design steps to design instruction

• Design and deliver instruction using technology
• Reflect on design to improve it

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will use appropriate design steps to design your own instructional event
or lesson. You will integrate some of the concepts we have talked about so far and
include your own creative ideas. Remember that your goal is for your learners to be
successful in your classroom through active learning.

We also briefly explore the integration of technology into instructional design and
delivery processes. Students will gain insights into various technologies, strategies for
effective integration, and considerations for enhancing learning outcomes through
technology. You will also be asked to reflect on your design and to improve or change
it where needed.

Wiggins and McTighe (2005:13) hold the view that teachers are designers. An
important part of what you do as a teacher involves creating learning experiences that
fulfil a specific purpose. However, as is the case with all design professions, there are
constraints. Time, resources, and the specified curriculum are among the constraints

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that will affect your choices in terms of learning design. Teacher knowledge is an
important resource for learning design. How much you know of both the content and
how to teach it effectively will affect your instruction design. One of the most important
activities you will engage in as a teacher is lesson planning. The more detailed the
design of your lesson, the more control you will have over it. A clearly written out lesson
plan guides your decisions through the lesson, and will assist you in reaching your
instructional goals.

4.2 DESIGNING A LEARNING EVENT

The following chapter from your textbook provides you with a guide to planning
lessons, which will assist you with this section.

PRESCRIBED READING: Textbook Chapter 2

Activity 4.1

1) Design your own lesson planning guide, that you believe teachers should fill in as
a lesson planning template. Include the lesson planning elements that you feel are
important.
2) Which elements from the units that you have already studied will you include and
why? You will be submitting this lesson plan design as an assignment (see Tutorial
Letter 101).

An important part of your decision-making relates to how much detail is necessary in

lesson planning. Does it depend on the level of experience of the teacher, or should
all teachers plan equally thoroughly?

Activity 4.2

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You are going to design a learning event (e.g., lesson, tutor class) by considering
Table 4.1. Select a subject and grade for this lesson design. You will be submitting
this learning event as an assignment (see Tutorial Letter 101).

Table 4.1: Designing a lesson or learning event

LESSON OR LEARNING EVENT

Subject: Grade level:
Topic: Duration:
Analysis of learning needs: (who are your learners, what are their learning needs,
what is required by the curriculum?)
Learning objectives (your goals for the lesson)
What is the content/skill that must be taught? Refer to your topic and expand.
What teaching materials (resources – LTSM) will you choose or design (worksheets,
texts etc.)? Will you integrate technology into this lesson? If so, how?
Macro level:
What teaching methods will you use? For what parts of the lesson will you use them?
How will you try to include some of the constructivist, learner-centred methods
discussed in this module? How can you accommodate different learning styles?
Micro-level:
What specific activities will you be involved in during the lesson? Write them down in
order (introduction, lesson development, and conclusion).
What specific activities will the learners be involved in during the lesson? Write them
down in order (introduction, lesson development, and conclusion). What are you
wanting learners to learn from each activity?
Teacher Activities Learners Activities
What formative assessment will you include? (Questions you will ask, small tasks
during the lesson, etc.)
What summative assessment will this learning event lead up to? When will this take
place?

4.3 INTEGRATING TECHNOLOGY IN INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN AND DELIVERY

In the field of instructional design and delivery, the incorporation of technological

resources and innovative educational strategies has profoundly reshaped teaching
and learning processes (Amir et al., 2020). This transformation is further highlighted
by the critical success factors in online education, where universities leverage the
internet and online delivery methods to enhance teaching practices (Voléry & Lord,
2000). The sudden impact of the COVID-19 pandemic has also accelerated the
adoption of online teaching and learning environments, requiring immediate and
supportive measures to ensure the quality of learning experiences for students (Fabriz
et al., 2021).

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As online learning technologies become more integral to the university experience, the
quality of student learning is significantly impacted by their interactions with these
technologies (Ellis & Bliuc, 2019). The shift to online learning represents a
transformative process that leverages innovative technology to revolutionize
traditional teaching and learning methods (Watjatrakul, 2016). As a teacher in this
digital era, it is important to have the skill to identify key technologies used in
instructional design and delivery.

Online teaching and learning require specific pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)
to design and organize effective learning experiences using digital technologies
(Rapanta et al., 2020). Integrating Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
in teaching environments is essential for preparing students for the digital era
(Bingimlas, 2009).

There are plenty of technology tools that teachers can employ to enhance teaching,
to engage students, and to facilitate personalized learning experiences. Remember
that the effectiveness of these technologies depends on how well they align with
educational goals, pedagogical approaches, and student engagement.

4.4 REFLECTING ON AND IMPROVING YOUR DESIGN

You cannot grow and improve as a teacher (even with many years of experience)
if you do not reflect on your lessons. Reflection means looking back at your lesson
from different perspectives. Some reflection takes place while you are teaching
(reflection-in-action), and you can also reflect after the teaching event (reflection-
on-action). According to Bassot (2015:15),

Becoming more self-aware is a crucial part of practicing reflectively and the

concept of the metaphorical mirror: which is a vital tool for reflection in both
senses of the world must become clearer to you as a reflective teacher and
learner. We are exploring the different kinds of mirrors that we use in our
everyday lives to see what these can teach us about different aspects of
reflective practice. How do we learn best? Learning and reflection go 'hand in
hand' and it is difficult to imagine one without the other. It is important to
remember that reflection is a skill, so it is something we can develop and
improve upon. We must consider learning styles, and the strengths and
weaknesses in the four styles and apply this to our own learning and to those
of our student's. The SWOT/B (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and
Threats/Barriers) and SWAIN (Strengths, Weaknesses, Aspirations, Interests
and Needs) exercises could assist you to analyse your current position. For
reflective practices, we should also examine issues of motivation and the role
of drivers in helping us to understand more about what we do and why we do
it.

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If you have written down your lesson design according to the format in 4.2, then you
will be able to look back and identify where your lesson was very successful or where
it may have been lacking. You will need to look at each aspect and consider its strength
or weakness. Also, consider the lesson from the learners’ perspectives. If you were a
learner in the class, consider how would you have enjoyed the lesson, and what and
how much would you have learnt? Also, ask yourself what you could do to improve the
lesson if you were to teach it again.

Activity 4.3

Write a set of questions you would suggest teachers ask themselves as a way to reflect
on their lesson design:
• after they have prepared the lesson (before they teach it);
• while they are teaching the lesson;
• after they have taught the lesson.

Now that you have taught the lesson, I would like you to reflect on the success of
your lesson plan.

Answer the following questions:

1. What were the strengths of this lesson? Consider this question from your
perspective and from the perspective of the learners.
2. What contributed to the success of the lesson?
3. What were the weaknesses of this lesson? Consider this question from your
perspective and from the perspective of the learners.
4. What contributed to the weaknesses of the lesson?
5. What changes will you put into place before designing the next lesson? Look
back at your written design.
6. Is your design clear enough to allow someone else to teach the same lesson from
it?

Reflection also means looking at your entire practice as a teacher. This is very
important if you are to develop holistically.
4.5 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you drew all the elements of this module together into a lesson design.
There are many models of instructional design, and we have looked at just some of
these. As technology changes what we do and how we do it, newer approaches and

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models will come to the fore, and so, as a teacher, you will need to keep up to date
with these approaches, models, and theories. In the 1980s, there were over 40
instructional design models – nowadays there are many, many more.

It is vital that you understand instructional design as one of your responsibilities as a

teacher. It is not the only thing that you as a teacher will do, but it is one of the most
important. It is also very important for your own growth as a teacher that you engage
with both the needs of the curriculum and the needs of your learners to design
learning events that are meaningful and successful.

It is very important that, as a teacher, you not only keep abreast of the new ideas in
teaching and instruction, but also consider ideas emanating from societies that have
been neglected. The voices of these societies need to be heard and considered if we
are to teach meaningfully and successfully.

The various instruction models and theories should provide you with an opportunity
to reflect and to consider your role more critically and carefully. As you gain practice
in writing out instructional design plans (lesson plans), you will become more
confident. Your effectiveness as a teacher will rely on your ability to plan and prepare
instructional events.

I have enjoyed presenting this module to you. I hope that you have enjoyed studying
it, and that you have learnt to think critically about your role in instructional design.

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REFERENCES

Amir, A. (2020). Thinking Probabilistically: Stochastic Processes, Disordered

Systems, and Their Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bassot, B. (2015). The reflective practice guide: An interdisciplinary approach to
critical reflection. New York: Routledge.
Bingimlas, K. A. (2009). Barriers to the successful integration of ICT in teaching and
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RESOURCES

Learning Unit 4: Putting it all together: Designing your own instructional event, and reflecting
on your design

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