Chemistry

Matter
● Introduction
❖ Everything that exists in the universe and surrounds ‘space’ and has ‘mass’
❖ Amount of mass present in an object or the substance contained therein is its
‘mass’ whereas the measure of the space enclosed by an object
● Mass - Amount of matter an object contains (M = Density*Volume) (kg)
● Volume - How much space it takes up (V = Mass/Density) (m3 - cubic meter)
● Density - Degree of compactness of a substance (D = Mass/Volume) (kg/m3)
● There are millions of different substances known, and all of them can be categorized as
solids, liquids or gases
● Plasma - Hot ionized gas consisting of approximately equal numbers of positively
charged ions and negatively charged electrons
❖ Plasma, like gases: have no fixed shape or volume, and are less dense than
solids or liquids
❖ Plasma, unlike gases: positively charged nuclei called ions. A gas is made of
neutral molecules and atoms
● Solid State
❖ Represents the fixed size and volume of the object
❖ Ability to maintain its shape (‘negligible compressibility’) when external pressure
is applied
❖ Increase slightly in size when heated (expansion) and usually decrease in size if
cooled (contraction).
❖ ‘Internal molecular spaces’ are the lowest, while the attraction force between the
molecules is the highest
❖ The density of solids is higher
❖ Ex: Wood, Stone, Conch etc.
● Liquid State
❖ At a given temperature, a liquid has a fixed volume and will take up the shape of
the container into which it is poured
❖ The attraction force and density of molecules in the fluid are lower than in solid
but higher than of the gas
❖ Ex: Milk, Water, etc.
❖ Like a solid, a liquid’s volume is slightly affected by changes in temperature
❖ Pure water only has an exact density of 1g/cm3 or 1g/mL at 39.2℉ or 4.0℃
❖ Maximum density of water occurs at 4℃ because of this temperature two
opposing effects are in balance
● Gaseous State
❖ At a given temperature, gas has neither a definite shape nor a definite volume
❖ Gases have more ‘differential molecular space’ (‘high compressibility’)
 ❖ The force of attraction between the gas particles is negligible and they accelerate
randomly
❖ Unlike those of solids and liquids, the volume of gases are affected highly by
temperature changes
❖ Ex: Nitrogen, Argon, etc.
● Plasma
❖ The plasma form of the substance appears when the gas is ionized
❖ Plasma contains almost the same number of positively charged ions and
negative electrons
❖ Highest effect of electricity and magnetism on gases
❖ Formed at a very high temperature, plasma is found in stars
❖ The reaction between plasma and atomic particles in the upper atmosphere of
the Earth is responsible for the aurora borealis, or “northern light”.
● Fifth State - Bose Einstein Condensate (BEC)
❖ Satyendra Nath Bose proposed calculations for fifth state of matter based on
which Albert Einstein predicted this state in 1924-1925
❖ Bose Einstein condensate (BEC) is what happens to a dilute gas when it is made
very cold, near absolute zero (0K/-273.15 ℃ - quantum critical point)
❖ When the matter is in the BEC state it has zero viscosity
● Common Temperatures in the Absolute Scale are
❖ 0℃ (freezing point of water) = 273.15 K
❖ 25℃ (room temperature) = 298.15 K
❖ 100℃ (boiling point of water) = 373.15 K
❖ 0 K (absolute zero) = -273.15℃
❖ 233.15 K (equal measures in Celsius and Fahrenheit) = -40℃
● Converting Temperature
C/5 = (F-32)/9 = R/4 = (K-273)/5
● Causes of Change in Physical State of Matter
❖ State or phase of a given set of matter can change depending on pressure and
temperature conditions etc.
❖ Changes in the state of matter can be brought about procedurally by bringing the
change in these factors
● Eighth Process of Change of State of Matter
1. Melting - Change of a solid into a liquid when heat is applied. The heat required
to melt one gram, is about 80 calories
2. Vaporization - Conversion from the liquid phase into the gaseous (vapor) phase
3. Condensation - Change from the gas phase into the liquid phase, and is the
reverse of evaporation
4. Freezing - Phase transition in which a liquid turns into a solid when its
temperature is lowered to or below its freezing point (0 ℃ /32 ℉ /273.15K)
5. Sublimation - Transition of substance directly from the solid to the gas state,
without passing through the liquid state
 6. Deposition
7. Ionization
8. Recombination/Deionization
● Chemical Classification of Matter
❖ Substance -
1. Pure form of matter that has a certain organization and distinct properties.
2. Divided into two classes
a) Element - Metal, Non-Metal, Metalloid

Basis for Metals Non-metals Metalloids

comparison

Meaning Highest Do not Possess

degree of possess any some
metallic metallic properties like
behavior behavior metal, and
some like of
non-metal

Appearance Shiny Dull Shiny and Dull

Conductivity High thermal Generally, Good but less

and electrical cannot than of metals
conductivity

b) Compound - Organic, Inorganic

● Combination of two or more chemical elements in certain
proportions
● Made of pure substances, they can be divided into simple
components

Organic Inorganic

Based on Carbon Not based on Carbon

Non-Electrolyte Electrolyte (Acids, Bases,

Salts)

Covalent Bonding Ionic Bonding

Low BP and MP High BP and MP

Soluble in non-polar Soluble in Polar Solvents

solvents like Water

Complex structure Simple structure

Non-conductor Conduct in solution and

 molten

Common Form: Liquid/Gas Common Form: Solid

Ex: DNA, Table sugar, Ex: Table Salt, CO2,

Methane Diamond

3. Elements are arranged by Dmitri Mendeleev (1869) according to atomic

mass in the periodic table
4. Be known that has atomic charge of each atom of an element is always
the same
5. In the modern periodic table elements are arranged by increasing atomic
number
❖ Mixture
1. Physical combination of two or more substances in the absence of
chemical reactions in which there is no change in basic characteristics of
the substances
2. Tyndall effect - Scattering of visible light by colloids
3. Divided into two classes
a) Homogeneous - Solution (particle less than 10^-7 cm)
b) Heterogeneous - Colloid (particle size between 10^-7 to 10^-5
cm), Suspension (particle size greater than 10^-5 cm)
c) Types of Colloids

Name Dispersed Dispersion Examples

phase Medium

Sol Solid Liquid Paints, fruit

jellies, gels,
dyes

Emulsion Liquid Liquid Mayonnaise,

milk, salad,
cream

Foam Gas Liquid Beer froth,

soap suds,
whipped
cream

Solid Sol Solid Solid Alloys,

gemstones,
ruby, glass

Solid Liquid Solid Butter, cheese

Emulsion
 Solid Foam Gas Solid Pumice,
marshmallow,
meringue

Solid Aerosol Solid Gas Smoke, dust

in air, bacteria
in air

Liquid Aerosol Liquid Gas Fog, Mist,

Cloud, Sprays

4. Substances in the mixture can be separated again by filtration, distillation

and sublimation
❖ Methods for separating mixtures
1. Crystallization
a) Method of separation of solutes in which mixture is heated
b) Present solute dissociates into the form of crystals and the impure
substance remains in the solution
2. Distillation
a) A mixture of substances with different boiling points is boiled and
liquids of different densities present in it are separated
b) Simple distillation is a method for separating the solvent from a
solution
c) Ex: Water can be separated from salt solution
3. Chromatography
a) By this method, solutes with different absorption capacity are
separated
b) Ex: Separation of pigments from natural dyes and dyes
4. Evaporation
a) Solute dissolved in the liquid solution is separated
b) Solid solute remains in the button after the evaporation of liquid
c) Ex: Making salt from saltwater
5. Sublimation
a) Process of separation of solutes which convert directly from solid
to gas
b) Pure solids are obtained by rapid cooling of the solute gas form
c) Ex: Separation of camphor, dry ice, iodine, naphthalene
6. Sedimentation and Decantation
a) Separation of substances of different density
b) Insoluble substance of the mixture gets settled at the bottom and
when its upper fluid separated, this action is called dissolution
c) Ex: Separation of both from a mixture of oil and water
7. Filtration
a) When the dissolution of insoluble solids by simple mixing is done
through a filter/sieve, it is called filtration
 b) Ex: Physical purification of wastewater
8. Centrifugation
a) Liquid mixture is rotated at a rapid speed in which the centrifuge
force effectively mobilizes the higher density material from the
center to the periphery of the vessel
b) Ex: Removing cream from milk, blood tests, etc.
Atomic Structure
● Early Attempts for searching the smaller atoms (Maharishi Kanada)
❖ He proposed atomistic theory around 600 BC
❖ Kanada suggested that everything can be subdivided, but this subdivision cannot
go on forever, and there must be smallest entities(parmanu) that cannot be
divided
❖ Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus also proposed a model of atomic
theory
❖ They absorbed that matter is composed of indivisible particles called as atoms
● Rules of chemical composition
❖ Given by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789
1. Rule - No difference between total mass of the reactants participating in a
chemical reaction and the total mass of the products obtained from the
reaction
2. Rule - Mass can neither be created nor destroyed
❖ Given by Joseph Proust in 1799
1. Rule - Ratio of the elements included in each compound is always fixed
2. Rule - The ratio of the elements included in each compound is always
fixed. For example, the ration of the mass of hydrogen and oxygen in the
water will always 1:8
● Early Discoveries and Atomic Theories
❖ John Dalton (1803) - First to describe atoms in a modern, scientific sense. But
didn’t explain electricity
1. Matter is made up of small indivisible particles, called atoms
2. Atoms of similar elements that have same size, mass and chemical
properties
3. Atomic indestructible and indivisible units which can neither be built nor
terminated
4. Atoms of different elements have different mass, shape and size
5. In chemical reactions, atoms of elements are combined, separated and
rearranged
❖ J.J Thomson (1897) - Plum Pudding Model: Protons and Electrons. Doesn’t
explain Rutherford’s Alpha-particle bouncing (Experiment - Cathode Ray Tube)
1. Cathode ray was deflected by the electric field
2. Electrons, which have a negative charge, flow off the cathode and are
attracted towards the anode
 3. A small hole in the anode allows some electrons to pass through it,
creating a beam of electrons
4. An atom is a uniform sphere of positive charges (due to presence of
protons) as well as negative charges (due to presence of electrons)
5. Atoms as a whole is electrically neutral because the negative and positive
charges are equal magnitude
6. Conclusion 1: The cathode rays are made up of very micro negatively
charged particles. Thomson called them ‘corpuscles. They were later
named ‘Electron’
7. Conclusion 2: The mass of corpuscles/electron is 1/1836th part of the
mass of hydrogen atom, hence ‘atom is divisible particle’ and electron is
its structural unit
8. Electron - A subatomic particle which is a fundamental constituent of all
matter having a mass 1/1837th of a H-atom and which carries the
smallest unit of negative charge is called an electron
❖ Ernest Rutherford (1911) - Shot Alpha-particle bouncing through gold-foil: The
Nucleus. Doesn’t explain: why don’t electron lose energy and crash
1. Alpha Particles which had high speed moved straight through the gold foil
2. Atom contains a lot of empty space
3. Some particles got diverted by slide angles
4. Positive charges in the atom are not occupying much of its space
5. Only one out of 12000 particles bounced back
6. Positive charges are concentrated over a particular area of the atom
7. Conclusion
a) Atoms contains a lot of unoccupied space
b) Heavily Positively charged substance present in the center of the
atom which is called nucleus
c) Nucleus contains an equal amount of positive and negative
charge
❖ Niels Bohr (1913) - Basic of our modern atomic model (Electron Shells). Doesn’t
explain quantum mechanics
1. Objective – Aimed to correct the Rutherford’s atomic model
2. Basis – Quantum theory introduced by Max Planck
3. Conclusion
a) Neil Bohr, using quantum theory in his atomic model, concluded
that the electrons present in the atom rotate only around the
nucleus in fixed orbits in a fixed proportion, angular momentum,
and at a distance proportional to their energy from the nucleus
b) The orbitals of the electrons around the nucleus are displayed
outwardly by K, L, M, N, … or 1, 2, 3, 4 …., respectively. Each
orbit or cell has a certain energy, hence it is also called energy
level
 c) The static electrical attraction force between the nucleus and the
electron balances the electron’s centrifugal force so that the
circulating electrons do not fall into the nucleus
4. Drawbacks
a) Bohr’s atomic model succeeded in interpreting simple atoms such
as hydrogen, but was not as effective in interpreting complex
atoms with more electron
❖ Erwin Schrodinger - Quantum Mechanics: Subshells, proposed: ‘Shells’ are
actually orbitals, doesn’t explain: Why are some atoms of same element heavier
❖ James Chadwick (1932) - Planetary Model: Electrons in Concentric circular orbits
around ‘nucleus’. Not work at all for multi-electron atoms
❖ The experiments of 19th Century scientists - JJ Thomson, Ernest Rutherford,
Neil Bohr, James Chadwick, etc., proved the ‘atomic theory of indivisibility’ wrong
and validated the presence of ‘subatomic particles’ in the interior of the atom
● Atom is the smallest indivisible particle of the matter
● Atom is made of electron, proton, neutrons
Particle Electron Proton Neutron

Discovery Sir J.J Thomson Goldstein (1886) Chadwick (1932)

(1869)

Nature of charge Negative Positive Neutral

Amount of charge 1.6*10^-19 1.6*10^-19 0

Coulomb Coulomb

Mass 9.11*10^-31 kg 1.672614*10^-27 1.67492*10^-27 kg

kg
● Nucleus of an Atom
❖ Nucleus is located at the center of the atom
❖ All the mass of the atom is because of the nucleus
❖ The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular parts which are called Orbits
❖ If we compare the size of an atom and nucleus, nucleus is much smaller than the
atom
● Quantum Physical Model
 A new concept wave-particle duality was presented, according to which the
electron exhibits properties of both wave and particle. It can be refracted like the
wave and has the same mass as a particle
 Electrons can be present at any distance from the nucleus but depending on the
energy level of the electron, they are most likely to occur in certain regions of the
nucleus called orbits.
 Shell, Subshell and Orbital
 Shell/Orbit –
 Circular path around the nucleus of an atom in which electrons move.
Each shell has a certain energy level.
  Level of energy determines the proximity (less energy) or distance (more
energy) of the electron to the nucleus
 These shells are denoted as K, L, M, N or 1(n=1), 2 (n=2), 3 (n=3), 4
(n=4) …
 Electrons with same main quantum number are found in the same orbit
 Subshell
 Each shell can be divided into one or more subshells and represented in
s, p, d, g
 Electrons with the same angular momentum quantum number are found
in the same subshell
 Orbital
 Subshell is divided into orbitals
 Region more likely to have the presence of electrons in the nucleus.
 Those electrons whose principal quantum number (n), angular
momentum number (l) and magnetic quantum number (m) are same,
found in the same orbit
 Quantum Numbers
 Provide complete information about the speed of each electron present in an
atom, the location (shell, subshell, and orbital) of rotation and the energy, etc.
 An atom consists of a large number of orbitals which are distinguished from each
other
 Four Types
 Principal Quantum Number – Principal energy level or shell in which an
electron revolves around the nucleus. It is denoted by the letter n and can
have any integral value except the 0 i.e. n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …, etc.
 Azimuthal Quantum Number – Also known as orbital quantum number
determines the subshell to which electron belongs
Angular momentum Name of Subshell Shape
Quantum Number
0 s Sphere
1 p Dumbbell
2 d Complex/Double
Dumbbell
3 f More complex/multiple
lobes

 Magnetic Quantum Number – Denoted by the symbol m and shows

number of orbitals
 Spin Quantum Number – Represents the direction of the spin of the
electrons. This can either be in the direction of clockwise and anti-
clockwise. Denoted by the symbol s. Only two values i.e., + ½ or – ½
 Distribution of Electrons in Different Shells
 Distribution of electrons in the atom’s shells, subshells, and orbitals it called
electronic configuration of the atom. Various theories and rules have been
presented by various scientists in this regard
  Bohr-Bury Scheme
 Presented in 1921 AD as an ‘electron distribution scheme by Niels Bohr
and Charles Rugile Bury.
 The maximum number of electrons present in a shell can be represented
by 2n^2. Here n – shell number or energy level of the shell
 Outermost shell of an atom can have a maximum of 8 electrons
irrespective of the electron holding capacity of that shell. This is the rule
of Octave. This makes the atom very stable
 All the shells are filled sequentially until the inner shell is full, the electrons
in the forward shell do not get allocated
 Aufbau Principle
 States the filling of different electron subshells is by order of increasing
energy following the (n+1) rule.
 Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
 In 1925 AD, German Scientist Friedrich Hund formulated the rule of
maximum multiplicity
 States that if 2 or more degenerate (i.e., same energy) orbitals are
available, one electron goes into each until all of them are half full before
pairing up
 Atomic Number
 The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom of an element is called
‘atomic number’ which is represented by ‘Z’. Be known that a neutral atom has
the same number of protons and electrons
 Mass Number
 The sum of the number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an
atom is called mass number of that atom. The indicator of mass number is ‘A’.
 Isotopes
 Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons or electrons
but different number of neutrons
 Example: Protium, Deuterium, Tritium (Naturally occurring isotopes of Hydrogen)
 Isobars
 Atoms of mutually different elements whose mass number (A) is the same but
atomic number (Z) are different are called isobaric
 They have similar physical properties while different chemical properties
 Isotones
 Atoms of mutually different elements whose atomic number (A) and mass
number (Z) are different but the number of neutrons are the same, are called
isotones

Valency and Chemical Bonding

 Valency of Element
 Valence – Ability of an element to combine with other elements
  According to the Bohr-Bury Scheme, the ‘Rule of Octet’ states that an atom can
have a maximum of 8 electrons in the outermost shell and each atom tries to
complete its octet
 The number of electrons – occupied, discarded or shared by an atom in an
attempt to complete the octave – is called its ‘valency’
 The electrons participating in this process is called valence electron
 If valence electron are 4 or less than 4, Valence = Number of Valence Electrons
 If valence electron are more than 4, Valence = 8 – Number of valence electrons
 Process of completion of the Octet
 By sacrificing its electron to another atom
 By obtaining electrons from another atom
 By sharing an electron with another atom
 Valency of Noble Gases
 Naturally, 6 ideal gases are found in the atmosphere – Helium, Neon, Argon,
Krypton, Xenon, Radon
 Outermost shell of each ideal gas atom is complete (an octet)
 Since Helium has only one orbit (completed by two electrons), the last orbit of all
ideal gases, except helium, has 8 electrons
 The efficiency of the chemical activity of ideal gases become negligible due to
completion of the outermost orbitals and that is why they are also called inert
gases
 Valence Shell and Valence Electrons
 The outermost shell of an atom is called Valence Shell and electrons presented
in this last shell are called Valence Electrons
 These valence electrons are represented by Lewis Symbol. Points equal to the
number of valence electrons are marked around the symbolic character of the
element to represent the Lewis symbol
 Chemical Bonding
 The atom does not have an independent presence in nature.
 Found in molecule form or combined with the same or different atoms
 This process is known as chemical bonding when atoms form ions, molecules,
crystals and compound by mutual combination
 The attraction force between the atoms present in a molecule or group of
compounds that binds them together and provides a specific geometric form is
called ‘chemical bond’
 Divided into various types based on nature, strength and bonding process
 Types of Chemical Bonds
 Electrovalent or Ionic Bond
 Chemical bonds that are formed as a result of the transfer of valence
electrons between two atoms
 The transfer of electrons converts the atoms participating in the action
into mutually ‘oppositely charged ion’. The atom which renounces the
electron is called cation while the atom that accepts the electron is called
anion. A strong attraction force acts between these opposing ions
  Compounds made up of ions joined by electrovalent or ionic bonds are
called ionic or electrovalent compounds
 Chemical Properties
 Ionic Compounds have crystalline structures in which cation and
anion are arranged in regular order
 In these compounds, when ionic charge increases the distances
between the ions decreases and their hardness increases
 Covalent Bond
 Bonds formed due to ‘sharing of valence electrons’ between atoms of the
same or different elements are called covalent bonds.
 These bonds are formed between atoms that have almost the same
electrical indebtedness
 Three types of Covalent Bonds
 Single covalent bond – sharing of one electron pair e.g., between
two chlorine atoms
 Dual covalent bond – sharing of two electron pairs e.g., between
two oxygen atoms
 Triple covalent bond – sharing of three electron pairs e.g.,
between two nitrogen atoms
 Coordinate Bond
 When the electron pair shared between two atoms is obtained from only
one atom, it forms covalent bond
 The coordinate bond is displayed by an arrow with the arrow-head
indicating electron donor and the arrow-head indicating electron donor
and the arrow-tail indicating electron receptor atom. Example: Ammonium
chloride (NH4CI)
 Weak Bond
 The attraction forces acting between different molecules, atoms and ions
that require less energy to dissipate
 It is these bonds that give biological molecules the defined size and
durability e.g., Hydrogen and Van-der Waals bonds
 Vander Waals Bonds
 Include attraction and repulsions between atoms, molecules, and
surfaces, as well as other intermolecular forces
 Differ from covalent and ionic bonding in that they are caused by
correlations in the fluctuating polarization of nearby particles (a
consequence of quantum dynamics)
Chemical Reactions
 Chemical Formula
 Used to display elements, molecules, and compounds in simple form
 Symbolically represent the elements present in a compound or molecule, the
number and proportion of their atoms and the nature of the mutual reaction
 Types of chemical formula
  Chemical composition of compounds can be expressed in various forms, so
mainly three types of chemical formulas can be written for a compound
 Empirical Formula
 The proportional formula of a substance represents the ratio of simplest
absolute number of atoms of the elements present in it.
 This formula does not show actual position of the atoms of the elements
in the compound
 Ex: CH2O
 Molecular Formula
 The atom of a compound represents the number of elements and their
atoms present in a molecule
 Ex: C6H12O6
 Structural Formula
 Gives knowledge of the mutual combination model of the atoms of the
compound.
 Graphical representation of the molecular structure of a chemical
compound
 Shows which atoms of different elements present in the compound are
related to which other atoms and which type of chemical bonds are
attached
 Structure of a compound can be represented in two ways
 Electron dot structural formula
 Line bond structural formula
 Chemical Reactions
 Substances interact with each other to produce substances with different
chemical properties than themselves
 These substances participating in the reaction called reactants and manufactured
substances called products. In this, new chemical bonds are formed or the bonds
formed by the reactants get broken
 The basis for determining the chemical reaction based on the presence of
indication is as follows
 Changes in the state of the reactants
 Color change in received product
 Odor changes in substance
 Origin of sound or light
 Gas Emissions
 Heat Conversion
 Types of Chemical Reactions
 Combination Reaction
 Reaction where two reactants are combined into one product
 Also known as synthesis reaction
 General Form: X + Y = XY
 Element + Element
o C (s) + O2 (g) = CO2 (g) Carbon Dioxide
 o 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) = 2H2O (l) Water
o Fe (s) + S (s) = FeS (s) Iron Sulphide
 Compound + Compound
o NH3 (g) + HCI (g) = NH4CI (g) Ammonium Chloride
o CaO (s) + CO2 (g) = CaCO3 (s) Calcium Carbonate
o 2NH3 (g) + H2SO4 (aq) = (NH4)2SO4 (aq) Ammonium
Sulphate
 Compound + Element
o 2CO (g) + O2 (g) = 2CO2 (g)
o 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) = 2SO3 (g) Sulphur Trioxide
o 2NO (g) + O2 (g) = 2NO3 (g) Nitrogen dioxide
 Decomposition Reaction
 Chemical reaction in which a single compound is decomposed
into two or more simple products by the effect of heat, light, or
electricity
 Three types of decomposition
o Thermal Decomposition
 Dissociation on providing heat
 Ex: Decomposition of Ferrous Sulphate crystals by
heat into Ferrous Sulphate and water vapour
 FeSO4.7H2O (s) = FeSO4 (s) + 7H2O (g)
o Photolysis
 Decomposition of a compound into simple
compound into simple substances when exposed to
sunlight
 Ex: Dissolution of silver chloride and bromide in
sunlight
 2AgCI (s) = 2Ag (s) + CI2 (g)
o Electrolysis
 Dissolution when electric current flows in an
aqueous solution
 Ex: The collection of hydrogen at the cathode and
oxygen at the anode
 Displacement Reaction
 When a more reactive element distracts a less reactive element
from its compound
 Two types
o Single Displacement Reaction
 Cu + 2AgNO3 = 2Ag + Cu (NO3)2
o Double Displacement Reaction
 Exchange of ions between two ionic compounds
and the formation of two new compounds.
 These reactions occur mainly in aqueous solution
  AgNO3 (Silver Nitrate) + HCI = HNO3 + AgCI2
(Silver Chloride)
 Rearrangement Reaction
 Reversible and Irreversible Reactions
 Irreversible is one directional
 Reversible is bidirectional reaction
 Ex: N2 + O2 = 2NO (Nitric acid) Reversible
 Ex: C + O2 = CO2 (carbon dioxide) Irreversible
 Photochemical Reaction
 Reactions that occur in the presence of sunlight
 Ex: Photosynthesis (6CO2 + 6H2O = C6H12O6(glucose) + 6O2)
 Endothermic and Exothermic Reaction
Endothermic Exothermic
Heat is absorbed (feels cold) Heat is released (feels warm)
Energy must be added for Reaction occurs spontaneously
reaction to occur
Entropy decreases Entropy increases
Increase in Enthalpy Decrease in enthalpy

 Oxidation and Reduction Reactions

 Oxidation Reaction – Reaction in which oxygen is increased or
electrons fall
 Reduction Reaction – There is decrease in oxygen or an increase
of electrons
 Redox – When a reaction contains oxidation of one substance and
reduction of another
 Some Chemicals with Common Name and Chemical Formula
 Baking Soda – Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate or Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
 Baryta – Barium Hydroxide [Ba (OH)2]
 Bleach – Sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCI)
 Bleaching Powder – Calcium Hypochlorite [Ca(CIO)2]
 Blue Vitriol – Copper Sulfate Pentahydrate (CuSO4.5H2O)
 Borax – Sodium tetraborate decahydrate (Na2B4O7.10H2O)
 Calomel – Mercurous Chloride (HgCI)
 Carbolic Acid – Phenol (C6H5OH)
 Carborundum – Silicon carbide (SiC)
 Caustic Potash – Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
 Chile Saltpeter – Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3)
 Chloroform – Trichloromethane (CHCI3)
 Cream of tartar – Potassium Bitartrate (KHC4H4O6)
 Dolomite – Calcium Magnesium Carbonate [CaMg(CO3)2]
 Dry Ice – Solid Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
 Epsom Salt – Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (MgSO4.7H2O)
 Freon – Dichorodifluoromethane (CF2CI2)
 Galena – Lead (II) sulfide (PbS)
  Glauber’s Salt – Sodium Sulfate decahydrate (Na2SO4.10H2O)
 Glycerin – Trihydroxy Propanol (C3H8O3)
Acid, Base and Salt
 Acid
 Chemical species that donates protons or hydrogen ions and/or accepts
electrons
 Most acids contains a hydrogen atom bonded that can release (dissociate) to
yield a cation and an anion in water
 The higher the concentration of hydrogen ions produced by an acid, the higher its
acidity and the lower the pH of the solution
 Acid turns blue litmus paper to Red
 Organic Acids
 Acids that are obtained from various natural sources such as plants and
animals
 Carbon is essentially present in all organic acids
 Acids are usually found in many substances including various food items
but their presence in many fruits is very prominent
 Examples: Vinegar (Acetic Acid), Orange (Citric Acid), Tamarind (Tartaric
Acid), Tomato (Oxalic Acid), Sour Milk (Lactic Acid), Lemon (Citric Acid),
Ant Sting (Methanoic Acid), Nettle Sting(Methanoic Acid)
 Inorganic Acid
 Not found naturally, but are derived from inorganic minerals
 Mineral acids are actually compounds in which hydrogen and non-metallic
elements are present.
 Ex: Sulfuric Acid, Hydrochloric Acid, Nitric Acid (Bench Acids)
 Oxyacid
 Acid in which one oxygen atom is attached to the hydrogen atom and at
least one other element is also present is called oxy acids
 Also called oxo acid.
 Ex: Phosphoric Acid (H3PO4) and Nitric Acid (HNO3)
 Hydra-Acids
 Oxygen is not found in hydra acids and is combined with an element
similar to hydrogen, a halogen group or an element similar to halogen
(fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, etc.)
 Ex: Hydrochloric Acid, Hydrofluoric acid, Hydrobromic Acid, Hydrocyanic
acid, etc.)
 Strong Acid
 Those acids, which are completely ionized in an aqueous solution
 High ability to give off protons, i.e., hydrogen ions (H+), i.e., strong acids
break down into ions of their constituent elements
 Ex: Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4), Hydrochloric acid (HCI), Nitric Acid (HNO3),
Hydrobromic acid
 Weak Acid
  Not completely ionized in aqueous solutions, are partially ionized. Weak
acids do not give up their hydrogen ions (H+) completely
 At the same concentration, the pH value of weak acids is higher than that
of strong acids
 Ex: Acetic acid (CH3COOH), Formic Acid (HCOOH), Hydrogen Sulfide
(H2S)
 Concentrated Acids
 Amount of acid is relatively more than that of the solvent
 Ex: HCI and H2SO4
 Dilute Acids
 Amount of acid is relatively less than that of the solvent
 Ex: 5% sulfuric acid
 Chemical Properties of Acids
 Reactions with Metals: Acid reacts with reactive metals and produces salt
with hydrogen gases
Acid + Metal = Salt + Hydrogen
Mg + 2HCI = MgCI2 + H2
2HCI + Zn = ZnCI2 + H2
 Reaction with Metal Carbonate and Metal Hydrogen: The acids react with
metal carbonate and hydrogen carbonate to form salts, carbon dioxide,
and water
Acid + Metal Carbonate = Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide
AI2(CO3)3 (Aluminium Carbonate) + 6HCI = 2 AICI3 (Aluminium
Chloride) + 3H2O + 3CO2
NaHCO3 + HCI = NaCI + H2O + CO2
 Reaction with Alkalis: Acid and base react with each other to neutralize
each other and form salt and water (Neutralization Reaction)
Acid + Alkali = Salt + Water
 Reaction with Metallic Oxide – The acid reacts with a metal oxide to form
salts and water. The addition of copper oxide and hydrochloric acids
produces salt and water called copper chloride. The color of the solution
turns blue-green after the reaction
 Reaction with Aqueous Solution – The acids liberate hydrogen ions by
reacting with water in aqueous solutions, but cannot freely form hydrogen
ions so they combine with water molecules to form hydronium ions
 Types of Acid with Chemical Formula and Uses
Type of Acid Chemical Common Name Uses
Formula
Hydrochloric Acid HCI Muriatic Acid Toilet Cleaner,
Gastric Juice,
Metal Cleaner,
Makes Sugar and
Glue
 Carbonic Acid H2CO3 Carbonated Water, Club Soda, Soft
Acid or Air Drinks, Blood
Buffer
Sulphuric Acid H2SO4 Battery Acid Solvent in
Battery, Pollutant
Mist, Acid Rain
Nitric Acid HNO3 Aquafortis or Spirit Removes warts
of Nitre (cause yellow
stains on skin)
Phosphoric Acid H3PO4 Orthophosphoric Acidify Soft
Acid Drinks,
Component in
ATP and DNA
Lactic Acid C3H6O3 Milk Acid Build-up in
Muscle during
exercise

 Base
 Chemical substances that dissolve in water and release hydroxyl ions. The bases
have a tendency to accept protons.
 Bitter in taste and when touched, appear to be smooth and slippery like soap
 Bases convert red litmus paper to blue, methyl orange to yellow, and
phenolphthalein to pink
 Reacts with acids to neutralize them and form salts and water
 Types of Bases
 Strong Bases – Those bases, which completely dissolve and ionize in an
aqueous solution. Water soluble bases are called alkali. These bases
produce more hydroxyl ions
Ex: Sodium Hydroxide, Potassium Hydroxy, Calcium Hydroxide
 Weak Bases – Those bases which do not completely dissolve in aqueous
solutions, i.e., are not completely ionized, are called weak bases. These
bases produce fewer hydroxyl ions
Ex: Magnesium Hydroxide, Ammonium Hydroxide
 Concentrated Bases – Aqueous solution, which has a relatively high
amount of base, is called a concentrated base
 Dilute Bases – Aqueous solutions, which have relatively small amounts of
bases
 Chemical Properties
 Reactions with Metals: Bases react with metals to form salts and
hydrogen gases. But this does not have to happen in all base-metal
reactions
 Reactions with Acids: Bases react with acids to form salts and water
HCI (Acid) + NaOH (Base) = NaCI (Salt) + H2O (Water)
HBr (Acid) + KOH (Base) = KBr (Salt) + H2O (Water)
  Reaction with non-metallic oxides: Bases react with non-metallic oxides to
form salts and water. It is similar to the neutralization reaction between
acids and bases
2NaOH + CO2 = Na2CO3 + H2O
 Reaction with Water: When dissolved in water, it produces hydroxyl or
hydroxide ion
NaOH (s) = Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
 Aqua Rezia
 Mixture of Nitric Acid and Hydrochloric acid in the ratio of 1:3.
 Yellow orange liquid from which smokes come out.
 Used by jewelers in the process of jewelery making because it also has
the ability to melt noble metals such as gold, silver, platinum
 Salt
 Compounds produced by the mutual reaction of acid and base
 Ionic compound which is formed from groups of ions with opposite charges
 Ions with positive chare are called cations and ions with negative charges are
called anions
 Combination of both types of ions in a salt is such that there is a balance
between positive charge and negative charge and the net charge of the salt is
zero
 Salts are generally formed by the combination of cation of metal and anion of
non-metal
 Acidic Salts
 Strong Acid + Weak Base
 pH value is less than 7
 Ex: Sodium Bicarbonate, Monosodium Phosphate
 Alkaline Salts
 Weak Acid + Strong Base
 pH value is greater than 7
 Ex: Magnesium chloride hydroxide, Zinc chloride hydroxide
 Neutral Salts
 Strong Acid = Strong Base
 pH value is 7
 Ex: Sodium Chloride, Potassium Nitrate, Sodium Sulphate, Potassium
Sulphate, etc.
 Salts Common Name, Chemical Name and Formula
 Baking Soda – Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
 Washing Soda – Hydrated Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3.10H2O)
 Plaster of Paris – Calcium Sulphate Hemihydrates (CaSO4.1/2H2O)
 Bleaching Powder – Calcium Oxychloride (CaOCI2)
 Gypsum – Calcium Sulphate Dihydrate (CaSO4.2H2O)
 Salts with Common Name and Uses
 Salt – Sodium Chloride (Use in Food)
 Baking Soda – Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate (Food, antiacids)
  Chalk – Calcium Carbonate (Manufacture of paint and tires)
 Saltpeter – Potassium Nitrate (Fertilizers)
 Potash – Potassium Carbonate (Manufacture of soap and glass)
 TSP – Sodium Phosphate (Detergents)
 Sal ammoniac – Ammonium Chloride (Dry cell batteries)
 pH Scale
 The full form of pH is Potential of Hydrogen
 Developed in the year 1909 by Danish Scientist SPL Sorens
 pH 14 scale displays logarithmic values from 0 to 14.
 Zero represents the highest acidification, 7 neutral and 14 the highest alkalinity
 On pH scale, 0-7 indicates acidic nature, and values above 7 up to 14 indicate
alkaline nature
Periodic Table
 Classification of Element
 With the discovery of a large number of elements, it became difficult to study the
elements individually, so classification of elements was done to make the study
easier
 Every substance in nature is made up of some element, mixture of elements or
compounds. These elements determine the structure, properties and physical
nature of the substance
 So far, 118 elements have been discovered. Of these 94 elements are found in
nature, while the remaining 24 elements have been synthesized by scientists
 Earlier Attempts of Classification of Element
 Metal – Non-metal Classification
 Elements were first classified into two classes called metal and non-metal
 Metal – Shiny, Flexible heat and conductor of electricity and solid-state
elements at normal temperatures
 Non-Metal - Non-Shiny, Non-Volatile and unbending, non-conductors of
heat and electricity and elements that do not remain in solid state at
normal temperatures
 Limitations
 No logical reason was explained about the more active metal and
non-metals
 There were some elements which had the properties of both metal
and non-metals, they were called sub-metals but they were not
given a separate place in the above classification
 Dobereiner’s Triads
 In 1817, after the development of atomic theory, the German chemist
Wolfgang Dobereiner attempted to classify elements on the basis of
atomic mass
 Dobereiner determined groups of three elements that exhibited similar
qualities. These group of three elements were called triads
  Arranging the elements of a group in ascending order of their atomic
masses, the atomic masses of the element in the middle is approximately
the average of the atomic masses of the first and third elements
 Limitations
 Not all elements can be classified into triplet groups defined by
Dobereiner
 Elements with different properties were placed in the same triad
group which has not rational.
 Ex: Carbon, Nitrogen and Oxygen
 Newlands Laws of Octave
 In 1865, the English chemist John Alexander Newlanders introduced a
new concept of classification of elements
 According to Newlands, if all elements are arranged in ascending order of
their atomic masses, then every eighth element will be identical in
properties from the first-place element
 Compared to the octave rule of music. That is why it was called the
octave law of Newlands. In this type of classification, the tendency of
recurring repetitions in the properties of the elements was observed
 Sodium is ranked eighth after lithium and potassium comes in eighth
place after sodium. Hence the properties of these three elements are
almost the same
 Mendeleev Periodic Table
 In the year 1869, Russian Chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev made more
meaningful and logical efforts towards the classification of elements
 Mendeleev classified 63 elements known by then on the basis of similarities in
their properties, atomic masses and chemical properties
 Mendeleev concluded from the observation of the elements that, if all elements
are arranged in the order of their increasing atomic masses, then the properties
of the elements repeat at certain intervals
 Mendeleev arranged the elements of the same property in the same class,
arranging the elements in ascending order of their atomic masses
 In addition, Mendeleev also left a few blank spaces in his periodic table and
predicted the properties of the elements to be filled
 Later many elements were discovered whose properties were also identical to
those stated by Mendeleev
 Limitations
 Position of Hydrogen: Mendeleev could not give proper place to
Hydrogen in his table
 Incompatible Pair: Increasing order of atomic masses, some elements
had pairs in which more atomic masses were placed before elements with
lower atomic masses Ex: Cobalt was ranked before nickel and tellurium
was ranked before iodine
 Position of Isotopes: Not determined in the Mendeleev’s periodic table.
  Unnecessary relationships: Mendeleev put many different quality
elements into similar groups Ex: Copper, Silver, Gold with alkaline
elements in the same group

Modern Periodic Table

 Modern Periodic Law
 In the year 1913, England physicist Henry Moseley concluded from an analysis
of x-ray spectrum that the atomic number of an element is more capable of
showing the properties of that element than the atomic mass of an element
 On this basis, the modern periodic law was introduced by amending the periodic
rule propounded by Mendeleev. According to this rule, the physical and chemical
properties of elements are the recurring functions of their atomic numbers
 Modern Periodic Table
 Modern periodic table is much more comprehensive, logical and simplified than
the Mendeleev’s periodic elements classified (Long form of periodic table)
 Structure of Periodic Table
 Periodic and Square: Divided into 7 horizontal rows (periodic) and 18 verticals
columns (squares)
 Elements that have the same number of electrons in the outermost orbit of the
atom are placed in the same class (same main properties)
 The first period consists of 2 elements, 8-8 elements in the second and third
periods, 18-18 elements in the fourth and fifth periods and 32 elements in the
sixth period. While the seventh category is incomplete
 Third class of the sixth period contains 15 elements ranging from atomic number
57-71 (Lanthanoids)
 Elements of the atomic number 89 to 103 of the third square of the seventh
period include elements (Actinoids)
 Alkaline Earth Metals – Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium,
Radium. Found in the huge deposits of limestone and other minerals
 Alkali Metals – Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Cesium, and Francium.
Hydrogen is unique in that it is generally placed in Group 1 but it is not a metal
 Halogens (salt-forming) – Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, Astatine
 Noble gases – Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, Radon. Consists of only
single atoms hence called monoatomic
 Elements present in the same period exhibit a definite trend in atomic radius,
ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity. In a period, moving from
left to right, the atomic radius of the elements decreases and ionization energy
and energy indebtedness increase
 Electron Affinity/Electron Bonding Enthalpy
 Energy released when adding an electron to a neutral atom to convert it into a
negative ion
 Electron affinity of non-metallic elements is higher than the metallic elements
 Electronegativity
 The tendency to attract the shared electron pair to itself
  Moving from left to right in the periodic table there is an increase in the
electronegativity of the elements and there is a decease in the electronegativity
from the top to the bottom in the squares
 Example: Fluorine has highest electronegativity and Francium has lowest
electronegativity
 Periodic Classification of Elements
 The electronic configuration of the elements reflects their chemical properties.
Elements which have the same number of electrons in the outermost shell and
their distribution are placed in the same class
 All elements are divided into 4 blocks depending on which orbital of the element
in which the valence electrons are filled. They are
 s-block elements
 Elements whose valence electrons enter the s-orbital. Under this,
all the elements and helium of class 1 and class 2 of the periodic
table are included
 All elements of the s-block are metals. They are shiny, white,
conductor of heat an electricity. They easily give their electrons,
hence they are included in the most active elements of the
periodic table
 p-block elements
 Elements whose valence electrons enter the p-orbit. Under this,
elements from class 13 to class 18 are included in the periodic
table
 All kinds of elements – Metal, Non-metal, and Sub-metal. Metal of
this class reacts with non-metals to form ionic compounds
 Most elements of a p-block are non-metal (bad conductors of heat
and electricity, Low BP, and do not give up electrons easily.
Bromine added to this class is found in liquid state at normal
temperature
 d-block elements
 The connective electrons of the elements contained under the d-
block are filled in the d-orbit. Includes all elements from class 3 to
class 12
 Located between s-block and p-block in the periodic table, so the
elements involved in it are called transition elements. But mercury,
zinc, copper and scandium are not the ingredients
 All elements of d-block are metals, which are more functional than
elements of s-block and less reactive than p-block elements.
These elements exhibit properties of high tensile strength,
shockability, elasticity heat and conductivity of electricity
 Ions of the elements are often colored and these ions are used as
catalysts to speed up the reactions at various oxidation states
 f-block elements
  The elements included in the 2 horizontal rows at the bottom of
periodic table
 The connective electrons of all these elements are found in f-
orbitals
 Elements of f-block are actually located in periodic 6 and 7 and
class 3 between s-block and d-block (Internal Transition
Elements)
 All elements of f-block are metals. Elements of the actinoid class
are more complex than elements in the Lanthanoid category.
Elements of actinoid category are radioactive. All subsequent
elements of uranium in this category has been synthesized in the
laboratory by scientists, hence these elements are called trans
uranium elements
 Summary
 Total known elements – 118
 Elements obtainable in nature – 94
 Elements made by artificial means – 24
 Number of metal elements – 91
 Number of nonmetal elements – 20
 Number of Metalloid – 7
 Most abundant element in earth’s crust – Oxygen
 Most commonly found metal element in earth’s crust – Aluminum
 Lightest element – Hydrogen
 Heaviest element – Ostium
 Lightest metal element – Lithium
 Liquid metal element – Mercury
 Liquid non-metal element – Bromine
 Best conductive metal element of electricity – Silver
 Non-Metal Conductor element of electricity – Graphite
 Most Malleable elements – Gold
 Most active non-metal – Fluorine
 Most active metal element – Cesium
 Element with highest ionization potential – Helium

Metal and Non-Metal

 Physical properties of Metal
 Solid State at normal temperature except mercury
 Hardness: Iron, Nickel, Cobalt (extremely hard); Sodium and Potassium
(extremely soft metals – which can also be cut with a common knife)
 Malleability – Thin sheets can be made on metals by striking them with hammers
or machines. These sheets can be wrapped as they are more elastic
 Tensile: Tensile means the metals can be stretched as thin wires
  Conductors of heat and electricity – Metals are conductors of heat and electricity.
Silver and copper are most conductive metals, but exceptions are lead and
mercury, which are bad conductors of heat
 High MP and BP: Melting point of tungsten is the highest. However, most alkaline
metals have low MP and BP such as Rubidium, Francium, Cesium
 Chemical Properties
 Electron Configuration: The outermost shell of a metal atom usually has 1 to 3
electrons i.e., their octate is incomplete. That is why, metals are more reactive
than other elements
 Tendency to donate electrons: Generally, have a tendency to give up the cation
by donating electrons
 Low electronegativity – Weak tendency to further attract the shared electrons
when forming covalent bonds with non-metals
 Reaction with Oxygen –
 Almost all metals react with oxygen (present in air) to form metallic
oxides, this reaction is called combustion.
 Due to extreme reactive nature of sodium and potassium, at normal
temperatures, they react with oxygen present in the air and burn. This is
the reason why they are immersed in kerosene
 4Na + 2O2 = 2Na2O (Sodium Oxide)
 Metallic oxides are alkaline in nature. Soluble metallic oxides react with
water to form alkalis
 Na2O (Sodium Oxide) + H2O (Water) = 2NaOH (Sodium Hydroxide)
 Manganese does not react with oxygen at normal temperature, but on
heating it burns with bright light and more heat and produces manganese
oxide
 Iron does not burn even when heated in dry air, but when kept in a humid
environment for long time, this metal becomes oxidized and begins to
rust. 3Fe + 2O2 = Fe3O4.H2O (Iron Oxide)
 On heating the iron oxide in air, it burns with flame and forms triferric
tetroxide (Fe3O4). 3Fe + 2O2 = Fe3O4
 Reaction with water
 Metals react with water to form metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Not all
metals react with water, but alkaline earth metals react vigorously with
water
 Metals such as lead, silver, gold and copper do not react with water
 Metal + Water = Metal Oxide + Hydrogen Gas
 Alloys
 Bronze (Copper 88% + Tin 12%) – Idols, Coins
 Brass (Copper 70% + Zinc 30%) – Bells, Utensils and Idols, etc.
 Gun Metal (Copper 88% + Tin 8-10% + Zinc 2-4%) – Idols, Gears, Button, etc.
 Solder (Tin 50-60% + Lead 40-50%) – To weld metals
 Stainless Steel (Chromium 15-20% + Nickel 8-10% + Steel) – Utensils, Medical
equipment, Blades
  German Silver (Copper 50% + Zinc 35% + Nickel 15%) – Utensils, Heating Coils,
Tapes etc.
 Aluminium Bronze (Copper 90% + Aluminium 10%) – Coins, Utensils, Jewellery,
etc.
 Nichrome (Nickel 55-60% + Chromium 20% + Iron 20-25%) – Electric Heater,
Heating Coils of Electric Iron, etc.
 Non-Metal
 Form negative ions by accepting or gaining electrons
 Lack all metallic attributes
 Good insulators of heat and electricity
 Mostly gases and sometimes liquid
 Chemical Properties of Non-Metal
 The tendency of non-metals to gain electrons: Non-metals have the tendency to
acquire electronic configuration similar to those of noble gases by gaining or
sharing electrons when reacting with metals
 Unlike metals, the outer orbit of an atom of non-metals has 4 to 8 electrons,
although exceptions are hydrogen and helium, whose outer orbit has 1 and 2
electrons, respectively
 High Electronegativity: High tendency to attract the sharing of electrons while
forming covalent bonds
 Reaction with Oxygen: Non-metals react with oxygen to form non-metal oxides
(acidic or neutral in nature)
2C (s) + O2 (g) = CO2 (g) – Acidic
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) = 2H2O (l) - Neutral
 Reaction with Water: Non-metals usually do not react with water, but oxides of
non-metal react with water to form acids
CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 (Carbonic Acid)
 Highly reactive non-metals with air are kept immersed in water. As the
phosphorous when kept in open in the air, it starts burning so it is immersed in
water.
Chemistry in Everyday Life
 Soap
 Soaps formed from sodium or potassium salts of high fatty acids dissolved in
water
 Fatty Acids containing long chain (10-18) carbon atoms are heated with an
aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH) to
form soap – Saponification
 Hard Soaps – Soaps made with sodium salts of fatty acids. Animal fats and
coconut oil are commonly used in these. Uses – Washing Soda
 Soft Soaps – Soap made of potassium salts of fatty acids. Linseed and castor oil
are commonly used in these. Uses – Toiletries and Shaving
 Oil & Fat
 Ester compound produced by the reaction of carboxylic acids (high fatty acids)
and glycerol (Esterification)
  Three molecules of fatty acids and presence of glycerol in this process –
Triglycerides
 Difference of Oil & Fat
Difference Fats Oils
Sources Mainly animal Mainly Plants
Fatty Acids Saturated Unsaturated
Bonding No Double Bond Have Double Bond
State at Room Condition Solid Liquid
Melting Point High Low

 Wax
 Organic material consisting of a long alkyl chain.
 Includes simulated carbon bonds and various functional group of primary and
secondary alcohols, ketones, aldehydes
 Wax liquefied at temperature higher to 40 degrees Celsius and is modified into
viscous fluid. They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic and non-polar
solvent. These are derived from the synthesis of plants, animals and petroleum
compounds
 Types of Wax
 Bee Wax – Contains an ester compound called Mirisyl Palmitate
 Spermaceti Wax – Present in the cavity of the sperm whale. It contains an
ester compound called Cetyl Palmitate
 Carnauba Wax – Present in a palm tree called Carnoba. It contains an
ester compound called Mirisyl Serrate
 Paraffin Wax – Obtained from petroleum, shale gas and coal, etc. It is
made from hydrocarbon molecules Uses: Candle Making, Waterproof
(matches, wood, bottles), Crayon, Friction Reducer, Coatings (extend
shelf life of fruits and vegetables)
 Medicines
 Antipyretic – reducing fever (pyrexia/pyresis) – Brufen, Aspirin, Crocin
 Analgesics – reducing pain (painkillers) – Morphine, Paracetamol, Aspirin,
Ibuprofen
 Antibiotics – inhibiting germ growth – Myocilin, Azithromycin, Clindamycin
 Antiseptics – prevention of germ growth near burns, cuts and wounds – Phenol,
Iodine Tinter, Hydrogen Peroxide
 Mood Stabilizers – Lithium and Valpromide – Vellum, Codin
 Hormone Replacements – Premarin
 Oral Contraceptives – Enovid, ‘biphasic’ pill and ‘triphasic’ pill
 Tranquilizers – Meprobamate, Chlorpromazine, Reserpine, Chlordiazepoxide,
Diazepam, Alprazolam
 Statins (help lower cholesterol levels in the blood) – Lovastatin, Pravastatin,
Simvastatin
 Polymers
 Polymer literally means many units. Their sub-units are called monomers and are
bound together by covalent bonds
  Polymerization – Action by which monomer units form a long polymer chain
 Natural Polymers – Sources (Plants and animals) and Example (Amino Acids
Polymers, Cellulose, Starch and Rubber)
 Synthetic Polymers – Synthetically prepared and Example (Polythene, Plastic,
Nylon, Polyester, Polyvinyl Chloride, Teflon, etc.
 Semi-Synthetic Polymers - By change in Natural polymers (Rayon, cellulose
based synthetic polymer (vulcanized rubber)
 Rubber
 Natural rubber also called by other names of India rubber, Latex or
Amazonian Rubber as initially produced, consists of polymers of the
organic compound isoprene with minor impurities of other organic
compound, plus water
 Vulcanization refers to a range of processes for hardening rubbers
 The term originally referred exclusively to the treatment of natural rubber
with sulfur, which remains the most common practice
 Plastic
 The discovery of plastics in 1846 AD by German Scientist Christian
Schonbin
 Polymer made of long carbon chains
 Two types – thermoplastic (can be heated and molded in various sizes)
and thermosetting (can only be molded once e.g., Bakelite, Melamine)
 Types of thermoplastics
 Polyethylene (Polymerization of ethyne or ethylene) – Pipe, bottle,
toys, table chair, etc.
 Polyvinyl Chloride PVC (Polymerization of vinyl chloride) – Pipes,
blood bags, toys, etc.
 Polystyrene (Polymerization of Styrene) – Food containers, radio
and TV cabinet, etc.
 Acrylate (Polymerization of methyl methylate) – Contact lenses,
use in place of glass, etc.)
 Teflon (Polymerization of tetrafluoroethylene) – Gasket, Non-stick
Utensils, etc.
 Fibers
 Long strands of molecules interwoven to form a linear, string-like structure are
known as ‘Fibers’. Fibers are natural or man-made
 Fibers – Raw material used to make textile items, they are spun or twisted
together to make yarn
 Yarn – Made from fibers from either natural or synthetic sources. They are
interlaced, interlooped or bonded together to make fabrics
 Fabrics – Made from yarns. Different fabric types are produced by different
methods of joining the yarns together
 Natural Fibers – From Animals (Wool, Silk) and Plants (Cotton, Jute, Hemp)
 Synthetic Fibers – Nylon, Polyester, Carbon Fiber, Orion
 Semi-Synthetic Fibers – Rayon, Bamboo Fiber, Diacetate Fiber, Triacetate Fiber
 Cement
 Two main classes of constructional cements are defined: non hydraulic cements
(do not set under water), hydraulic cement
 Non hydraulic cement does not set in wet conditions or under water. Rather, it
sets as it dries and reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. It is resistant to attack by
chemicals after setting
 Hydraulic cements (Portland Cement) set and become adhesive due to chemical
reaction between dry ingredients and water
 The chemical process for hydraulic cement was found by ancient Romans who
used volcanic ash (pozzolona) with added lime (calcium oxide)
 Cement as it is commonly known, is a mixture of compounds made by burning
limestone and clay together at very high temperatures ranging from 1400 to 1600
degree Celsius.
 Chemical Composition – Lime (63%), Silica (22%), Alumina (6%), Iron Oxide
(3%), Gypsum (1-4%)
 Purpose of adding gypsum in cement
 Gypsum is added to control the setting of cement. Gypsum plays a very
important role in controlling the rate of hardening of the cement
 During the cement manufacturing process, upon cooling of clinker, a
small amount of gypsum is introduced during final grinding process
 Fertilizers
 Fertilizer is any material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials)
that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply one or more plant nutrients
essential to the growth of plants
 Three main macronutrients
 Nitrogen (N) – leaf growth
 Phosphorus (P) – Development of roots, flowers, seeds, fruit
 Potassium (K) – Strong stem growth, movement of water in plants,
promotion of flowering and fruiting
 Three secondary macronutrients – Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Sulfur (S)
 Mirco-nutrients: Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Molybdenum (Mo),
Zinc (Zn), Boron (B). Of occasional significance – Silicon (Si), Cobalt (Co),
Vanadium (V)
 N-P-K
 According to the Fertilizer Association of India (FAI) the NPK ratio considered
ideal stands at 4:2:1
 This NPK Ratio (N2:P2O5:K2O) is accepted for macro-level monitoring of
consumption of plant nutrients for the country as a whole
 Different types of glass and their uses
 Soft Glass/Soda Glass/Soda Lime Glass (Sodium Carbonate + Calcium
Carbonate + Silica) – In the manufacture of general utensils, doors, and window
glass (silicon dioxide), tube light, in laboratory equipment
 Flint glass (Sodium + Potassium + Lead Silicate) – In manufacture of electric
bulbs, telescope lenses, prisms, artistic objects
 Crown glass (Sodium Oxide + Potassium Oxide + Silicon Dioxide) – In the
manufacture of eyeglass lenses, optical devices
 Photochromatic Glass (This glass turns black in the sun due to presence of silver
chloride or other silver halides) – In the manufacture of lenses of common
eyeglasses and sunglasses
 Hard Glass/Potash Glass (Silica + Potassium Carbonate + Calcium) – Laboratory
equipment (flasks, test tubes, etc.), other high temperature glass instruments
 Pyrex Glass (Silica + Boron Trioxide + Sodium + Aluminium) – Chemical
equipment, car head lamps, etc.
 Quartz Glass/Silica Glass (Pure Silicon Dioxide) – Ultraviolet lamp bulbs
 Crooks Glass (Cerium Oxide (Ce2O) + Silicon) – Sunglasses