Integration Notes
Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. It is used to find the area under a curve, the
antiderivative of a function, and to solve differential equations.
1. Basics of Integration
If F(x)F(x)F(x) is the antiderivative of f(x)f(x)f(x), then the indefinite integral is written as:
∫f(x) dx=F(x)+C\int f(x) \,dx = F(x) + C∫f(x)dx=F(x)+C
where CCC is the constant of integration.
2. Basic Integration Formulas
Function f(x)f(x)f(x) Integral ∫f(x)dx\int f(x) dx∫f(x)dx
xnx^nxn (where n≠−1n \neq -1n=−1) xn+1n+1+C\frac{x^{n+1}}{n+1} + Cn+1xn+1+C
exe^xex ex+Ce^x + Cex+C
axa^xax axlna+C\frac{a^x}{\ln a} + Clnaax+C
1x\frac{1}{x}x1 ( \ln
sinx\sin xsinx −cosx+C-\cos x + C−cosx+C
cosx\cos xcosx sinx+C\sin x + Csinx+C
sec2x\sec^2 xsec2x tanx+C\tan x + Ctanx+C
csc2x\csc^2 xcsc2x −cotx+C-\cot x + C−cotx+C
secxtanx\sec x \tan xsecxtanx secx+C\sec x + Csecx+C
cscxcotx\csc x \cot xcscxcotx −cscx+C-\csc x + C−cscx+C
3. Properties of Integration
1. Sum/Difference Rule:
∫[f(x)±g(x)] dx=∫f(x) dx±∫g(x) dx\int [f(x) \pm g(x)] \,dx = \int f(x) \,dx \pm \int g(x) \,dx∫[f(x)
±g(x)]dx=∫f(x)dx±∫g(x)dx
2. Constant Multiplication Rule:
∫kf(x) dx=k∫f(x) dx\int k f(x) \,dx = k \int f(x) \,dx∫kf(x)dx=k∫f(x)dx
4. Types of Integration
(a) Substitution Method (Change of Variable)
Used when the function is complex.
If I=∫f(g(x))g′(x) dxI = \int f(g(x)) g'(x) \,dxI=∫f(g(x))g′(x)dx, use substitution:
Let t=g(x)t = g(x)t=g(x), then dt=g′(x)dxdt = g'(x) dxdt=g′(x)dx, so
I=∫f(t)dtI = \int f(t) dtI=∫f(t)dt
✅ Example:
∫xex2 dx\int x e^{x^2} \,dx∫xex2dx
Let t=x2t = x^2t=x2, so dt=2xdxdt = 2x dxdt=2xdx.
Thus, dt2=xdx\frac{dt}{2} = x dx2dt=xdx, and the integral becomes:
12∫etdt=12et+C=12ex2+C\frac{1}{2} \int e^t dt = \frac{1}{2} e^t + C = \frac{1}{2} e^{x^2} + C21
∫etdt=21et+C=21ex2+C
(b) Integration by Parts
Used when the integral is a product of two functions.
Formula:
∫uv dx=u∫v dx−∫(dudx∫v dx)dx\int u v \,dx = u \int v \,dx - \int \left( \frac{du}{dx} \int v \,dx \right)
dx∫uvdx=u∫vdx−∫(dxdu∫vdx)dx
(Choose uuu using the LIATE rule: Logarithmic, Inverse trigonometric, Algebraic, Trigonometric,
Exponential)
✅ Example:
∫xlnx dx\int x \ln x \,dx∫xlnxdx
Let u=lnxu = \ln xu=lnx, so du=1xdxdu = \frac{1}{x} dxdu=x1dx.
Let dv=xdxdv = x dxdv=xdx, so v=x22v = \frac{x^2}{2}v=2x2.
I=lnx⋅x22−∫x22⋅1xdxI = \ln x \cdot \frac{x^2}{2} - \int \frac{x^2}{2} \cdot \frac{1}{x} dxI=lnx⋅2x2−∫2x2
⋅x1dx =x22lnx−12∫xdx= \frac{x^2}{2} \ln x - \frac{1}{2} \int x dx=2x2lnx−21∫xdx =x22lnx−x24+C= \
frac{x^2}{2} \ln x - \frac{x^2}{4} + C=2x2lnx−4x2+C
(c) Partial Fraction Decomposition
Used for rational functions of the form P(x)Q(x)\frac{P(x)}{Q(x)}Q(x)P(x).
We express P(x)Q(x)\frac{P(x)}{Q(x)}Q(x)P(x) as a sum of simpler fractions and integrate separately.
✅ Example:
∫1x2−1 dx\int \frac{1}{x^2 - 1} \,dx∫x2−11dx
Factor denominator:
x2−1=(x−1)(x+1)x^2 - 1 = (x - 1)(x + 1)x2−1=(x−1)(x+1)
Rewrite as:
1(x−1)(x+1)=Ax−1+Bx+1\frac{1}{(x-1)(x+1)} = \frac{A}{x-1} + \frac{B}{x+1}(x−1)(x+1)1=x−1A+x+1B
Solve for AAA and BBB, then integrate separately.
(d) Definite Integration
For a function f(x)f(x)f(x) over [a,b][a, b][a,b], the definite integral is:
∫abf(x) dx=F(b)−F(a)\int_{a}^{b} f(x) \,dx = F(b) - F(a)∫abf(x)dx=F(b)−F(a)
✅ Example:
∫01x2dx\int_0^1 x^2 dx∫01x2dx
Using ∫xndx=xn+1n+1\int x^n dx = \frac{x^{n+1}}{n+1}∫xndx=n+1xn+1,
∫x2dx=x33\int x^2 dx = \frac{x^3}{3}∫x2dx=3x3 F(1)−F(0)=133−033=13−0=13F(1) - F(0) = \frac{1^3}{3}
- \frac{0^3}{3} = \frac{1}{3} - 0 = \frac{1}{3}F(1)−F(0)=313−303=31−0=31
5. Applications of Integration
Finding Areas under curves
Solving Differential Equations
Finding Volume of solids of revolution
Calculating Displacement & Velocity in physics
