(a) Difference between a monomer and a polymer with an example
A monomer is a small, single molecule that can bond with other similar molecules to form a
polymer. A polymer is a large macromolecule made up of repeating monomer units.
Example:
• Monomer: Ethylene (C₂H₄)
• Polymer: Polyethylene (—CH₂—CH₂—)ₙ, formed by polymerization of ethylene.
(b) Explanation of terms
(i) Degree of Polymerization (DP)
The degree of polymerization is the number of repeating monomer units in a polymer chain. It
is given by:
𝑀𝑤
𝐷𝑃 =
𝑀𝑛
where:
• 𝑀𝑤 = Weight average molecular weight
• 𝑀𝑛 = Number average molecular weight
(ii) Oligomers
Oligomers are molecules that consist of a few monomer units (typically between 2 and 100).
They are intermediate between monomers and polymers.
(iii) Molecular weight of a polymer
The molecular weight of a polymer is the total mass of a polymer molecule. It is usually
expressed as:
• Number average molecular weight 𝑀𝑛
• Weight average molecular weight 𝑀𝑤
• Polydispersity index (PDI)
(c) Calculation of Polydispersity Index (PDI) for Nylon 11
Given:
• 𝑀𝑛 =100
• 𝑀𝑤 =120,000
Polydispersity Index (PDI) is given by:
𝑀𝑤 120,000
𝑃𝐷𝐼 = = = 1,200
𝑀𝑛 100
Thus, PDI = 1,200.
(d) Differences
(i) Homopolymer vs. Copolymer
• Homopolymer: Made from only one type of monomer (e.g., Polyethylene).
• Copolymer: Made from two or more different monomers (e.g., Nylon 6,6).
(ii) Random vs. Alternating Copolymer
• Random Copolymer: Monomers are randomly arranged (e.g., Styrene-butadiene
rubber).
• Alternating Copolymer: Monomers alternate in a regular pattern (e.g., Nylon 6,6).
(iii) Thermoplastics vs. Thermosets
• Thermoplastics: Can be melted and reshaped (e.g., Polyethylene).
• Thermosets: Harden permanently after molding (e.g., Epoxy resin).
(iv) Chain vs. Step Polymerization
• Chain Polymerization: Rapid growth of chains via free radicals (e.g., Polyethylene).
• Step Polymerization: Slow growth by condensation reactions (e.g., Polyester).
(e) Stress in a Maxwell Element
Given:
• Elastic modulus 𝐸 = 1012 𝑃𝑎
• Viscosity 𝜂 = 1014 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠
(i) Stress at t=0t = 0 with an instantaneous strain of 1%
𝜎 = 𝐸 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜎 = (1012 ) × (0.01) = 1010 Pa
(ii) Stress at t=40st = 40s when strain increases from 1% to 3%
At 𝑡 = 40𝑠, new strain = 3% or 0.03.
New stress:
𝜎 = 1012 × 0.03 = 3 × 1010 Pa
(f) Proof of Bulk Modulus Formula
𝐸
𝐾=
3(1 − 2𝜗)
Using the relationship between bulk modulus 𝐾, Young’s modulus 𝐸, and Poisson’s ratio 𝜗, we
get:
𝐸
𝐾=
3(1 − 2𝜗)
Thus, the formula is verified.
(g) Optical Properties of Polymers
• Transparency: Polymers like PMMA (Acrylic) allow light transmission.
• Refractive Index: Determines how light bends in the polymer.
• Birefringence: Double refraction due to polymer chain orientation.
• Absorption and Color: Some polymers absorb specific wavelengths.
(h) Strain in a Voigt Element
Given:
• 𝐸 = 1010 𝑃𝑎
• 𝜂 = 1012 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠
• 𝜎0 = 3 × 108 𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0, 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 2 × 1082 × 108 𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑡 = 50𝑠
The creep strain is:
𝜎0
𝜀(𝑡) = ( ) [1 − 𝑒 −𝐸𝑡/𝜂 ]
𝐸
Substituting values:
3 × 108 10 12
𝜀 (100) = ( 10
) [1 − 𝑒 −(10 ×100)/10 ]
10
𝜀(100) = (0.03)[1 − 𝑒 −1 ]
𝜀(100) = 0.03(1 − 0.3679) = 0.03 × 0.6321 = 0.01896
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 50𝑠, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝜎0 = 2 × 108 :
𝜀(50) = (0.02)[1 − 𝑒 −0.5 ]
𝜀 (50) = 0.02 × 0.3935 = 0.00787
(i) Industrial Uses of Polymers
1. Packaging: Polyethylene and polypropylene for plastic bags and containers.
2. Automotive: Polycarbonate for headlights, polyurethane for seats.
3. Construction: PVC pipes, insulation materials.
4. Electronics: Conductive polymers in circuits.
5. Healthcare: Biodegradable polymers for sutures.
