CHAPTER 6: VITAMINS AND MINERALS There are nine water-soluble vitamins and four fat-

soluble vitamins.
VITAMINS
Classification of Vitamins
Vitamins are considered in conjunction with enzymes
because many enzymes contain vitamins as part of • Water-soluble vitamins (Vitamin C and B-
their structure. Recall that conjugated enzymes have a complex): must be constantly replenished in the
protein part (apoenzyme) and a nonprotein part body because they are rapidly eliminated from the
(cofactor). Vitamins, in many cases, are cofactors in body in the urine
conjugated enzymes. • they are carried in the bloodstream, are needed in
frequent, small doses, and are unlikely to be toxic
It is an organic compound, essential in small amounts except when taken in unusually large doses.
for the proper functioning of the human body that • dissolve in water and are not stored in the body,
must be obtained from dietary sources because the requiring daily intake
body cannot synthesize it. • play a crucial role in metabolism, enzyme function,
and tissue repair

General Characteristics of Vitamins The fat-soluble vitamins (Vitamins A, D, E, and K)

Vitamins differ from the major classes of foods • are found dissolved in lipid materials
(carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins) in the amount • they are, in general, carried in the blood by protein
required; for vitamins it is microgram or milligram carriers
quantities per day compared with 50-200 grams per • absorbed along with dietary fats and stored in the liver
day for the major food categories. and adipose tissues, are needed in periodic doses, and
are more likely to be toxic when consumed in excess of
To illustrate the small amount of vitamins needed by need.
the human body, consider the recommended daily • play key roles in vision, bone health, antioxidant
allowance (RDA) of vitamin B12, which is 2.0 activity, and blood clotting
micrograms per day for an adult. Just 1.0 gram of this
vitamin could theoretically supply the daily needs of An important difference exists, in terms of function,
500,000 people. between water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins.

A well-balanced diet usually meets all the body's Water-soluble vitamins function as coenzymes for
vitamin requirements. However, supplemental several important biochemical reactions in humans,
vitamins are often required for women during animals, and microorganisms.
pregnancy and for people recovering from certain Fat-soluble vitamins generally do not function as
illnesses. coenzymes in humans and animals and are rarely
utilized in any manner by microorganisms.
One of the most common myths associated with the
nutritional aspects of vitamins is that vitamins from Water-Soluble Vitamins Fat-Soluble Vitamins
natural sources are superior to synthetic vitamins. In
Thiamin Vitamin A
truth, synthetic vitamins, manufactured in the
Riboflavin Vitamin D
laboratory, are identical to the vitamins found in foods.
Niacin Vitamin E
The body cannot tell the difference and gets the same
Vitamin B6 Vitamin K
benefits from either source.
Folate
Vitamin B12
There are 13 known vitamins, and scientists believe
Pantothenic acid
that the discovery of additional vitamins is unlikely.
Biotin
Despite searches for new vitamins, it has been over 50
Vitamin C
years since the last of the known vitamins (B12) was
discovered.

Solubility characteristics divide the vitamins into two

major classes:
• the water-soluble vitamins and;
• the fat (lipid)-soluble vitamins.
 The General Properties of Water-Soluble Vitamins and • It is also involved in the metabolism of several amino
Fat-Soluble Vitamins acids that end up being converted to the hormones
Water-Soluble Fat-Soluble norepinephrine and thyroxine. The adrenal glands
vitamins (vitamins vitamins contain a higher concentration of vitamin C than any
B & vitamin C) (vitamin A,D,E,K) other organ in the body.
Absorption Directly into the First enter into the
blood lymph system • An intake of 100 mg/day of vitamin C saturates all
Transport Travel without Many require body tissues with the compound. After the tissues are
carriers protein carriers saturated, all additional vitamin C is excreted. The RDA
Storage Circulate in the Found in the cells for vitamin C varies from country to country. It is 30
water-filled parts of associated with fat mg/day in Great Britain, 60 mg/day in the United States
the body and Canada, and 75 mg/day in Germany. A variety of
Excretion Kidney remove Tend to remain in fruits and vegetables have a relative high vitamin C
excess in urine fat-storage sites content.
Toxicity Not likely to reach Likely to reach • Vitamin C is rapidly absorbed from the intestine. It is
toxic levels when toxic levels when not stored in the body to a significant extent. Ascorbic
consumed from consumed for acid is excreted in urine as such, or as its metabolites-
supplements supplements diketogulonic acid and oxalic acid.
Requirements Needed in frequent Needed in periodic
doses doses Biochemical Functions of Vitamin C
Relationship Function as Do not function as 1. Collagen Formation - Vitamin C plays the role of a
to coenzymes coenzyme coenzymes coenzyme in hydroxylation of proline and lysine while
protocollagen is converted to collagen (i.e. post-
translational modification). Hydroxyproline and
Water-soluble Vitamins hydroxylysine are essential for the collagen cross-
linking and the strength of the fiber. In this way,
The nine water-soluble vitamins, vitamin C and eight B vitamin C is necessary for maintenance of normal
vitamins, got their names from the labels B and C on connective tissue and wound healing process.
the test tubes in which they were first collected.
Later, test tube B was found to contain more than one 2. Bone formation - Bone tissues possess an organic
vitamin. matrix, collagen and the inorganic calcium, phosphate
etc. Vitamin C is required for bone formation.
❖ Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
Vitamin C, which has the simplest structure of the 13 3. Iron and hemoglobin metabolism - Ascorbic acid
vitamins, exists in two active forms in the human body: enhances iron absorption by keeping it in the ferrous
an oxidized form and a reduced form. form. This is due to the reducing property of vitamin C.
It helps in the formation of ferritin (storage form of
Humans, monkeys, apes, and guinea pigs are among iron) and mobilization of iron from ferritin.
the relatively few species that require dietary sources
of vitamin C. Other species synthesize vitamin C from 4. Tryptophan metabolism
carbohydrates. Vitamin C's biosynthesis involves L-
gulonic acid, an acid derivative of the monosaccharide 5. Tyrosine metabolism
L-gulose. L-Gulonic acid is changed by the enzyme
lactonase into a cyclic ester (lactone); ring closure 6. Folic acid metabolism
involves carbons I and 4.
7. Peptide hormone synthesis
An oxidase then introduces a double bond into the ring,
producing L-ascorbic acid. 8. Synthesis of corticosteroid hormones

• It also function as a general antioxidant for water- 9. Sparing action of other vitamins – ascorbic acid is a
soluble substances in the blood and other body fluids. strong antioxidant. It spares vitamin A, vitamin E, and
Its antioxidant properties are also beneficial for several some B-complex vitamins from oxidation.
other vitamins. Because of its antioxidant properties,
vitamin C is often added to foods as a preservative. 10. Immunological function - Vitamin C enhances the
Vitamin C synthesis of immunoglobulins (antibodies) and
increases the phagocytic action of leucocytes.
II. Preventive action on cataract - Vitamin C reduces ❖ Vitamin B
the risk of cataract formation. • There are eight B vitamins.
• Much confusion exists about the B vitamins' names.
12. Preventive action on chronic diseases - As an Many have "number" names as well as "word" names
antioxidant, vitamin C reduces the risk of cancer, (often several).
cataract, and coronary heart diseases. • Each B vitamin plays a distinct role in cellular
metabolism and energy production.
Dietary sources
Citrus fruits, gooseberry (amla), guava, green The preferred names for the B vitamins (alternative
vegetables (cabbage, spinach), tomatoes, potatoes names in parentheses) are:
(particularly skin) are rich in ascorbic acid. High content • Thiamine (vitamin BI)
of vitamin C is found in adrenal gland and gonads. Milk • Riboflavin (vitamin B2)
is a poor source of ascorbic acid. • Niacin (nicotinic acid, nicotinamide, vitamin B3)
• Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine)
Deficiency symptoms • Folate (folic acid or vitamin B9)
The deficiency of ascorbic acid results in scurvy. This • Vitamin B12 (cobalamin)
disease is characterized by spongy and sore gums, • Pantothenic acid (vitamin B5)
loose teeth, anemia, swollen joints, fragile blood • Biotin
vessels, decreased immunocompetence, delayed
wound healing, sluggish hormonal function of adrenal B vitamin structure is very diverse. The only common
cortex and gonads, hemorrhage, osteoporosis etc. thread among structures is that all structures, except
Most of these symptoms are related to impairment in that of pantothenic acid, involve heterocyclic nitrogen
the synthesis of collagen and/or the antioxidant ring systems. The element sulfur is present in two
property of vitamin C. structures (thiamine and biotin), and vitamin B12
contains a metal atom (cobalt). (Biotin does not contain
Megadoses of vitamin C and its controversy a tin atom, as the name might imply.) Note that for two
B vitamins (niacin and vitamin B6), more than one form
In 1970, scientist Linus Pauling suggested taking very of the vitamin exists.
high doses of vitamin C (up to 18 grams per day) to
prevent and cure the common cold. This idea was The major function of B vitamins within the human
controversial. Today, we know that while large amounts body is as components of coenzymes. Unlike vitamin
of vitamin C do not prevent colds, they can help reduce C, all the B vitamins must be chemically modified
symptoms and shorten the duration of illness. before they become functional within the coenzymes.

Vitamin C helps white blood cells work better and is For example, thiamine is converted to thiamine
often taken with iron supplements to treat iron pyrophosphate (TPP), which then serves as the
deficiency anemia. Some people still use high doses (1- coenzyme in several reactions involving carbohydrate
4 grams per day) for colds, wound healing, and metabolism.
recovery from injuries.
Another example of chemical modification for a B
Vitamin C is generally safe, but its oxidized form ( vitamin is the conversion of folate to tetrahydrofolate
dehydroascorbic acid) can be toxic. One of its (THF).
breakdown products, oxalate, is linked to kidney stone
formation, though research on this is conflicting. There are selected important coenzymes that involve B
vitamins and indicates how these coenzymes function.
HAVE YOU GOT SCURVY? In general, coenzymes serve as temporary carriers of
1. YOU HAVE SORE GUMS. atoms or functional groups in redox and group
2. YOUR STOMACH RUMBLES. transfer reactions.
3. YOUR FEET ARE ITCHING YOU.
4. YOUR SEA LEGS ARE NO LONGER. In their function as coenzymes, some of the B vitamins
5. YOU ARE IRRITABLE. do not remain permanently bonded to the apoenzyme
6. THERE ARE RED BLOTCHES. UNDER YOUR SKIN. that they are associated with. This means that they can
7. YOUR HUNGER IS CONSTANT. be repeatedly used by various enzymes. This reuse
8. YOU ARE CRANKY. (recycling) diminishes the need for large amounts of
9. PEOPLE DO NOT LIKE YOU. the B vitamins in biochemical systems.
 B Vitamin Coenzymes Groups Vitamin Sources
Transferred Thiamine Watermelon, whole and enriched
Thiamine thiamine pyrophosphate aldehydes grain, pork, organ meats, legumes,
(TPP) sunflower seeds
Riboflavin flavin mononucleotide hydrogen Riboflavin Mushrooms, asparagus, broccoli,
(FMN) atoms leafy greens, whole and enriched
flavin adenine grains, milk cheeses, liver, meat,
dinucleotide (FAD) poultry, fish, legumes, eggs
Niacin nicotinamide adenine hydride ion Niacin Mushrooms, asparagus, potato,
dinucleotide (NAD+) (H) whole and enriched grains, wheat
nicotinamide adenine bran, tuna, chicken, beef, turkey,
dinucleotide legumes, peanuts, sunflower seeds
phosphate (NADP+) Vitamin B6 Broccoli, spinach, potato, squash,
Vitamin B6 pyridoxal-5-phosphate amino groups bananas, watermelon, whole wheat,
(PLP) brown rice, chicken, fish, pork, organ
Folate tetrahydrofolate (THF) one-carbon meats, soybean, sunflower seeds
groups other Folate Mushrooms, leafy greens, broccoli,
than CO₂ asparagus, corn, oranges, fortified
Vitamin B12 5'- alkyl groups, grains, organ meats (muscle meats
deoxyadenosylcobalamin hydrogen are poor sources), legumes,
atoms sunflower seeds, nuts
Pantothenic coenzyme A (COA) acyl acyl groups Vitamin B12 Milk products, beef, poultry, fish,
acid carrier protein (ACP) shellfish, egg yolk
Biotin biocytin carbon Pantothenic Mushrooms, broccoli, avocado,
dioxide Acid whole grains, meat, legumes, egg
yolk
An ample supply of the B vitamins can be obtained from Biotin Fortified cereals, yoghurt, liver,
normal dietary intake if a variety of foods are soybeans, egg yolk, nuts
consumed. A certain food may be a better source of a
particular B vitamin than others; however, there are ❖ Thiamine (vitamin B1)
multiple sources for each of the B vitamins. Fruits, in Thiamine (anti-beri-beri or antineuritic vitamin) is
general, are very poor sources of B vitamins and that water soluble. It has a specific coenzyme, thiamine
only certain vegetables are good B vitamin sources. pyrophosphate (TPP) which is mostly associated with
carbohydrate metabolism.
Vitamin B12 is unique among the vitamins in being
found almost exclusively in food derived from animals. RDA for Thiamine (vitamin B1)
The daily requirement of thiamine depends on the
Niacin and folate support heart health. Prescription- intake of carbohydrate.
strength niacin, when combined with statins, slows A dietary supply of 1-1.5 mg/day is recommended for
artery blockage (atherosclerosis) better than statins adults (about 0.5 mg/1,000 Cals of energy). For
alone in people with heart disease and low HDL ("good" children RDA is 0.7-1.2 mg/day. The requirement
cholesterol). Niacin is also the most effective treatment marginally increases in pregnancy and lactation (2
for raising low HDL levels. mg/day), old age and alcoholism.

Another study shows that younger women (26-46 years Dietary sources
old) who consume 800 µg of folate per day reduce the • Found in cereals, beans, nuts, seeds, yeast, leafy
risk of developing high blood pressure by almost a third greens and animal foods like pork, liver, and milk.
compared to those who consume less than 200 µg/day. • Mostly in the outer layer (bran) of grains. Removing
the bran (polishing rice) can remove up to 80% of
thiamine.
• Parboiling rice (boiling with the husk on) helps keep
thiamine even after polishing.
• Since thiamine dissolves in water, it can be lost
during cooking. To keep its benefits, don't throw
away cooking water!
Deficiency symptoms which were originally thought to be different are
The deficiency of vitamin B1 results in a condition structurally identical to riboflavin.
called beriberi (The term beriberi is derived from the
Sinhalese word meaning "extreme weakness."). Beri- Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine
beri is mostly seen in populations consuming dinucleotide (FAD) are the two coenzyme forms of
exclusively polished rice as staple food. The early riboflavin. The ribitol (5 carbon) is linked to a
symptoms of thiamine deficiency are loss of appetite phosphate in FMN. FAD is formed from FMN by the
(anorexia), weakness, constipation, nausea, mental transfer of an AMP moiety from ATP.
depression, peripheral neuropathy, irritability etc.
Numbness in the leg's complaints of 'pins and needles The daily requirement of riboflavin for an adult is 1.2-
sensations' are reported. 1.7 mg. Higher intakes (by 0.2-0.5 mg/day) are advised
for pregnant and lactating women.
Wet beriberi (cardiovascular beriberi): This is
characterized by edema of legs, face, trunk and serous Milk and milk products, meat, poultry, eggs, liver,
cavities. Breathlessness and palpitation are present. kidney and leafy greens are rich sources. Cereals, fruits,
The calf muscles are slightly swollen. The systolic blood vegetables and fish are moderate sources.
pressure is elevated while diastolic is decreased. Fast
and bouncing pulse is observed. The heart becomes Deficiency symptoms
weak, and death may occur due to heart failure. Riboflavin deficiency symptoms include cheilosis
(fissures at the corners of the mouth), glossitis (tongue
Dry beriberi (neurological beriberi): This is associated smooth and purplish) and dermatitis. Riboflavin
with neurological manifestations resulting in peripheral deficiency as such is uncommon. It is mostly seen along
neuritis. Edema is not commonly seen. The muscles with other vitamin deficiencies. Chronic alcoholics are
become progressively weak, and walking becomes susceptible to B2 deficiency. Assay of the enzyme
difficult. The affected individuals depend on support to glutathione reductase in erythrocytes will be useful in
walk and become bedridden, and may even die, if not assessing riboflavin deficiency.
treated.
❖ Niacin (vitamin B3)
The symptoms of beriberi are often mixed in which case Niacin or nicotinic acid is also known as pellagra
it is referred to as mixed beriberi. preventive (P.P.) factor of Goldberg. The coenzymes of
niacin (NAD+ and NADP+) can be synthesized by the
Infantile beriberi: This is seen in infants born to essential amino acid, tryptophan.
mothers suffering from thiamine deficiency. The breast Essential for DNA repair and cellular metabolism.
milk of these mothers contains low thiamine content.
Infantile beriberi is characterized by sleeplessness, Pellagra, meaning "rough skin" in Italian, was known
restlessness, vomiting, convulsions and bouts of for centuries, but its link to diet was discovered by
screaming due to cardiac dilatation. Goldberger.

Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome: This disorder also In a 1928 study, 12 convicts were promised freedom if
known as cerebral beriberi, is mostly seen in chronic they ate a diet lacking key nutrients (cornmeal, rice,
alcoholics. The body demands of thiamine increase in sweet potatoes, pork fat) for a year. More than half
alcoholism. Insufficient intake or impaired intestinal developed pellagra, while prisoners on a normal diet
absorption of thiamine will lead to this syndrome. It is remained healthy.
characterized by loss of memory, apathy and a
rhythmical to and from motion of the eyeballs. Cure: Pellagra symptoms disappeared when patients
were given dried meat or liver, revealing a nutritional
❖ Riboflavin (vitamin B2) deficiency as the cause.
Riboflavin through its coenzymes takes part in a variety
of cellular oxidation-reduction reactions. It also Much before it was recognized as a vitamin, nicotinic
supports energy production, tissue repair, and acid was well known as a chemical compound,
antioxidant function. produced by the oxidation of nicotine (present in
tobacco leaves). The term 'niacin' was coined and more
Riboflavin is stable to heat but sensitive to light. When commonly used for nicotinic acid. This was done to
exposed to ultra-violet rays of sunlight, it is converted emphasize the role of niacin as a vitamin and avoid the
to lumiflavin which exhibits yellow fluorescence. The impression that nicotinic acid is an oxidized form of
substances namely lactoflavin (from milk), nicotine. However, most of the authors use niacin and
hepatoflavin (from liver) and ovoflavin (from eggs) nicotinic acid synonymously.
RDA for Niacin Therapeutic uses of niacin
The daily requirement of niacin for an adult is 15-20 mg Niacin is used in the treatment of
and for children, around 10-15 mg. Very often, the term hyperlipoproteinemia type II b (elevation of
niacin equivalents (NE) is used while expressing its RDA. lipoproteins (LDL), and very low density lipoproteins
One NE = I mg niacin or 60 mg of tryptophan. Instead (VLDL).
of mg, the daily requirements are known as niacin
equivalents. Pregnancy and lactation in women impose Although megadose of niacin are useful for the
an additional metabolic burden and increase the niacin treatment of hyperlipidemia, there are certain harmful
requirement. side effects also.
1. Glycogen and fat reserves of skeletal and cardiac
Dietary Source muscle are depleted.
• The rich natural sources of niacin include liver, 2. There is a tendency for the increased levels of
yeast, whole grains, cereals, pulses like beans and glucose and uric acid in the circulation.
peanuts. 3. Prolonged use of niacin results in elevated serum
• Milk, fish, eggs and vegetables are moderate levels of certain enzymes, suggesting liver damage.
sources.
• Tryptophan can serve as a precursor for the ❖ Pyridoxine (vitamin B6)
synthesis of nicotinamide coenzymes. Vitamin B6 is used to collectively represent the three
• On an average, I g of a good quality protein compounds namely pyridoxine, pyridoxal and
containing about 60 mg of tryptophan is equivalent pyridoxamine (the vitamers of B6). Involved in
to I mg of niacin (conversion ratio 60: 1) for the neurotransmitter synthesis and red blood cell
synthesis of nicotinamide coenzymes. formation.
• Tryptophan has many other essential and
important functions in the body, hence dietary Vitamin B6 consists of three forms:
tryptophan cannot totally replace niacin. Pyridoxine (alcohol) - Found in plants, can convert to
• Increased conversion of tryptophan to niacin has other forms.
been reported in low protein diet and starvation. Pyridoxal (aldehyde) - Found in animal foods.
• Tryptophan can replace niacin to an extent of 10% Pyridoxamine (amine) - Also found in animal foods.
for the synthesis of coenzymes.
• Therefore, both niacin and tryptophan have to be Pyridoxine can convert to pyridoxal and pyridoxamine,
invariably provided in the diet. but not vice versa.
Pyridoxine (vitamin B6)
Deficiency symptoms
Niacin deficiency results in a condition called pellagra The active form of vitamin B6 is the coenzyme pyridoxal
(Italian: rough skin). This disease involves skin, phosphate (PLP).
gastrointestinal tract and central nervous system. The
symptoms of pellagra are commonly referred to as PLP can be synthesized from the three compounds
three Ds. The disease also progresses in that order pyridoxine, pyridoxal and pyridoxamine. B6 is excreted
dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, and if not treated may in urine as 4-pyridoxic acid.
rarely lead to death (4th D). Pellagra is frequently Pyridoxine (vitamin B6)
observed in Hartnup's disease.
PLP is closely associated with the metabolism of amino
Dermatitis (inflammation of skin) is usually found in acids. The synthesis of certain specialized products
the areas of the skin exposed to sunlight (neck, dorsal such as serotonin, histamine, niacin coenzymes from
part of feet, ankle and parts of face). Diarrhea may be the amino acids is dependent on pyridoxine.
in the form of loose stools, often with blood and mucus. RDA for Pyridoxine (vitamin B6)
Prolonged diarrhea leads to weight loss. Dementia is
associated with degeneration of nervous tissue. The The requirement of pyridoxine for an adult is 2-2.2
symptoms of dementia include anxiety, irritability, poor mg/day. During pregnancy, lactation and old age, an
memory, insomnia (sleeplessness) etc. intake of 2.5 mg/day is recommended. As is observed
from the coenzyme function, pyridoxine is closely
Pellagra is mostly seen among people whose staple diet associated with protein (amino acid) metabolism. The
is corn or maize. daily requirements of B6 are calculated on the
assumption that the intake of protein is <100 g/day.
Dietary sources ❖ Pantothenic acid
Animal sources such as egg yolk, fish, milk, meat are Pantothenic acid (Greek: pantos-everywhere), formerly
rich in B6. Banana, wheat, corn, cabbage, roots and known as chick anti-dermatitis factor (or filtrate
tubers are good vegetable sources. factor) is widely distributed in nature. It's metabolic
role as coenzyme A is also widespread.

Deficiency symptoms RDA for Pantothenic acid

Pyridoxine deficiency is associated with neurological The requirement of pantothenic acid for humans is not
symptoms such as depression, irritability, nervousness clearly known. A daily intake of about 5-10 mg is
and mental confusion. Convulsions and peripheral advised for adults.
neuropathy are observed in severe deficiency. These
symptoms are related to the decreased synthesis of Dietary sources
biogenic amines (serotonin, GABA, norepinephrine and Pantothenic acid is one of the most widely distributed
epinephrine). In children, B6 deficiency with a vitamins found in plants and animals. The rich sources
drastically reduced GABA production results in are egg, liver, meat, yeast, milk, etc.
convulsions (epilepsy).
Deficiency symptoms
Toxic effects of overdose It is a surprise to biochemists that despite the
Excess use of vitamin B6 (2.5 g/day) in the women of involvement of pantothenic acid (as coenzyme A) in a
premenstrual syndrome is associated with sensory great number of metabolic reactions, its deficiency
neuropathy. Some workers have suggested that vitamin manifestations have not been reported in humans. This
B6 more than 200 mg/day may cause neurological may be due to the widespread distribution of this
damage. vitamin, or the symptoms of pantothenic acid may be
like other vitamin deficiencies.
❖ Biotin
Biotin (formerly known as anti-egg white injury factor, Dr. Gopalan, a world-renowned nutritionist from India,
vitamin B7 or vitamin H) is a sulfur containing B- linked the burning feet syndrome (pain and numbness
complex vitamin. It directly participates as a coenzyme in the toes, sleeplessness, fatigue etc.) with
in the carboxylation reactions. pantothenic acid deficiency. Pantothenic acid
deficiency in experimental animals results in anemia,
RDA for Biotin fatty liver, decreased steroid synthesis etc.
A daily intake of about 100-300 mg is recommended for
adults. In fact, biotin is normally synthesized by the ❖ Folate (Folic acid or vitamin B9)
intestinal bacteria. However, to what extent the Folic acid or folacin (Latin: folium-leaf) is abundantly
synthesized biotin contributes to the body found in green leafy vegetables. It is important for one
requirements is not clearly known. carbon metabolism and is required for the synthesis of
certain amino acids, purines and the pyrimidine-
Deficiency symptoms thymine.
The symptoms of biotin deficiency include anemia, loss
of appetite, nausea, dermatitis, glossitis etc. Biotin Crucial for DNA synthesis and fetal development.
deficiency may also result in depression, hallucinations,
muscle pain and dermatitis. RDA for Folate (Folic acid or vitamin B9)
The daily requirement of folic acid is around 200
Biotin deficiency is uncommon, since it is well microgram in the women, higher intakes are
distributed in foods and supplied by the intestinal recommended during pregnancy (400 µg/day) and
bacteria. lactation (300 µg/day).
The deficiency may, however, be associated with the
following two causes. Dietary sources
1. Destruction of intestinal flora due to prolonged use Folic acid is widely distributed in nature. The rich
of drugs such as sulfonamides. sources are green leafy vegetables, legumes, oranges,
2. High consumption of raw eggs. The raw egg white whole grains, cereals, liver, kidney, yeast and eggs.
contains a glycoprotein- avidin, which tightly binds with
biotin and blocks its absorption from the intestine. An Milk is rather a poor source of folic acid.
intake of about 20 raw eggs per day is needed to
produce biotin deficiency symptoms in humans.
Consumption of an occasional raw egg will not result in
deficiency.
Deficiency symptoms It is characterized by low hemoglobin levels, decreased
Folic acid deficiency is probably the most common number of erythrocytes (RBC) and neurological
vitamin deficiency, observed primarily in the pregnant manifestations.
women, in both developed (including USA) and
developing countries (including India). The pregnant
women, lactating women, women on oral Fat-soluble Vitamins
contraceptives, and alcoholics are also susceptible to • The four fat-soluble vitamins are designated using the
folate deficiency. The folic acid deficiency may be due letters A, D, E, and K.
to (one or more causes) inadequate dietary intake, • Many of the functions of the fat-soluble vitamins
defective absorption, use of anticonvulsant drugs involve processes that occur in cell membranes.
(phenobarbitone, dilantin, phenyltoin), and increased • The structures of the fat-soluble vitamins are more
demand. hydrocarbon-like, with fewer functional groups than
the water-soluble vitamins. Their structures are
Folic acid deficiency in pregnant women may cause nonpolar, which enhances their solubility in cell
neural defects in the fetus. membranes.
Hence high doses of folic acid are recommended in
pregnancy to prevent birth defects. ❖ Vitamin A
• Foods derived from animals, including egg yolks and
❖ Cobalamin (vitamin B12) dairy products, provide compounds (retinyl esters) that
Vitamin B12 is also known as anti-pernicious anemia are easily hydrolyzed to retinoids in the intestine.
vitamin. It is a unique vitamin, synthesized by only • Foods derived from plants provide carotenoids, which
microorganisms and not by animals and plants. It was serve as precursor forms of vitamin A. The major
the last vitamin to be discovered. carotenoid with vitamin A activity is beta-carotene (ß-
carotene), which can be cleaved to yield two molecules
Essential for nerve function and red blood cell of vitamin A.
production.
Other Functions of Vitamin
About ten enzymes requiring vitamin B12 have been A in our body
identified. Most of them are found in bacteria
(glutamate mutase, ribonucleotide reductase etc.). • Vitamin A is considered to be essential for the
There are only two reactions in mammals that are maintenance of proper immune system to fight against
dependent on vitamin B12. various infections.
• Carotenoids (most important -carotene) function as
• Synthesis of methionine from homocysteine antioxidants and reduce the risk of cancers initiated by
• Isomerization of methymalonyl CoA to succinyl CoA free radicals and strong oxidants.
• Beta-carotene is a yellow to red-orange pigment
RDA for Cobalamin (vitamin B12) plentiful in carrots, squash, cantaloupe, apricots, and
A daily intake of about 3 µg of vitamin B12 is adequate other yellow vegetables and fruits, as well as in leafy
to meet the adult requirements. For children, 0.5-1.5 green vegetables (where the yellow pigment is masked
µg/day is recommended. During pregnancy and by green chlorophyll).
lactation, the requirement is 4 µg/day.Dietary sources • It is recorded in the history that Hippocrates (about
500 B.C.) cured night blindness. He prescribed to the
Found exclusively in animal products such as meat, patients' ox liver (in honey), which is now known to
dairy, and eggs. The rich sources are liver, kidney, milk, contain high quantity of vitamin A.
curd, eggs, fish, pork and chicken. Curd is a better
source than milk, due to the synthesis of B12 by Four major functions of Vitamin A in our body
Lactobacillus. Vitamin B12 is synthesized only by
microorganisms (anaerobic bacteria). Plants cannot • Vision. In the eye, vitamin A (as retinal) combines
synthesize, hence B12 is never found in plant foods. with the protein opsin to form the visual pigment
Animals obtain B12 either by eating foods, derived rhodopsin. Rhodopsin participates in the conversion of
from other animals or from the intestinal bacterial light energy into nerve impulses that are sent to the
synthesis. brain. Although vitamin A's involvement in the process
of vision is its best-known function ("Eat your carrots
Deficiency symptoms and you'll see better"), only 0.1% of the body's vitamin
A is found in the eyes.
The most important disease associated with vitamin
B12 deficiency is pernicious anemia.
Regulating Cell Differentiation. Cell differentiation is Prolonged deficiency irreversibly damages several
the process whereby immature cells change in visual cells. Severe deficiency of vitamin A leads to
structure and function to become specialized cells. For xerophthalmia. This is characterized by dryness in
example, some immature bone marrow cells conjunctiva and cornea, and keratinization of epithelial
differentiate into white blood cells and others into red cells. In certain areas of conjunctiva, white triangular
blood cells. In the cellular differentiation process, plaques known as Bitot's spots are seen.
vitamin A (as retinoic acid) binds to protein receptors;
these vitamin A-protein receptor complexes then bind • If xerophthalmia persists for a long time, corneal
to regulatory regions of DNA molecules. ulceration and degeneration occur. This results in the
destruction of cornea, a condition referred to as
• Maintenance of the Health of Epithelial Tissues. keratomalacia, causing total blindness. Therefore,
Epithelial tissue covers outer body surfaces as well as adequate intake of vitamin A is necessary for the
lining internal cavities and tubes. It includes skin and prevention of blindness.
the linings of the mouth, stomach, lungs, vagina, and
bladder. Lack of vitamin A (as retinoic acid) causes such • Effect on growth: Vitamin A deficiency results in
surfaces to become drier and harder than normal. growth retardation due to impairment in skeletal
Vitamin A's role here is related to cellular formation.
differentiation involving mucus-secreting cells.
• Effect on reproduction: The reproductive system is
Reproduction and Growth. In men, vitamin A adversely affected in vitamin A deficiency.
participates in sperm development. In women, normal Degeneration of germinal epithelium leads to sterlity in
fetal development during pregnancy requires vitamin males.
A. In both cases, it is the retinoic acid form of vitamin A
that is needed. Again, vitamin A's role is related to • Effect on skin and epithelial cells : The skin becomes
cellular differentiation processes. rough and dry.
Keratinization of epithelial cells of gastrointestinal
RDA for Vitamin A tract, urinary tract and respiratory tract is noticed. This
• The RDA of vitamin A for adults is around 1,000 retinol leads to increased bacterial infection.
equivalents (3,500 Vitamin A deficiency is associated with formation of
IU) for man and 800 retinol equivalents (2,500 IU) for urinary stones.
woman.
• One International Unit (IU) equals to 0,3 mg of retinol. Hypervitaminosis A
The requirement Increases in pregnant women and Excessive consumption of vitamin A leads to toxicity.
lactating mothers. The symptoms of hypervitaminosis A include dermatitis
raised intracranial tension, enlargement of liver,
Dietary sources skeletal decalcification,
• Animal sources contain (preformed) vitamin A. The tenderness of long bones, loss of weight, irritability,
best sources are liver, kidney, egg yolk, milk, cheese, loss of hair, joint pains etc. Elderly people are more
butter. Fish (cod or shark) liver ols are very rich in susceptible to vitamin A toxicity; hence overdoses
vitamin A. Vegetable sources contain the provitamin A- should be avoided.
carotenes. Yellow and dark green vegetables and fruits
are good sources of carotenes e.g., carrots, spinach, ❖ Vitamin D
pumpkins, mango, papaya etc. The two most important members of the vitamin D
family of molecules are vitamin Dz (cholecalciferol) and
Deficiency symptoms vitamin D, (ergocaliferol).
• The vitamin A deficiency may be due to inadequate
dietary intake, impaired intestinal absorption, reduced Vitamin D3 is produced in the skin of humans and
storage in liver and chronic alcholism. The deficiency animals by the action of sunlight (ultraviolet light) on
symptoms are not immediate, since the hepatic stores its precursor molecule, the cholesterol derivative 7-
can meet the body requirements for quite sometime dehydrocholesterol (a normal metabolite of cholesterol
(2-4 months). The deficiency manifestations are related found in the skin).
to the eyes, skin and growth.
• Deficiency manifestations of the eyes : Night
blindness (nyctalopia) is one of the earliest symptoms
of vitamin A deficiency. The individuals have difficulty
to see in dim light since the dark adaptation time is
increased.
 Vitamin D2 Vitamin D3 The rest of the body's vitamin D supplies are made
(ergocalciferol) (cholecalciferol) within the body (skin):
Plant-based Animal-based (fish, egg
(mushrooms, fortified yolks, liver, dairy) & 1. Exposure of skin to sunlight for synthesis of vitamin
foods) sunlight D;
Not produced by the Produced in the skin 2. Consumption of natural foods;
human body when exposed to 3. By irradiating foods (like yeast) that contain
sunlight precursors of vitamin D and fortification of foods (milk,
butter etc.).
Less potent, breaks More potent, stays
down faster longer in the RDA for Vitamin D
bloodstream The daily requirement of vitamin D is 400 International
Often in prescription Common in over-the- Units or 10 mg of cholecalciferol. In countries with good
vitamin D counter supplements sunlight (like India), the RDA for vitamin D is 200 IU (or
Raises blood vitamin D More effective at 5 mg cholecalciferol).
levels, but less efficiently increasing vitamin D
levels Deficiency symptoms
Less stable, degrades More stable, longer shelf Deficiency of vitamin D causes rickets in children and
faster life osteomalacia in adults.
Converted into active vitamin D (calcitriol) in liver &
kidneys Rickets is derived from an old English word 'wrickken',
meaning to twist.
Absorption of light energy induces breakage of the 9, Osteomalacia is derived from Greek (osteon-bone;
10 carbon bond; a spontaneous isomerization (shifting malakia-softness).
of double bonds) then occurs.
Vitamin D is often called as antirachitic vitamin.
Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) differs from vitamin D3 only
in the side-chain structure. It is produced from the • Rickets in children is characterized by bone
plant sterol ergosterol through the action of light. deformities due to incomplete mineralization, resulting
in soft and pliable bones and delay in teeth formation.
Both the cholecalciferol and the ergocalciferol forms of The weight-bearing bones are bent to form bow-legs.
vitamin D must undergo two further hydroxylation
steps before the vitamin D becomes fully functional. • In case of osteomalacia (adult rickets)
The first step, which occurs in the liver, adds a -OH demineralization of the bones occurs (bones become
group to carbon 25. The second step, which occurs in softer), increasing their susceptibility to fractures.
the kidneys, adds a -OH group to carbon 1. • Renal rickets (renal osteodystrophy) can be seen in
patients with chronic renal failure. Renal rickets is
The principal function of vitamin D is to maintain mainly due to decreased synthesis of calcitriol in
normal blood levels of calcium ion and phosphate ion kidney. It can be treated by administration of calcitriol.
so that bones can absorb these ions. Vitamin D Hypervitaminosis D
stimulates absorption of these ions from the
gastrointestinal tract and aids in their retention by the Vitamin D is stored mainly in the liver and is slowly
kidneys. Vitamin D triggers the deposition of calcium metabolized. It is the most toxic vitamin in excess (10-
salts into the organic matrix of bones by activating the 100 times the RDA). Overdose can cause bone
biosynthesis of calcium-binding proteins. resorption, hypercalcemia, and calcium deposits in soft
tissues (kidneys, arteries). It may lead to kidney stones,
Calcitriol (1,25-DHCC) is the biologically active form of loss of appetite, nausea, increased thirst, and weight
vitamin D. It regulates the plasma levels of calcium and loss.
phosphate. Calcitriol acts at 3 different levels (intestine,
kidney and bone) to maintain plasma calcium (normal ❖ Vitamin E
9-11 mg/dl) There are four forms of vitamin E: alpha-, beta-, delta-
, and gamma-tocopherol. These forms differ from each
Dietary sources other structurally in what substituents (-CH3 or -H) are
Only a few foods, including liver, fatty fish (such as present at two positions on an aromatic ring.
salmon), and egg yolks, are good natural sources of
vitamin D. Such vitamin D is vitamin D3. Foods fortified
with vitamin D include milk and margarine.
• The primary function of vitamin E in the body is as an In such situations, vitamin E is administered to the
antioxidant-a compound that protects other infant along with oxygen to give antioxidant protection.
compounds from oxidation by being oxidized itself. It • Vitamin E has also been found to be involved in the
protects polyunsaturated fats and vitamin A from conversion of arachidonic acid (20:4) to prostaglandins.
oxidation. It donates hydrogen to neutralize free Toxicity of Vitamin E
radicals. Vitamin C helps regenerate vitamin E after it is
used. Among the fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K), vitamin E is
• The tocopherol form with the greatest biochemical the least toxic. No toxic effect has been reported even
activity is alpha-tocopherol, the vitamin E form in after ingestion of 300 mg/ day for 23 years.
which methyl groups are present at both the R and R'
positions on the aromatic ring. Gamma-tocopherol is RDA for Vitamin E
the main form of vitamin E in vitamin-E rich foods. Intake of vitamin E is directly related to the
• Plant oils (margarine, salad dressings, and consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) i.e.,
shortenings), green and leafy vegetables, and whole- requirement increases with increased intake of PUFA. A
grain products are sources of vitamin E. daily consumption of about 10 mg (15 IU) of a-
• Free radicals are unstable molecules that can damage tocopherol for man and 8 mg (12 IU) for woman is
cells. They form when molecules lose or gain an extra recommended. One mg of a-tocopherol equal to 1.5 IU.
electron, making them highly reactive. To stabilize Vitamin E supplemented diet is advised for pregnant
themselves, free radicals steal electrons from healthy and lactating women.
cells, which can lead to cell damage, aging, and
diseases like cancer. Antioxidants (like vitamin E and Dietary sources
vitamin C) help by donating electrons to free radicals, Many vegetable oils are rich sources of vitamin E.
stopping them from causing harm. Wheat germ oil, cotton seed oil, peanut oil, corn oil and
sunflower oil are the good sources of this vitamin. It is
Other functions of Vitamin E also present in meat, milk, butter and eggs.
• Vitamin E prevents the oxidation of vitamin A and
carotenes. Toxicity of Vitamin E
• It is required for proper storage of creatine in skeletal Among the fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K), vitamin E is
muscle. the least toxic. No toxic effect has been reported even
• Vitamin E is needed for optimal absorption of amino after ingestion of 300 mg/ day for 23 years.
acids from the intestine.
• It is involved in proper synthesis of nucleic acids. ❖ Vitamin K
• Vitamin E protects liver from being damaged by toxic Like the other fat-soluble vitamins, vitamin K has more
compounds such as carbon tetrachloride. than one form. Structurally, all forms have a methylated
• It works in association with vitamins A, C and ẞ- naphthoquinone structure to which a long side chain of
carotene, to delay the onset of cataract carbon atoms is attached. The various forms differ
• Vitamin E has been recommended for the prevention structurally in the length and degree of unsaturation of
of chronic diseases such as cancer and heart diseases. the side chain.
Clinical trials in this regard are rather disappointing,
hence it is no more recommended. However, some Vitamin K, also called phylloquinone, has a side chain
clinicians continue to use it particularly in subjects that is predominantly saturated; only one carbon-
susceptible to heart attacks. It is believed that vitamin carbon double bond is present. It is a substance found
E prevents the oxidation of LDL. (Note: The oxidized LDL in plants.
have been implicated to promote heart diseases.) Vitamin K2 has several forms, called menaquinones,
• A most important location in the human body where with the various forms differing in the length of the side
vitamin E exerts its antioxidant effect is the lungs, chain. Menaquinone side chains have several carbon-
where exposure of cells to oxygen (and air pollutants) carbon double bonds, in contrast to the one carbon-
is greatest. Both red and white blood cells that pass carbon double bond present in phylloquinone.
through the lungs, as well as the cells of the lung tissue
itself, benefit from vitamin E's protective effect. Vitamin K2 is found in animals and humans and can be
• Infants, particularly premature infants, do not have a synthesized by bacteria, including those found in the
lot of vitamin E, which is passed from the mother to the human intestinal tract.
infant only in the last weeks of pregnancy.
Often, premature infants require oxygen Vitamin K is essential to the blood-clotting process.
supplementation for the purpose of controlling Over a dozen different proteins and the mineral calcium
respiratory distress. are involved in the formation of a blood clot.
Vitamin K is essential for the formation of prothrombin MINERALS
and at least five other proteins involved in the Minerals are required for the normal functioning of
regulation of blood clotting. Vitamin K is sometimes body processes, including growth, development,
given to presurgical patients to ensure adequate water balance and neurological processes.
prothrombin levels and prevent hemorrhaging.
The mineral (inorganic) elements constitute only a
Vitamin K is also required for the biosynthesis of several small proportion of the body weight. There is a wide
other proteins found in the plasma, bone, and kidney. variation in their body content. For instance, calcium
constitutes about 2% of body weight while cobalt about
0.00004%
Dietary sources
Typically, about half of the human body's vitamin K is A number of inorganic elements are needed for good
synthesized by intestinal bacteria and half comes from health. Like vitamins, minerals are classified as
the diet. Menaquinones are the form of vitamin K micronutrients. The body does not synthesize
found in vitamin K supplements. Only leafy green minerals. Those that must be ingested in relatively large
vegetables such as spinach and cabbage are amounts-the major elements-include sodium,
particularly rich in vitamin K. Other vegetables such as potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, and
peas and tomatoes and animal tissues, including liver, phosphate (phosphorus). Elements in a second group,
contain lesser amounts. the trace elements, are required in much smaller
amounts.
Deficiency symptoms Minerals are absorbed in ionic form and are essential
The deficiency of vitamin K is uncommon, since it is for good health, but excessive intake can be toxic.
present in the diet in sufficient quantity and/or is
adequately synthesized by the intestinal bacteria. Nutritionists set Recommended Dietary Allowances
However, vitamin K deficiency may occur due to its (RDAs) to prevent overconsumption.
faulty absorption (lack of bile salts), loss of vitamin into
feces (diarrheal diseases) and administration of Minerals perform several vital functions which are
antibiotics (killing of intestinal flora). absolutely essential for the very existence of the
organism. These include calcification of bone, blood
Deficiency of vitamin K leads to the lack of active coagulation, neuromuscular irritability, acid-base
prothrombin in the circulation. The result is that blood equilibrium, fluid balance and osmotic regulation.
coagulation is adversely affected. The individual bleeds
profusely even for minor injuries. The blood clotting Two classification of minerals:
time is increased. • Macrominerals (major elements)- required in large
amounts like calcium, phosphorus, magnesium,
RDA for Vitamin K sodium, potassium, chloride and sulfur.
Strictly speaking, there is no RDA for vitamin K, since it • Trace minerals (trace elements) - needed in smaller
can be adequately synthesized in the gut. It is however, quantities like iron, manganese, copper, lodine, zinc,
recommended that half of the body requirement is cobalt, fluoride and selenium
provided in the diet, while the other half is met from
the bacterial synthesis. Accordingly, the suggested RDA The major minerals-sodium, potassium, and chloride-
for an adult is 70-140 µg/day. are responsible for maintaining the appropriate salt
levels in body fluids. Many enzyme reactions require an
Hypervitaminosis K optimal salt concentration of 0.1-0.3 M. In addition,
Administration of large doses of vitamin K produces individual elements serve specific functions; nerve
hemolytic anaemia and jaundice, particularly in infants. transmission, for example, requires a supply of
The toxic effect is due to increased breakdown of RBC. extracellular sodium and intracellular potassium.
Although there is no DRI for these two elements, 2-4
g/day represents an average NaCl consumption. But
because high levels of NaCl can contribute to high
blood pressure, many nutritionists advise using salt in
moderation.

Calcium and magnesium serve many roles in the body,

including being required by some enzymes. Fully 90%
of all body calcium and a significant percentage of the
magnesium are found in the bones and teeth.
Calcium is also needed for nerve transmission and 5. Membrane integrity and permeability - Co
blood clotting. Influences the membrane structure and transport of
water and several lons across it.
Trace elements are similar to vitamins in that (1) they
are required in small amounts and (2) food contains 6. Activation of enzymes - Cart is needed for the direct
only minute quantities of them. Usually, a normal diet activation of enzymes such as lipase (pancreatic),
contains adequate quantities of all trace elements. The ATPase and succinate dehydrogenase.
exact function of many trace elements remains
unknown. 7. Calmodulin mediated action of Cat - Calmodulin
(mol. wt. 17,000) is a calcium binding regulatory
The most notable exception to the preceding protein. Ca-calmodulin complex activates certain
generalizations is iron. This element is part of enzymes e.g. adenylate cyclase, Ca² dependent protein
hemoglobin, the oxygen-binding protein of the blood. kinases.
(Iron is also a critical component of some enzymes.)
Relatively large amounts of iron are required for 8. Calcium as intracellular messenger - Certain
hemoglobin replenishment. Unfortunately, many foods hormones exert their action through the mediation of
are not rich enough in iron to provide the necessary DRI Ca²* (instead of cAMP). Calcium is regarded as a second
This is especially true for the higher iron DRI for messenger for such hormonal action e.g. epinephrine
women. Therefore, nutritionists sometimes in liver glycogenolysis. Calcium serves as a third
recommend a daily iron dietary supplement. messenger for some hormones e.g. antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) acts through cAMP, and then Ca².
MACROMINERALS
❖ Calcium (Ca) 9. Release of hormones - The release of certain
Calcium is the most abundant among the minerals in hormones (insulin, PTH, calcitonin) from the endocrine
the body. Its function is bone and teeth formation, glands is facilitated by Ca².
muscle contraction, blood clotting. The total content
of calcium in an adult man is about I to 15 kg. As much 10. Secretory processes - regulates microfilament and
as 99% of it is present in the bones and teeth. A small microtubule mediated processes such as endocytosis,
fraction (1%) of the calcium, found outside the skeletal exocytosis and cell motility.
tissue, performs a wide variety of functions.
II. Contact inhibition - Calcium is believed to be
Calcium is a key component of bones and teeth and is involved in cell to cell contact and adhesion of cells in a
needed for a strong skeleton and important in blood tissue. The cell-to-cell communication may also require
clotting. The major source of calcium in the world is Ca2+.
milk and milk products. Other sources include fish
eaten with bones (silver fish-mukene, haplochromis 12. Action on heart - Ca² acts on myocardium and
species-nkeje) and dark green vegetables (plant prolongs systole.
sources are not well absorbed).
Sources
Biochemical functions of Calcium Best sources - Milk and milk products
Good sources - Beans, leafy vegetables, fish, cabbage,
1. Development of bones and teeth - Calcium, along egg yolk.
with phosphate, is required for the formation (of
hydroxyapatite) and physical strength of skeletal tissue. Excretion
Calcium is excreted partly through the kidneys and
2. Muscle contraction - Ca2+ interacts with troponin C mostly through the intestine. The renal threshold for
to trigger muscle contraction. Calcium also activates serum Ca is 10 mg/dl. Calcium gets excreted into urine
ATPase, increases the Interaction between actin and beyond this concentration. Excretion of Ca into the
myosin. feces is a continuous process and this is increased in
vitamin D deficiency.
3. Blood coagulation - Several reactions in the cascade
of blood clotting process are dependent on Ca² (factor Calcium in the teeth
IV). Unlike bones, teeth do not serve as a calcium storage
site for the body. Once teeth are fully formed, their
4. Nerve transmission - Cat is necessary for the calcium content remains fixed and is not withdrawn to
transmission of nerve impulse. meet the body's calcium needs.
During childhood, proper calcium intake is crucial for 2. It plays a central role for the formation and utilization
the calcification (hardening) of developing teeth. Once of high-energy phosphate compounds eg ATP, GTP,
teeth are formed, they do not regenerate lost calcium. creatine phosphate etc.

Adults must protect their enamel through good oral 3. Phosphorus is required for the formation of
hygiene and fluoride use, as teeth cannot replace lost phospholipids, phosphoproteins and nucleic acids
minerals the same way bones do. (DNA and RNA).

Diseases 4. It is an essential component of several nucleotide

• Elevation in serum Ca level (normal 9-ll mg/dl) is coenzymes eg, NAD+, NADP+, pyridoxal phosphate,
hypercalcemia. Hypercalcemia is associated with ADP, AMP.
hyperparathyroidism caused by increased activity of
parathyroid glands. The symptoms of hypercalcemia 5. Several proteins and enzymes are activated by
include lethargy, muscle weakness, loss of appetite, phosphorylation.
constipation, nausea, increased myocardial
contractility and susceptibility to fractures. 6. Phosphate buffer system is important for the
maintenance of pH in the blood (around 7.4) as well as
• Hypocalcemia is a more serious and life threatening in the cells
condition. It is characterized by a fall in the serum Ca to
below 7 mg/dl, causing tetany. The symptoms of tetany Dietary Requirements for Phosphorus
include neuromuscular irritability, and convulsions. The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of
phosphate is based on the intake of calcium. The ratio
• Rickets is a disorder of defective calcification of of Ca: Pof 1: 1 is recommended (1.e. 800 mg/day) for
bones. This may be due to a low levels of vitamin D in an adult. For infants, however, the ratio is around 2: 1,
the body or due to a dietary deficiency of Ca and P-or which is based on the ratio found in human milk.
both. The concentrations of serum Ca and P may be low Calcium and phosphate are distributed in the majority
or normal. of natural foods In 1: I ratio. Therefore, adequate intake
of Ca generally takes care of the P requirement also.
• Renal rickets is associated with damage to renal
tissue, causing impairment in the synthesis of calcitriol. Sources
It does not respond to vitamin D in ordinary doses, Milk, cereals, leafy vegetables, meat, eggs.
therefore, some workers regard this as vitamin D
resistant rickets. Renal rickets can be treated by Absorption
administration of calcitriol.
Phosphate absorption occurs from jejunum
• Osteoporosis is characterized by demineralization of
bone resulting in the progressive loss of bone mass.
Deficiency
• Osteopetrosis is characterized by increased bone • Weak bones
density. This is primarily due to inability to resorb bone. • Muscle dysfunction
This disorder is mostly observed in association with
renal tubular acidosis (due to a defect in the enzyme
carbonic anhydrase) and cerebral calcification. ❖ Magnesium (Mg)
The adult body contains about 20 g magnesium, 70% of
❖ Phosphorus (P) which is found in bones in combination with calcium
An adult body contains about I kg phosphate and it is and phosphorus. The remaining 30% occurs in the soft
found in every cell of the body. Most of it (about 80%) tissues and body fluids.
occurs in combination with Ca in the bones and teeth.
About 10% of body P is found in muscles and blood in Biochemical functions of Magnesium
association with proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. The
remaining 10% is widely distributed in various chemical 1. Magnesium is required for the formation of bones
compounds. and teeth.

Biochemical function of Phosphorus 2. Muscle and nerve function.

1. Phosphorus is essential for the development of
bones and teeth.
3. Mg2 serves as a cofactor for several enzymes Biochemical functions of Potassium
requiring ATP e.g hexokinase, glucokinase,
phosphofructokinase, adenylate cyclase. 1. Potassium maintains intracellular osmotic pressure.

4. Mg2+ is necessary for proper neuromuscular 2. It is required for the regulation of acid-base balance
function. Low Mg2+ levels lead to neuromuscular and water balance in the cells.
Irritability.
3. The enzyme pyruvate kinase (of glycolysis) is
Sources: Cereals, nuts, beans, vegetables (cabbage, dependent on K for optimal activity
cauliflower), meat, milk, fruits.
4. Potassium is required for the transmission of nerve
Deficiency impulse.
• Muscle weakness
• Arrhythmias 5. Adequate intracellular concentration K' is necessary
for proper biosynthesis of proteins by ribosomes.
❖ Sodium (Na)
Sodium is the chief cation of the extracellular fluid. 6. Extracellular K influences cardiac muscle activity.
About 50% of body sodium is present in the bones, 40%
in the extracellular fluid and the remaining (10%) in the Deficiency
soft tissues. • Hypokalemia leading to muscle weakness,
arrhythmias.
Sources: The common salt (NaCl) used in the cooking
medium is the major source of sodium. The ingested
foods also contribute to sodium. The good sources of ❖ Chloride
sodium include bread, whole grains, leafy vegetables, Chlorine is a constituent of sodium chloride. Hence,
nuts, eggs and milk. the metabolism of chlorine and sodium are intimately
related.
Biochemical functions of Sodium
Sources: Common salt as cooking medium, whole
1. In association with chloride and bicarbonate, sodium grains, leafy vegetables, eggs and milk.
regulates the body's acid-base balance.
Biochemical functions of Chlorine
2. Sodium is required for the maintenance of osmotic 1. Chloride is involved in the regulation of acid-base
pressure and fluid balance. equilibrium, fluid balance and osmotic pressure. These
functions are carried out by the interaction of chloride
3. It is necessary for the normal muscle irritability and with Na and K.
cell permeability.
2. Chloride is necessary for the formation of HCI in the
4. Sodium is involved in the intestinal absorption of gastric juice.
glucose, galactose and amino acids.
3. Chloride shift involves the active participation of Cl.
5. It is necessary for initiating and maintaining
heartbeat. 4. The enzyme salivary amylase is activated by chloride.

Deficiency Deficiency
• Hyponatremia (low sodium levels) causing confusion, • Rare, but can affect protein synthesis.
seizures.

❖ Potassium (K) ❖ Sulfur (S)

Potassium is the principal intracellular cation. It is Sulfur of the body is mostly present in the organic
equally important in the extracellular fluid for specific form. Methionine, cysteine and cystine are the three
functions. sulfur-containing amino acids present in the proteins.
Generally, proteins contain about 1%. sulfur by weight.
Sources: Banana, orange, pineapple, potato, beans,
chicken, and liver. Tender coconut water is a rich source Sources: There is no specific dietary requirement for
of potassium. sulfur. Adequate intake of sulfur-containing essential
amino acid methionine will meet the body needs.
Food proteins rich in methionine and cysteine are the Sources: Liver, kidney, meat, egg yolk, cereals, nuts and
sources of sulfur. green leafy vegetables. Milk is a poor source.

Biochemical functions of Sulfur Sources: Meat, fish, shellfish, eggs, milk, beans, nuts.
Biochemical functions of Zinc
1. Sulfur-containing amino acids are very essential for
the structural conformation and biological functions of 1. Zn is an essential component of several enzymes e.g.
proteins (enzymes, hormones, structural proteins etc.). carbonic anhydrase, alcohol dehydrogenase, alkaline
The disulfide linkages (SS) and sulfhydryl groups (SH) phosphatase, carboxypeptidase, superoxide dismutase
are largely responsible for this. (cytosolic).

2. The vitamins thiamine, biotin, lipoic acid, and 2. Zinc may be regarded as an antioxidant since the
coenzyme A of pantothenic acid contain sulfur enzyme superoxide dismutase (Zn containing) protects
the body against free radical damage.
3. Heparin, chondroitin sulfate, glutathione,
taurocholic acid are some other important sulfur 3. The storage and secretion of insulin from the B-cells
containing compounds. of pancreas require Zn.

4. Phosphoadenosine phosphosulfate (PAPS) is the 4. Zn is necessary to maintain the normal levels of

active sulfate utilized for several reactions eg synthesis vitamin A in serum. Zn promotes the synthesis of
of glycosaminoglycans, detoxification mechanism retinol binding protein.

Deficiency 5. It is required for wound healing. Zn enhances cell

• Metabolic alkalosis a condition where the pH level of growth and division, besides stabilizing biomembranes.
the blood is too high.
• Muscle cramps. 6. Gustin, a zinc containing protein of the saliva, is
important for taste sensation.
TRACE MINERALS
(needed in amounts <100 mg/day) 7. Zn is essential for proper reproduction.
Copper (Cu)
❖ Iron (Fe)
The total content of iron in an adult body is 3-5 g About
70% of this occurs in the erythrocytes of blood as a
constituent of hemoglobin. At least 5% of body iron is
present in myoglobin of muscle. Heme is the most
predominant iron-containing substance. It is a
constituent of several proteins/enzymes
(hemoproteins)-hemoglobin, myoglobin, cytochromes,
xanthine oxidase, catalase, tryptophan pyrrolase,
peroxidase. Certain other proteins contain non-heme
iron e.g, transferrin, ferritin, hemosiderin.

Sources:
Rich sources - Organ meats (liver, heart, kidney), Good
sources - Leafy vegetables, pulses, cereals, fish, apples,
dried fruits, molasses.
Poor sources - Milk, wheat, polished rice.

Deficiency
• Anemia, fatigue, weakness.

❖ Zinc (Zn)
The total content of zinc in an adult body is about 2 g.
Prostate gland is very rich in Zn (100 mg/g). Zinc is
mainly an intracellular element.