Chapter 3
THE BOLOGICAL MOLECULES
Module 3: VITAMINS
Introduction
Vitamins are organic compounds, occuring in natural foods, either such or as utilizable
precursors, which are required in minute amounts for normal growth, maintenance and
reproduction. They differ from other organic foodstuffs in that they do not enter into the tissue
structure and do not undergo degradation for purposes of providing energy.
Course Intended Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Identify the elements that make up the vitamins;
2. Describe the chemical composition and functions of vitamins;
3. Differentiate the different classes of vitamins;
4. Determine the recommended daily allowance of vitamins;
5. Determine the effect of insufficient or oversupply of vitamins in the body; and
6. Determine the common food sources of vitamins.
Vitamins are organic substances which cannot be synthesized within the body and are
essential for maintenance of normal structure and function of cells. Thus, these substances must
be provided in the human diet. Most of the vitamins are of plant or animal origin so that they
normally enter the body as constituents of ingested plant food or animal food. They are required
in minute amounts in contrast to the relatively large amounts of essential amino acids and fatty
acids. Vitamins do not play a part in production of energy.
Casimir Funk was a Polish chemist and medical researcher who, even though he devoted
his career to understanding diabetes and cancer, is still probably best known as the man who
changed the color of human urine forever. In 1911 Casimir Funk isolated a substance in brown
rice that made people less susceptible to the terrible neurological and cardiovascular disease
known as beriberi and sent nutritional science on a new trajectory.
Since this substance contained an amine group –a chemical compound containing a
nitrogen atom and a pair of unshared valence electrons, known as a lone pair— and appeared to
be essential to life, which in Latin is “vita”, Funk named his discovery “vitamine.” It was later
identified more specifically as niacin (vitamin B3), and somewhere in history the “e” got lost, but
the term vitamin stuck around and Funk would go onto propose the existence of other vitamins
including B1, B2, C and D.
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Further research discovered there are two classes of vitamins: fat soluble ones like
vitamin E and D, and water soluble ones like C and the B vitamins. As the names suggests, fat-
soluble ones are absorbed in fat globules, through the circulatory system and are then stored in
body tissue.
Water-soluble vitamins dissolve into water once they enter the body and are expelled
through urination. As a result, the body cannot store most water soluble vitamins for future use,
so it is particularly important to maintain a regular intake of water soluble vitamins to ensure
optimal health.
Generally, the following are the quick facts about vitamins:
❖ All of the B vitamins and vitamin C are water-soluble
❖ Water soluble vitamins, except for B6 and B12, are excreted through urine fairly
quickly
❖ Water soluble vitamins can be lost when food is overcooked
❖ Water soluble vitamins, especially they B family, affect metabolizing tissue
including blood, skin, and the nervous system
Important terminologies associated in the study of vitamins
▪ Hypervitaminosis – a condition of abnormally high storage of vitamin levels or too
much vitamin in the body.
Ex. Hypervitaminosis C – too much intake of Vitamin C may exhibit frequent
urination
▪ Avitaminosis – a condition resulting from lack of one or more particular vitamin for
a longer period of time. It maybe classified further into primary and secondary
vitamin deficiency. For primary deficiency, caused by not enough vitamin intake,
whereas the secondary deficiency, there is an underlying cause such as
malabsorption, metabolic disorder, genetic defect, etc.
▪ Preformed Vitamins – these are the vitamins that physiologically active and found
in food like eggs, fish, organ meats, fruits and vegetables
Ex. Retinol (Vitamin A)
▪ Precursor of Vitamins – these are the compounds structurally similar to vitamins
but upon ingestion, are converted to true vitamins.
Ex. carotenoids from carrots (source of vitamin A)
The body can make Vitamin D upon exposure to sunlight
▪ Antivitamin or Vitamin Inhibitor – these are the compounds that are formed in the
body that prevent the assimilation of vitamin
Ex. Vitamin A inhibits Vitamin K; Vitamin D inhibits calcium intake; Vitamin E
inhibits Vitamin K
▪ Synthetic Vitamin – these are laboratory-prepared vitamins
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Table 1. Classification of Vitamins
Fat - soluble Water – soluble
● B1 – Thiamine
● B2 – Riboflavin
● B3 – Niacin
● A
● B5 – Pantothenic acid
● D
● B6 – Pyridoxine
● E
● B7 – Biotin
● K
● B9 – Folic acid
● B12 – Cyanocobalamin
● C Vitamin (Ascorbic acid)
Water – Soluble Vitamins
Fat – Soluble Vtamins
Properties (B Vitamins and Vitamin C)
(A, D, E and K)
Solubility in fats Soluble Not soluble
Water solubility Not soluble Soluble
Along with lipids requires bile salts,
Absorption simple (except vitamin B12);
Absorption and absorbed into lymph; many require
easily absorbed into blood; travel freely
transport protein carriers if they are to ravel in
in the body
the blood
Carrier proteins Present No carrier proteins (except vitamin B12)
Stored in liver, Long-term storage No storage (except vitamin B12), only a
Storage available in the body tissues, regular short term supply available, with little
intake recommended storage; daily intake recommended
Manifests only when stores are Manifests rapidly as there is no storage
Deficiency
depleted (except vitamin B12)
Toxicity Hypervitaminosis may result Unlikely, since excess is excreted
Excess intake tends to be stored in Excess intake usually detected and
Dietary intake
fat-storage sites excreted by the kidneys
Stability in food
Stable Less stable
handling and processing
Most B vitamins share similar roles;
Role(s) in the body Each has unique roles in the body Vitamin C serves many different roles in
the body
Table 2. Comparison between two types of vitamins
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Table 3. Vitamin Requirement of Humans, Functions and Effects of Malnutrition of Fat-Soluble
Vitamins and Water-Soluble Vitamins
RDA Possible Effect of Deficiency
Vitamin Functions
Men Women or Extreme Cases
Dry skin, shortness of breath,
Formation and maintenance of
weakened bones, depressed
skin, hair and mucous
Vitamin A immune system, night
membranes; helps people see in
900 µg 700 µg blindness / headache,
(carotenoid) dim light; bone and tooth
vomiting, hair loss, anemia,
growth; essential for normal
enlarged liver, birth defects,
eyesight
miscarriage
Aids in bone and tooth Weakened bones, enlarged
formation; helps maintain heart joints, muscle spasm / nausea,
Vitamin D 5 µg 5 µg action and nervous system vomiting, joint pain,
function, aids in the utilization calcification of heart, lungs
and absorption of calcium and kidneys; birth defects
Protects blood cells, body tissue Anemia, breakdown of red
and essential acids from blood cells / blood clotting
Vitamin E 15 µg 15 µg
harmful destruction in the defects, acne, nausea and
body, powerful antioxidant vomiting
Long blood-clotting time /
Essential for blood-clotting
Vitamin K 120 µg 90 µg hemolytic anemia, liver
functions
damage
Can lead to anorexia, memory
loss, muscle weakness, and
cardiovascular problems.
Role in energy metabolism and Extreme deficiencies can lead
B1 (Thiamine 1.2 mg 1.1 mg
cellular growth to beriberi which is
characterized by peripheral
neuropathy / gastric upset
and severe allergic reactions
Deficiency is rare, but can
lead to endocrine system
issues, edema of the mouth
Important in cellular
and throat, hair loss, and
B2 (Riboflavin) 1.3 mg 1.1 mg respiration, maintaining healthy
degenerative liver and
skin, and preventing migraines
nervous system disorders.
Extreme deficiencies can lead
to anemia and cataracts
Affects the body’s hormonal
functions leading to
Helps the body convert symptoms such as fatigue,
carbohydrate to glucose and depression, skin lesions, and
B3 (Niacin) 16 mg 14 mg
assist the adrenal system with poor digestion / flushing of
the production of hormones face and hands, liver damage,
dizziness, nausea, staggering
gait
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Helps the body break down and
B5 (Pantothenic use food; also helps the body in Fatigue, numbness, tingling of
5 mg 5 mg
Acid) the production of cholesterol hands and feet
and hormones
Associated with inadequate
levels of other B-complex
vitamins such as B12 and folic
A coenzyme in metabolic acid, symptoms can include
B6 (Pyridoxine) 1.7 mg 1.5 mg reactions involving amino acids, depression, anemia,
glucose, and lipids weakened immune function,
and dry, cracking skin /
unstable gait, numb feet, poor
coordination
Involved in the body’s Deficiency is fairly rare, but it
production of fatty acids and can lead to symptoms that
B7 (Biotin) 30 mg 30 mg metabolism of amino acids; also include anemia, hair loss,
helps in maintaining normal rashes, depression, and even
blood sugar levels hallucinations
B9 (Folic Acid) Associated with depression,
neural tube and other birth
Important in healthy fetal
defects, as well as soreness,
development and preventing
tongue ulcerations, hair and
400 µg birth defects; reduces the risk
skin changes, fatigue,
of cardiovascular disease; to
shortness of breath, and
treat anemia
anemia / may mask deficiency
of B12
Can lead to severe damage to
the brain and nervous system
Important for maintaining that can potentially be
normal brain and nervous irreversible; even slight
B12 system function; involved in deficiencies can lead to
2.4 mg 2.4 mg
(Cyanocobalamin) cellular metabolism impacting fatigue, depression, poor
DNA synthesis, and fatty acid memory, and even mania and
and amino acid metabolism psychoses; pernicious
anemia / iron absorption
affected
Scurvy which is characterized
Necessary for the growth and by spots on the skin, pale,
90 mg development and repair of all spongy gums, and bleeding
(+35 body tissues; formation of from mucous membranes;
Vitamin C
mg for 75 mg collagen, absorption of iron, the extreme cases involve tooth
(Ascorbic Acid)
smoke immune system, wound loss, pus-filled wounds, and
rs) healing, maintenance of death / gastrointestinal upset,
cartilage, bones and teeth nausea, vomiting, kidney
stones
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Table 4. Common Food Sources
Vitamin Common / Best Food Sources
Vitamin A Yellow or orange fruits and vegetables, green leafy vegetables, fortified
(carotenoid) oatmeal, liver, dairy products
Vitamin D Fortified milk, sunlight, fish, eggs, butter, fortified margarine
Fortified and multigrain cereals, nuts, wheat germs, vegetable oils,
Vitamin E
green leafy vegetables
Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables, fruits, dairy, grain products
B1 (Thiamine) Yeast, yeast extract, pork, and whole grains
Dairy products, eggs, leafy vegetables, legumes, almonds, and
B2 (Riboflavin)
mushrooms
Peanut butter, salmon, mushrooms, sunflower seeds and nutritional
B3 (Niacin)
yeast
Mushroom, fish, avocado, eggs, lean chicken, beef, pork, sunflower
B5 (Pantothenic Acid)
seeds, milk, sweet potatoes, lentils, whole grains
B6 (Pyridoxine) Pork, turkey, beef, chickpeas, bananas, potatoes, and pistachios, peas
B7 (Biotin) Peanuts, Swiss chard, and other leafy greens
B9 (Folic Acid) Vegetables, fruits, nuts, avocado
B12 (Cyanocobalamin) Meat, eggs, fish, shellfish, and dairy products
Fruits and vegetables, guavas, parsley. Kiwifruit, broccoli, and Brussels
Vitamin C (Ascorbic sprouts, green chili peppers, some species of exotic plums, which have
Acid) been used in folk medicine for centuries, have vitamin C levels nearly
100 times as high as oranges
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Fig. 1 Common food sources of fat-soluble vitamins
Fig. 2 Food sources and functions of fat-soluble vitamins
Fig. 3 Food
sources of B Vitamins
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Fig. 4 Vitamin C-Rich Foods
Fig. 5 Other food sources of Vitamins
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Food and Nutrition
Biochemistry, Seventh Ed. 2012. W.H. Freeman and Company
Denniston, Katherine J., Topping, Joseph, J. 2004. General, Organic and Biochemistry. Fourth Ed. McGraw Hill
Higher Education Company. New York
www.researchgate.net
www.slideshare.net
https://www.studyread.com/function-carbohydrates-physiological-importance
https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/listing_of_vitamins
