LECTURE NOTES

ON

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

COMPILE BY
TUSHAR KANTA MAHAPATRA
LECTURER

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

6TH SEMESTER
KIIT POLYTECHNIC, BHUBANESWAR
ODISHA- 751024
Email ID- tushar.mahapatrafme@kp.kiit.ac.in
 1.0 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN
1.0 INTRODUCTION:-
Machine Design is the art of planning or devising new or improved machines to accomplish
human need directly or indirectly.

Or in other words it is a study of the decision making process implemented by the engineers, for
the satisfaction of human need. It is concerned with the process of building bridge between the
limited resources available on one side and the unlimited desires of the mankind on the other
side.

In designing a machine component, it is necessary to have a good knowledge of many subjects

such as Mathematics, Engineering Mechanics, Workshop Process and Engineering Drawing by
which a designer can give the optimum design.

CLASSIFICATION OF MACHINE DESIGN:-

The machine design may be classified as follows:

1. Adoptive Design: - In this case the designer study about the existing design and slightly
modify the structure by imposing his ideas and design a new machine which is similar to
previous one. Example: - Bicycle, Car, Watch, Television, computer etc.

2. Development Design: - In this design the designer should have in-depth knowledge on
material properties and basic design equations or basic technical knowledge so that a
developed new machine will be produced. Example: - By imposing I.C.engine principles on
bicycle, the developed design is motor cycle. Personnel computer to Laptop.

3. New Design: - By using a basic scientific principle create something new, which never
existed before. This type of design needs a lot of research, technical ability and creative
thinking.

1.1 State the factors governing the design of machine element:-

A machine is an assembly of elements, with successfully constrained relative

motion, which is used for converting other forms of energy into mechanical energy and does
some particular kind of work.

So following factors should be considered during design of a machine component. They are as
follows:
 1. Type of load and stresses caused by the load: - The load, on a machine component,
may act in several ways due to which the internal stresses are generate, those are
responsible for failure of component. So we should care about the factor above said.
2. Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine: - The successful operation of any
machine depends upon the simplest arrangement of the parts which will give the motion
required and this above said point should be taken care during designing.
3. Selection of material: - It is very essential that a designer should have a thorough
knowledge of the properties of the materials and their behavior under different working
condition, without which it is very difficult to assign particular material for a specific
field of application.
4. Form and size of the parts: - During assigning form and size of any machine part, it is
necessary to know the forces which the part must sustain.
5. Use of standard parts: - The use of standard parts reduces the economics involved in
the design component. To accommodate easy identification of material, replacements of
worn-out parts and for easy manufacturing the parameters of machine component are
standardize. (Standardization means dimension and shape of most widely used
component such as bolts, nuts, washer, screws, rivets, chains, belts, bearings, shaft etc
should be uniform for all manufacturing companies)
6. Safety of operation:-It is necessary that a designer should always provide safety
devices for the safety of the operator. It is the major requirement of a perfect a designed
object.
7. Workshop Facilities:-A design engineer should be familiar with the limitations of his
employer’s workshop, in order to avoid the necessity of having work done in some other
workshop.
8. Quantities of machine to be manufactured: - The number of machines to be
manufactured affects the design in a number of ways, as it directly affect the economic
involved in the process of manufacturing and it also deals with the case of profit of the
farm.
9. Cost of construction: - The aim of design engineer under all conditions should be to
reduce the manufacturing cost to the minimum. It is the important consideration
involved in all kinds of design.
10. Assembling: - Every machine or structure must be assembled as a unit before it can
function. So for easy assembling the design engineer must anticipate the exact location
and the local facilities for erection. Means servicing can be done easily at any moment.

1.2 State types of load:-

It is defined as any external agency acting upon a machine component whose sole purpose is to
set up some stresses. It is generally of four types:-
1. Dead or steady load: - A load is said to be a dead or steady load, when it does not change in
magnitude or direction.

2. Live or variable load: - A load is said to be a live or variable load, when it changes
continually both in magnitude and direction.

3. Suddenly applied or shock loads: - A load is said to be a suddenly applied or shock load,
when it is suddenly applied or removed.

4. Impact load:-A load is said to an impact load, when it is applied with some initial velocity.

1.3 Define working stress, yield stress, ultimate stress & factor of safety:-
Working stress: -Every designer assigned a value of stress to a material under loading which is
intentionally kept lower than the value of ultimate stress or maximum stress or failure stress
in order to anticipate the failure of the component. This stress is known as working stress or
design stress or safe or allowable stress.

Yield stress: - In stress strain curve of a ductile material yield point is clearly defined and the
value of F.O.S. based upon the above said point. The yield point of a material is defined in
engineering and material science as the stress at which a material begins to deform
plastically. Prior to the yield point the material will deform elastically and will return back to its
original shape when the applied stress is removed. It is also important for the control of many
materials production techniques such as forging, rolling, or pressing.

Ultimate stress:- Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), often shortened to tensile strength (TS)
or ultimate strength, is the maximum stress, that a material can withstand while being stretched
or pulled before necking, which is when the specimen's cross-section, starts to significantly
contract. The UTS is usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the stress
versus strain; the highest point of the stress-strain curve is the UTS.

Factor of safety: - In order to provide reserve strength to the components under adverse
situation factor of safety is generally taken into consideration.

Factor of safety= 𝑀𝑎𝗑i𝑚𝑢 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

W𝑜𝑟𝑘i𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑠i𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

In case of ductile material the formula will be,

𝑦𝑒i𝑙𝑑 𝑝𝑜i𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Factor of safety=
w𝑜𝑟𝑘i𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑠i𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

In case of brittle material, the formula will be,

Factor of safety= 𝑈𝑙𝑡i𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

W𝑜𝑟𝑘i𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑠i𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠.
1.4 State mechanical properties of material:-
The Mechanical properties of material are associated with the ability of the material to
resist mechanical forces and load. It is important that a machine element be made of a material
that has properties suitable for the conditions of service in order to avoid its failure under loading
condition. So a designer should have thorough knowledge about the below said properties:-

1. Strength: - It is the inherent property of a material by virtue of which it prevents failure of

the part by rupture or deformation.
2. Stiffness: - The stiffness, k, of a body is a measure of the resistance offered by an elastic
body to deformation. For an elastic body with a single Degree of Freedom (for example,
stretching or compression of a rod), the stiffness is defined as:-

3. Elasticity: - It is the property of material by virtue of it can regain its original shape and size
after removal of external load. This property is more desirable especially for materials used
to manufacture tools, and machines.
4. Plasticity: - It is the property of material by virtue of which deformation produced under
loading condition is permanently set up. This property is essentially required for forgings, in
stamping images on coins and in ornamental work.
5. Ductility: - It is a property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the
application of a tensile force. The ductile material commonly used in engineering practice are
mild steel, copper, aluminum, nickel, zinc, tin, and lead. Ductile materials have good tensile
strength, but having poor compressive strength.
6. Brittleness: - It is the property of breaking of a material with little permanent deformation
under tensile load. Cast iron is a brittle material. Brittle materials are good in compression
but not god in tension.
7. Malleability: - This property permits the material to undergo hammered or rolled into any
desirable shape under compression without rupture.
8. Toughness:-It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows.
9. Mach inability: - It is the property of a material with which a material can be cut/machined
easily.
10. Resilience: - It is the property of a material which enables it to store large energy within
elastic limit, when the material is subjected to shock or impact loading. This property is very
essential in designing springs for different engineering application.
11. Proof Resilience: - Proof resilience is the maximum strain energy that can be stored in a
material without permanent deformation. Modulus of resilience is the proof resilience of the
material per unit volume.
12. Hardness: - It is a property of a material by virtue of which it gives resistance to wear,
scratching, deformation and machinabality etc. It also means the ability of a metal to cut
another metal.

This is the above said properties to be taken care when a designer design mechanical component.

1.5 Preliminary idea of failure of material due to fatigue and creep:-

Fatigue: - In materials science, fatigue is the progressive and localized structural damage that
occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading. The failure is caused by means of a
progressive crack formation which is usually fine and microscopic. This property is taken care in
designing shafts, connecting rods, springs, gears, etc.

Creep: - In materials science, creep is the tendency of a solid material to move slowly or deform
permanently under the influence of stresses. It occurs as a result of long term exposure to high
levels of stress that are below the yield strength of the material. Creep is more severe in
materials that are subjected to heat for long periods, and near melting point. Creep always
increases with temperature. A designer is always want to anticipate above mode of failure when
basically he design internal combustion Engine parts, boilers, gas turbine and steam turbine.

1.6 Describe design procedure:-

Before design any mechanical component, a designer always follows a basic procedure. These
are as follows:

Step-I: - Specify the requirement of the component to be design.

Step-II: - Find the various forces and reactions on different components using free body
diagram.

Step-III: - Select suitable material for the component and state their properties such that yield
stress, ultimate stress, modulus of elasticity and passion ratio.

Step-IV: - Select suitable factor of Safety for the component subjected to different loading. In
order to avoid the unconditional situation for a machine component factor of safety

Step-V: - Determine the failure modes and check for safety.

Step-VI:-Determine the various dimensions of the component by using empirical formula and
past experiences.

Step-VII: - Prepare the drawings of different components by using different software.

Step-VIII: - State down the bill of material.

The block diagram represents brief concept about design procedure.

RECOGNISATION OF NEED.

SYNTHESIS (MECHANISM)

ANALYSIS OF FRCES

MATERIAL SELECTION

DESIGN OF ELEMENTS (SIZE &STRESS)

DETAILED DRAWING

PRODUCTION
2.0 DESIGN OF FASTENING ELEMENTS
The method of joining two or more machine elements by using any permanent or temporary
fastener is called fastening. So design of fastening element includes prepare specification of a
particular fastener, preparation of drawing and finally decision towards manufacturing
methodology.

Fastening is of two types: - (1) Permanent Fastening. (2) Temporary Fastening.

Permanent Fastening:- The method of fastening in which the joints can disassembled only by
braking the fastener is called permanent fastening method.

Example: - Riveting, Brazing, Soldering, Welding etc.

Temporary Fastening:- The method of fastening in which the joints can be readily engage or
disengage without braking the fastener is called Temporary fastening.

Example: - Screw joint, Nut and Bolt joint, Stud and nut joint etc.

2.1 State Nomenclatures, Form of threads and specification:-

A screw thread is obtained by cutting a continuous helical groove on a cylindrical surface by the
help of lathe machine. A screw thread fastener is formed by a nut and bolt assembles. The
threads formed on the surface of screw are of two types: - (1) V-Thread.

(2)Square-Thread.

The following are the terms that are associated with screw threads.

1. Major (nominal)diameter:- This is the largest the largest diameter of a screw thread ,
touching the crests on external thread or the roots on external thread or the roots on
internal thread.
2. Minor (core or root) diameter:-This is the smallest diameter of a screw thread, touching
the roots or core of an external thread or the crest of internal thread.
3. Pitch diameter:-This is the diameter of imaginary cylinder, passing through the threads
at the points where the width of thread is equal to the space between thread.
4. Pitch: - It is the distance measured parallel to the axis, between corresponding points on
adjacent screw threads.
5. Lead:-It is the distance; a screw advances axially in one turn. For a single threaded
screw, the pitch and lead are equal; for a double thread screw, the lead is twice the pitch
and so on.
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THREAD DESIGNATION (SPECIFICATION):-

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) adopts ISO (International Organization for standards) metric
threads which are followed by a number of countries, including India.

BIS recommends two thread series: Course and fine series, based on the relative values of the
pitches.

 ISO metric screw thread is designated by the letter ‘M’ followed by the value of the nominal
diameter and pitch, the two values separated by the sign ‘×’.
 For example, a diameter, pitch combination of nominal diameter 10 mm and pitch 1.25 is
designated as M10 × 1.25.
 If there is no indication of pitch in the designation, it shall mean the course pitch. For
example,
 M10 means that the nominal diameter of the thread is 10 mm and pitch is 1.5 mm.
 Following are the other designations, depending on the shape of the thread profile.
 SQ 40× 10 – SQUARE thread of nominal diameter 40 mm and pitch 10 mm.
 ACME 40 × 8- ACME threads of nominal diameter 40 mm and pitch 8mm.
 WORM 40× 10 –Worm thread of nominal diameter 40 mm and pitch 10 mm.

2.2 DESCRIBE NATURE OF LOADS AND FAILURE OF BOLT SUBJECTED TO

DIFFERENT STRESS CONDITION: -

The following are the types of stresses that are induced in bolted joint under static loading:

I. Stresses due to initial tightening (screwing up) of the nut.

II. Stresses due to external forces.
III. Stresses due to the combination of above.

(I).STRESSES DUE TO INITIAL TIGHETING (screwing up) OF THE NUT:-

When a bolt is tightened by a nut initially; the following are the types of stresses induced:

I. Tensile stress due to stretching of the bolt.

II. Compressive stress on the threads.
III. Shear stress across the threads.
IV. Tensional shear stress induced by frictional resistance between the threads in
engagement.
V. Bending stress, if the surfaces under the bolt head and nut are not perfectly normal to
the bolt axis.

Hence, in actual practice, the bolts are designed on the basis of tensile stress induced due to
stretching of the bolt; but with a high factor safety.
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An empirical relation arrived at from experimental results , used to determine the initial
tension , F1 in a bolt , to make the joint leak proof (Fluid tight), is given

F1= 2840d, N.

Where d= nominal diameter of the in mm.

For ordinary fastening purpose, the initial tension in a bolt may be reduced to half of the above
value, i.e.., F1 = 1420d, N.

(II) Stresses due to external forces:-

The following stresses are induced in a bolt when it is subjected to an external load.

1. Tensile stress: - The bolts, studs and screws usually carry a load in the direction of the
bolt axis which induces a tensile stress in the bolt.
Let dc = Root or core diameter of the thread, and
𝜎t= Permissible tensile stress for the bolt material.
We know that external load applied,
P= 𝜋× (dc) 2 × 𝜎t
4

Now from Data Book (SMJ), the value of the nominal diameter of bolt corresponding to the
value of dc may be obtained.

2. Shear stress: - Sometimes, the bolts are used to prevent the relative movement of two or
more parts, as in case of flange coupling, and then the shear stress is induced in the bolts.
In some cases, the bolts may be relieved of shear load by using shear pins. The shear
stresses should be avoided as far as possible.

Let d= Major diameter of the bolt, and

n= Number of bolts.

∴ Shearing load carried by the bolts,

Ps= 𝜋×d2 ×𝑟×n
4

3. Combined tension and shear stress: - When the bolt is subjected to tension and shear
loads, as in case of coupling bolts or bearings, then the diameter of the shank of the bolt
is obtained from the shear load and that of threaded part from the tensile load. So to
obtained the value we use the following two theories of failure ,
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Maximum principal shear stress,

𝑟 Max =1× √(𝜎 )2 + 4 × 𝑟2
2 𝑡

And
Maximum principal tensile stress,
𝜎t (max) = (𝜎t/2) +(1/2) √(𝜎𝑡)2 + 4 × 𝑟2

(iii) Stresses due to combined forces:-

Generally, studs are used to fasten cylinder head to the cylinder body of an I.C. engine. Here
the studs are subjected to initial tightening load as well as gas or steam load. The resultant load
on the studs depends upon the following factors:
1. The initial tension due to tightening of the bolt.
2. The external load.
3. The relative elastic yielding of the studs and connected bodies.

In order to determine the resultant load (P) on the stud (bolt), the following equation may be
used.

P= P1 +KP2

Where P1 = Initial tension due to tightening of the bolt,

P2 = External load on the bolt, and

K= Stiffness constant for the connected parts.

The values of k for various types of joints are obtained from Design data book. (S. MD.
JALALUDEEN).
The design equation is then given by,

P= 𝜋×𝑑𝑐 ×𝜎t
4

Using the above equation, the value of dc and then d may be determined from the table.

(iv) Stresses due to Transverse shear:-

Bolts subjected to shear stress should be avoided as for as possible, by the use of dowel pins,
after fitting the bolts. When bolts are subjected transverse shear, the plane of shear should never
be across the threaded portion of the bolt. Further, it is advisable to have the diameter of the
shank slightly larger than the threaded part of the bolt.
Let, Qt = Total shear load.
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n = number of bolts.

𝑟 = It is Permissible shear stress.

d = Shank diameter.
dc= Core diameter
Assuming that transverse shear stress is uniformly distributed across the shank area.

Qt = n × d ×𝑟
4

Assuming the number of bolts, n, the shank diameter of the bolt may be determined.

2.5 Types of welded joints:-

A welded joint is a permanent joint which is obtained by the fusion of the edges of the two parts
to be joined together; with or without the application of pressure and a filler material. The heat
required for the fusion of the material may be obtained by burning of gas (in case of gas welding)
or by an electric arc (in case of electric arc welding).

From practical point view, following types of welded joints are important:

1. Lap joint or Fillet joint 2. Butt joint.

Lap Joint: - The lap joint or fillet joints are obtained by overlapping the plates and then welding
the edges of the plates. The cross-section of the fillet is approximately triangular. The fillet joints
may be:-

1. Single Transverse Fillet.

2. Double Transverse Fillet.
3. Parallel Fillet Joints.

Butt Joint: -

The butt joint is obtained by placing the plates edge to edge.

The Butt joints may be,

1. Square butt joint.

2. Single v- butt joint.
3. Single U- Butt joint.
4. Double V- Butt joint.
5. Double U- butt joint.

2.6 Advantages of welded Joints over Riveted joints:-

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Following are the advantages and disadvantages of welded joints over riveted joints.

1. The welded structures are usually lighter than riveted structures. This is due the reason,
that in welding, gussets or other connecting components are not used.
2. The welded joints provide maximum efficiency which is not possible in case of riveted
joints.
3. Alterations and additions can be easily made in the existing structures.
4. As the welded structure is smooth in appearance, therefore it looks pleasing.
5. In welded connections, the tension members are not weakened as in the case of riveted
joints.
6. A welded joint has a great strength. Often a welded joint has the strength of parent metal
itself.
7. Sometimes, the members are of such a shape that they afford difficulty for riveting. But
they can be easily welded.
8. The welding provides very rigid joints. This is in line with the modern trend of providing
rigid frames.
9. It is possible to weld any part of a structure at any point. But riveting requires enough
clearance.
10. The process of welding takes less time than the reverting.

2.7 Eccentrically loaded welded joints:-

An eccentric load may be imposed on welded joints in many ways. The stresses (shear and
bending stress) induced on the joint may be of different nature or of the same nature. We shall
now discuss two cases of eccentric loading as follows:

Case: 1 Consider a T- joint fixed at one end and subjected to an eccentric load ‘P’ at
distance ‘e’.

Consider a T-joint fixed at one end and subjected to an eccentric load ‘P’ at a distance e as
shown in fig.

Let S= Size of weld.

l = length of weld, and

t = Throat Thickness.

The joint will be subjected to the following two types of stresses:

1. Direct shear stress due e to the shear force ‘P ’acting at the welds , and
2. Bending stress due to the bending moment (P× e).
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We know that area at the throat,

A= Throat thickness × Length of weld.

= t×l×2 = 2t × l .............................................................. (For double fillet

= 2× 0.707 s × l = 1.414 s × l .................................... ( ∴ 𝑡 = 𝑠 cos 450 = 0.707 𝑠)

∴ Shear stress in the weld (assuming uniformly distributed),

𝑃
𝑟= 𝑃 =
𝐴 1.141𝑠×𝑙

Section modulus of the weld metal through the throat,

2
Z= 𝑡×𝑙 × 2… ........................ (For both sides weld)
6

0.707𝑠×𝑙2 𝑠×𝑙2
= ×2 =
6 4.242

Bending moment, M= P×e,

𝑀 𝑃×𝑒×4.242 4.242 𝑃×𝑒
∴Bending Stress, 𝜎b = = =
Z 𝑠×𝑙2 𝑠×𝑙2

We know that the maximum normal stress,

1
𝜎t (max) = ×
𝜎 + 1 √(𝜎 )2 + 4 × 𝑟 2
2 𝑏 2 𝑏

And maximum shear stress,

1
𝑟 × √(𝜎 ) 2 + 4 × 𝑟2
𝑚𝑎𝗑= 2 𝑏

Case-2:- When a welded joint is loaded eccentrically as shown in figure, the following two types
of the stresses are induced:
1. Direct or Primary shear stress.
2. Shear stress due to turning moment.

Let P= Eccentric load,

e=Eccentricity i.e. perpendicular distance between the lines of action of load and
centre of gravity (G) of the throat section or fillets
l=Length of single
s= Size or leg of weld, and
t= Throat Thickness.
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Let two loads P1 and P2 (each equal to P) are introduced at the centre of gravity ‘G’ of the weld
system. The effect of load P1 = P is to produce direct shear stress which is assumed to be uniform
over the entire weld length. The effect of load P2 =P is to produce a turning moment of
magnitude P× e which is tends to rotate the joint about the centre of gravity ‘G’ of the weld
system. Due to turning moment, secondary shear stress is produced.

We know that the direct or primary shear stress,

𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃 𝑃
𝑟1 = = =
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎. 𝐴 2𝑡 ×𝑙

𝑃 𝑃
= =
2×0.707𝑠×𝑙 1.414𝑠×𝑙

(∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑠i𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑓i𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡 w𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑡 × 𝑙 = 0. 707𝑠 × )

Shear stress due to the turning moment i.e. secondary shear stress,
𝑇×𝑟2 𝑃×𝑒×𝑟2
𝑟2= 𝐽
= 𝐽
,

In order to find the resultant stress, the primary and secondary shear stresses are combined
vectorially.

∴Resultant shear stress at ‘A’

𝑟𝐴 = √ 2 + 2 +2 1 × 2 × cos𝜃
1 2

𝜃= Angle between 𝑟1and 𝑟2

Cos𝜃= 𝑟1
𝑟2

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

: RIVETED JOINTS:

Introduction: A rivet is a short cylindrical bar with a head integral to it. The cylindrical portion
of the rivet is called shank or body and lower portion of shank is known as tail, as shown in the
figure.

Riveting is the process of forming a riveted joint. For, this a rivet is first placed in the
hole drilled through the two parts to be joined.
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7. Efficiency of the longitudinal butt joint of boiler can be calculated by formula (9.21)
design data book S.Md. Jalaludeen. To calculate the above said factor, the pre-requisite
are 9.13, 9.14, 9.15 equations of page no 9.6 .

Design for circumferential Lap Joint:-

The following procedure is adopted for the design of circumferential lap joint for a boiler.

1. Total number of rivets for the𝐷circumferential joint,

n’ = 2× [ ] , P= Steam pressure
[]
𝑑 𝑠𝑠

𝑛'𝑝'
2. Number of rows of rivets, 𝑟𝑛 = , p’= Pitch of lap joint
𝜋(𝐷+𝑡)
t = Thickness of boiler plate.

𝑝'− 𝑑
3. Efficiency of circumferential joint, 𝑛𝑐 = .
𝑝'

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3. O DESIGN OF SHAFT, KEYS
3.1. Function of Shaft:-
Shaft is a rotating machine element which supports transmission elements (like gear, pulley,
flywheels etc) and transmits power.

3.2. Shaft material: - It should have,

(I) Strength
(ii)Machinability
(iii) Withstand heat treatment and case hardening, wear resistance, resistance to stress.

The material generally used for manufacturing of shaft is Carbon steel and of different
grade- C25, C30, C35, C40.

IMPORTANT REMARK:-
Shafts are generally design on the basis of loads acting on it. And the loads are as follows:-
1. Axial tensile force
2. Bending load and bending moment
3. Twisting force and twisting moment.
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Before entering into the design problem of shaft, whatever the formulas we are going to be used
according to the above said condition, kindly refer design Data book of S.MD. JALALUDEEN.
Page no:-4.4, 4.5

3.3. DESIGN OF SOLID AND HOLLOW SHAFTS TO TRANSMIT A

GIVEN POWER AT GIVEN RPM BASED ON:-

The shafts may be designed on the basis of

1. Strength. 2. Rigidity and Stiffness

In designing shafts on the basis of strength, the following cases may consider:
(a)Shafts subjected to twisting moment or torque only.
(b) Shafts subjected to bending moment only.
(c) Shafts subjected to combined twisting and bending moments, and
(d) Shafts subjected to axial loads in addition to combined torsional and bending loads.

(a) When Shafts are subjected to Twisting moment only:-

When the shaft is subjected to a twisting moment only, then the diameter of the shaft may be
obtained by using the torsion equation. We know that

T 𝑟 C𝜃
= =
IP 𝑅 L
T = Twisting moment acting upon the shaft.
IP =Polar moment of inertia of the shaft about the axis of rotation= 𝜋
×D4
32
𝑟= Torsional shear stress, and
r= Distance from neutral axis to the outer most fibre. ( ; where D, is the diameter of the shaft).
2
D= Outer diameter of hollow shaft
d= Inner diameter of hollow shaft
T
From torsion equation, = 𝑟
IP 𝑅

𝜋
We know that T = × τ × D3 (… ......... Solid Shaft)
16
4− d4
π
Similarly, T= τ× [ D ] ( ........... Hollow Shaft)
16 𝐷

(b) Shafts subjected to Bending moment only:-

When Shaft is subjected to a bending moment only, then the maximum stress (tensile or
compressive) is given by the bending equation. We know that

From bending equation, M = 𝜎b

I 𝑦
M= Bending Equation.
I= Moment inertia of cross sectional area of the shaft about the axis of rotation= 𝜋 ×D4
64
σb =Bending stress, and
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Y= Distance from neutral axis to the outer most fibre=𝐷.

3
2
𝜎b .𝜋 D
We know that, M = (… ............. Solid Shaft)
32

Similarly, M= 𝜋 ×𝜎 × [ D 4 − d 4 ] (.............. Hollow shaft)

32 b 𝐷

(c) Shafts subjected to combined Twisting and Bending:-

When the shaft is subjected to combined twisting moment and bending moment, then the
shaft must be designed on the basis of the two moments simultaneously. Various theories are
proposed to account the elastic failure of the materials when they are subjected to various types
of combined stresses. The following two theories are important from the subjected point of view.

1. Maximum shear stress theory or Guest’s theory. It is used or ductile materials such as mild
steel.
2. Maximum normal stress theory or Rankine’s theory. It is used for brittle materials such as
cast iron.

Let 𝑟 = Shear stress induced due to twisting moment, and

σb= Bending stress (tensile or compressive) induced due to bending moment.
K =𝑑, Ratio of inner diameter to outer diameter of the shaft
𝐷

According to maximum shear stress theory, the maximum shear stress in the shaft,
τmax = 1 √(𝜎 )2 + 4 2 ……………………………………. (1)
2 b
If we put the value of 𝑟 and σb in the above equation, then,
𝜋 D3
τmax × =√( M)2 + (T ) 2 ................................................................. (2)
16
⇒ Te = √( M)2 + (T )2 .......................................................................... (3)
Where Te is known as equivalent twisting moment.

According to maximum normal stress theory, the maximum normal stress in the shaft,
σ Max = 𝜎b + 1 √(σ )2 + 4τ2 ------------------------ (1)
b 2 2 b
3 M 2 T
σbmax × 𝜋 D =M + √( ) + ( )2 ------------------ ( 2)
32 2 2 2
M 2 T
⇒Me = M + √( ) + ( )2 --------------------------- (3)
2 2 2

M+ √𝑀2+ 𝑇 2
∴ Me = ------------------- (4)
2
Where Me is known as equivalent bending moment.

In case of a hollow shaft, the equations may be represented as,

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𝜋 D3
Te= √( M)2 + (T )2 = τ × 16
(1- k4)

M+ √𝑀2+ 𝑇 2 𝜋 D3
Me = = σb × (1-k4)
2 32

2. Shafts designed on the basis of Rigidity:-

Sometimes shafts should be designed on the basis of rigidity. We shall consider the following
case of rigidity,

(a) Torsional Rigidity:-The torsional rigidity is important in the case of camshaft of an I.C.
Engine where the timing of the valves would be affected. The permissible amount of twist should
not exceed 0.25° per meter length of such shafts. The torsional deflection may be obtained by
using the torsion equation,

T 𝐺.𝜃
=
IP 𝐿

T.L
⟹ 𝜃=
IP.G

Where, 𝜃=Torsional deflection or angle of twist in radians,

T= twisting moment or torque on the shaft,

𝐼𝑝=Polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area about the axis of rotation
4 ------------------------------
=𝜋 D (Solid shaft)
32

𝜋
=32 (D4- d4) ---------- (Hollow shaft)
G= modulus of rigidity for the shaft material, and
L= Length of the shaft.

(b) Lateral Rigidity:-

IT is important in case of Transmission shafting and shafts running at high speed, where small
lateral deflection would cause huge out-of-balance forces. The lateral rigidity is also important
for maintaining proper bearing clearances and for correct gear teeth alignment.

3.4 Standard sizes of shafts: -

Standard available sizes of shaft(in mm) are 5, 6,7,8,9,10,11,12,14,16,18,20, 22, 25, 28, 32, 36,
40, 45, 50, 56, 63, 71, 80, 90, 100,110, 125, 140, 160, 180 and 200.

Advantages of hollow shaft:-

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For same weight, more strength, more stiffness, higher natural frequency. So that moment of
inertia (I) increases.

Disadvantages:-
Taking more space and also in the same time it is expensive.

 N.B.
All the components are weak in tension. During tension of the element the elongation of the
molecular length increases which give rise the problem of yielding of the component, but in
compression molecular length reduces which gives the strength in component.

When the shaft is subjected to both twisting moment as well as bending moment the
diameter of the shaft is to be calculated by using theories of failure. i.e., maximum shear
stress theory and maximum distortion energy theory.

Power transmitted by a shaft:

Work done by the shaft per minute = Torque × angle turned in one minute
= Tmean × 2 π N N-m
Power transmitted by the shaft (P) = Work done per minute KW
60000
Tmean × 2 N
⇒P = kW
60000

3.5 State function of Keys, Types of keys and Material of keys:-

Key is defined as a machine element which used to connect the transmission, Shaft to the rotating element
like flywheel, pulley, Gear, Sprocket.

Different Types of Keys:-

(1) Sunk key:-
a. Square Key
b. Rectangular Key
In the sunk key it fits half of the thickness on to the shaft and half of the thickness to the
flywheel.

(2)Saddle Key:-
It fits the key way of the flywheel only and there is no key way on the shaft. It transmits less
power than the sunk key.
(3)Feather key:-
It is parallel key i.e.; fixed either to the shaft or to the flywheel and it permits relative axial
relative axial movement between them.
(2) Woodruff Key:-
It is a semicircular uniform thickness disc which is used on the papered shaft.
Generally the material of key is same of shaft i.e. plain carbon steel and alloy steel.
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3.7 Design analysis of a rectangular sunk key:-

The key will fail by (1) Shear, (2) Crushing.
(1) For Shear Failure:-
P= Force acting on key
P= 𝑟𝑘 × (Shear area)
= 𝑟𝑘× (b×l)
𝑟𝑘 < 𝑟𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚i𝑠𝑠i𝑏𝑙𝑒 (If not, then increase the length).
(2) For Crushing Failure:-
P= 𝜎𝑐𝑘 × (2ℎ ×l)
𝜎𝑐𝑘< 𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚i𝑠𝑠i𝑏𝑙𝑒 (If not, then increase the length).

3.8 Design rectangular sunk key by using empirical relation for given
diameter of shaft:-

Let T= torque transmitted by the shaft

F= Tangential force acting at the circumference of the shaft,
d= diameter of the shaft,
L= Length of the key,
w= Width of the key,
t= Thickness.
𝑟 And 𝑟𝑐= Shear and crushing stresses for the material of key
The key is equally
𝑑
strong in
𝑡
shearing and crushing, if
𝑑 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
L×w × 𝑟 × = L× 𝜎 × × (1)
2 𝑐 2 2
w 𝜎𝑐
= (2) or
𝑡 2𝑐

The permissible crushing stress for the usual key material is at least twice the permissible
shearing stress. Therefore from the above equation, we have w= t. In the words, a square key is
equally strong in shearing and crushing.

In order to find the length of the key to transmit full power of the shaft, the shearing strength of
the key is equal to the torsional shear strength of the shaft.
By equating shearing
𝑑
strength and torsional shear strength, we have
L×w × 𝑟 × = τ 𝜋 d3
1×
2 16
∴ L= 1.571 d ×𝑐1 -------- (taking w= d/4, and taking 𝑟 =shear stress for the shaft material)
𝑐

When the key material is same as that of the shaft, then 𝑟=𝑟1,
∴ L= 1.571 d.
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EFFECT OF KEYWAY:-

A little consideration will show that key way cut into the shaft reduces the load
carrying capacity of the shaft. This is due to the stress concentration near the corners of the key
way and reduction in the cross-sectional area of the shaft. In other way the torsional strength of
the shaft is reduced.

3.9 State specification of keys:-

 Sunk key:-
(a) Rectangular sunk key: - The usual proportions of this key are: width of key, w= d/4;
And thickness of key. t= 2w/3 = d/6, d= diameter of the shaft or diameter of the hole in
the hub.
(b) Square sunk key:- Here w=t= d/4

 Gib- head key:-

The usual proportions of the gib head key are: width, w= d/4;
And thickness at large end, t= 2w/3 = d/6

 Parallel sunk key:-

The parallel sunk keys may be of rectangular or square section uniform in width and
thickness throughout.

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4.0-: DESIGN OF BELT DRIVES AND PULLEYS:-

4.1 Types of belt drives:

1. Light drives 2. Medium drives 3. Heavy drives

Types of flat belt drives:

Generally the belt drives are known as - 1. Open belt drive

2. Crossed or twist belt drive

Types of Belts:

Generally there is different form of belts are available-1. Flat Belt

2. V-belt