INQUIRY QUESTION

How is energy produced to enable this

physical activity?
5
CHAPTER

Energy systems and

interplay of energy systems
Energy is required for all kinds of bodily processes including growth and
development, repair of body tissue, the transport of various substances
between cells and, of course, muscle contraction, which enables movement
to occur.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
İİ Fuels (both chemical and food) required for resynthesis of ATP at rest and during
physical activity, including the relative contribution of fuels at varying exercise intensities
İİ Characteristics of the three energy systems (ATP–CP, anaerobic glycolysis, aerobic
systems) for physical activity, including rate of ATP production, the yield of each energy
system, fatigue/limiting factors and recovery rates associated with active and passive
recoveries
İİ Interplay of energy systems in relation to the intensity, duration and type of activity

KEY SKILLS
İİ Participate in a variety of physical activities and describe, using appropriate
terminology, the interplay and relative contribution of the energy systems
İİ Perform, observe, analyse and report on laboratory exercises designed to explore the
relationship between the energy systems during physical activity and recovery
İİ Explain the fatiguing factors associated with the use of the three energy systems under
varying conditions
CHAPTER PREVIEW
Energy for
ATP
physical activity

Fuels Energy systems

– Proteins
– CHO
– Fats
– CP
Intensity/Duration

Anaerobic Aerobic

ATP–CP Anaerobic glycolysis Fuels

– Glycogen (CHO)
– Fats
– Proteins
Fuel — CP Fuel — glycogen

Fatigue — depletion of
glycogen stores
Fatigue — depletion Fatigue — increase
of CP stores hydrogen ions and lactate

Active recovery
Passive recovery Active recovery
5.1 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): the body’s energy currency

KEY CONCEPT Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) provides energy for

muscular contraction.

Adenosine triphosphate Adenosine triphosphate (or ATP as it is more commonly referred to) is the chemical
(ATP) is a high-energy molecule energy ‘currency’ of all body cells, including muscle cells. It powers all of the cell’s
stored in muscle cells and other metabolic activities, including in the case of muscle cells, the ability to contract. An
parts of the body. It is the energy
currency for biological work.
ATP molecule consists of adenosine and a chain of three inorganic phosphate groups
bound together by high-energy chemical bonds (see figure 5.1).
The energy that powers the mechanisms involved in muscular contraction is
obtained from the catabolism (breaking down) of ATP. However, the body stores only
a very small quantity of this ‘energy currency’ within the cells, enough to power only
1–2 seconds of maximal exercise. As most sporting activities last longer than this, the
body must replace or resynthesise ATP on an ongoing basis. Understanding how the
body does this is the key to understanding energy systems.

Adenosine P P P

FIGURE 5.1 An ATP molecule consists of adenosine and a chain of three inorganic phosphate
groups bound together by high-energy chemical bonds.

Adenosine diphosphate The phosphate ‘tail’ of ATP is the actual ‘power source’ that the cell taps into.
(ADP) is a by-product that results Available energy is contained in the bonds between the phosphates and is released
when ATP breaks down and when they are broken. Usually only the outer phosphate is removed from ATP to yield
loses one of its phosphate groups
located at the end of the molecule.
energy; when this occurs ATP is converted to adenosine diphosphate (or ADP) and
inorganic phosphate (or Pi — free phosphate molecule).
The energy released during the breakdown of ATP to ADP and Pi is used to power
cell processes such as the mechanisms involved in muscular contraction. This can be
represented by the formula ATP ↔ ADP + Pi + Energy (see figure 5.2).

eLesson Adenosine P P P
Breakdown of ATP
Searchlight ID: eles-0469

Adenosine P P Energy

Pi

FIGURE 5.2 The energy released

during the breakdown of ATP
to ADP and Pi is used to power
cell processes such as the For muscular
mechanisms involved in muscular contraction
contraction.

Replenishing ATP stores

While the breakdown of ATP is required in order to provide the energy that powers
the mechanisms involved in muscular contraction, muscular stores of ATP are very
limited. It is estimated that the total quantity of ATP in the average human body is

146  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

about 0.1 mole or approximately 50–100 grams. Yet estimates put the daily energy
requirement of an average person upwards of 100–180 moles of ATP, which is
equivalent to 50–75 kilograms of ATP (see figure 5.3).
The limited stores of ATP within the body are used up within about 1–2 seconds
of maximal intensity activity. If it were not for the fact that ATP stores are
constantly replenished during activity, muscular contraction could not continue.
Once intramuscular ATP stores begin to deplete, chemical reactions within the
muscle start to replenish ATP stores, allowing the muscles to keep working.
The replenishment of the limited stores of ATP occurs via a process known as Required ATP store (50–180 kilograms)
phosphorylation. This is a biochemical process that involves the addition of a
phosphate group to an organic compound or molecule. In this particular circumstance
it involves the addition of a phosphate group to ADP to form ATP. In other words, Actual ATP store (50 grams)
ATP is replenished or resynthesised from ADP and Pi. However, this resynthesis FIGURE 5.3 It is estimated
requires energy to connect the phosphate group back to ADP to create ATP (ADP + Pi that the total quantity of ATP
+ Energy ↔ ATP). This energy can be obtained from the breakdown of several energy in the average human body is
50–100 grams; much less than
fuels or substrates that are also present within the muscle. These fuels or substrates what is required in a 24-hour
include creatine phosphate (or phosphocreatine as it is also known), forms of period.
carbohydrate (glycogen), fats and protein. These fuels can provide the energy required
for the resynthesis of ATP during physical activity for as long as sufficient stores of the
fuels or substrates are available (see figure 5.4).
Phosphorylation is a biochemical
Breakdown via energy process that involves the
systems to provide addition of a phosphate group
Food and fuel to an organic compound or
substrates molecule. It involves the addition
of phosphate to ADP to form ATP
(ADP + Pi + Energy → ATP).

Adenosine Adenosine
+ Pi + Energy
diphosphate triphosphate

FIGURE 5.4 The resynthesis of ATP from ADP and a free phosphate molecule requires energy
available from the breakdown of energy fuels.

The energy that is required to enable ATP resynthesis to occur can be released Aerobic metabolism is when
from these energy fuels via three distinct yet closely integrated metabolic pathways ATP resynthesis occurs via
or energy systems. If ATP resynthesis occurs via energy systems or pathways that energy pathways that require
the presence of oxygen.
require the presence of oxygen, it is referred to as aerobic metabolism (or oxidative
phosphorylation). If it occurs via energy systems or pathways that do not require Anaerobic metabolism is
oxygen then it is referred to as anaerobic metabolism. when ATP resynthesis occurs
via energy pathways that do not
require the presence of oxygen.
TEST your understanding
1 Explain what is meant by ‘ATP is the energy currency of the cell’.
2 Draw a diagram to show the basic structure of ATP.
3 Explain how ATP differs from ADP.
4 Define the term phosphorylation.
5 What is the difference between anaerobic and aerobic metabolism?
eLesson
EXAM practice ATP breakdown and resynthesis
6 Outline the role of ATP in producing energy for physical activity. 2 marks Searchlight ID: eles-0454

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   147

5.2 Energy fuels: converting food to energy

KEY CONCEPT Energy fuels or substrates are used to provide the energy required
for ATP resynthesis.

Several energy fuels or substrates can be used to provide the energy required for the
resynthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi. These include creatine phosphate (a chemical
fuel) and carbohydrates, fats and protein (food fuels).

Creatine phosphate
Creatine phosphate (CP) is Creatine phosphate (CP), or phosphocreatine (PC) as it is also known, is a chemical
a chemical compound found
in muscle cells that is capable
compound that, like ATP, is stored in limited quantities within muscle cells. Also like
of storing and releasing energy ATP, creatine phosphate is a high-energy substance capable of storing and releasing
that can be used to resynthesise energy via the high-energy bond that binds the creatine and phosphate together (see
ATP from ADP and Pi. figure 5.5). When this bond is broken, energy is released that enables ATP to be
resynthesised from ADP and Pi.

Creatine P

FIGURE 5.5 The chemical compound creatine phosphate (CP) consists of creatine and
phosphate bound together by a high-energy bond.

Creatine in the diet

Creatine is an organic substance Appproximately 50 per cent of the creatine stores within our bodies are obtained
that occurs naturally in humans and through the foods we eat, while the other 50 per cent are manufactured in the kidneys
helps to supply energy to muscle.
and liver. Roughly 95 per cent of the human body’s total creatine is located in skeletal
muscle. The rest is located in the brain or heart. Approximately one-third is found
within our bodies in its free form as creatine, while the remainder is bound with
phosphate to form creatine phosphate.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are naturally Carbohydrates are found in many of the foods we eat. Traditionally, carbohydrates
occurring compounds that consist have been generally divided into two groups:
of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
1. simple carbohydrates or sugars, composed of one or two glucose molecules
(monosaccharides and disaccharides)
2. complex carbohydrates or starches, made up of many hundreds of glucose
molecules (polysaccharides).

Glycaemic index
Glycaemic index (GI) is a The glycaemic index (GI) is a ranking of carbohydrates on a scale from 0 to 100
ranking of carbohydrates on a according to the extent to which they raise blood-glucose levels after eating. Foods
scale from 0 to 100 according
with a high glycaemic index (70 and above) are those that are rapidly digested and
to the extent to which they raise
blood-glucose levels after eating. absorbed and result in a rapid increase in blood-glucose levels (see figure 5.6). Foods
that have a high glycaemic index include sugar, potatoes, watermelon, many breakfast
cereals (e.g. Corn Flakes), most white rices (e.g. jasmine) and white bread. Foods
with a low glycaemic index, by virtue of their slow digestion and absorption, produce
gradual rises in blood-glucose and insulin levels, and have proven benefits for health.
Foods that have a low glycaemic index (55 or less) include most fruits and vegetables

148  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

(except potatoes and watermelon), grainy breads, pasta, lentils, milk and yoghurt.
Use the University of Sydney
Table 5.1 is a guide to the glycaemic index of many common carbohydrate foods. GI database weblink in your
eBookPLUS to analyse the
foods you have eaten in the
last 24 hours and to develop a
meal plan for the next 24 hours
High glycaemic index using four low-GI foods.
Blood-glucose level

Low glycaemic index

FIGURE 5.6 Rate of release of

30 60 90 120 glucose for foods with a high and
Time (minutes) low glycaemic index

TABLE 5.1 Average glycaemic index of some common carbohydrate-rich foods

Glycaemic index
Food (glucose = 100)

High glycaemic index Rice crackers 87

Cornflakes 81
Porridge, instant oats 79
Potato, boiled 78
Watermelon 76
White bread 75
White rice, boiled 73

Moderate glycaemic index Popcorn 65

Sweet potato, boiled 63
Honey 61
Soft drink 59
Pineapple 59
Muesli 57
Porridge, rolled oats 55

Low glycaemic index Sweetcorn 52

Pasta, white 49
Orange 43
Chocolate 40
Milk, full fat 39 Weblink
Apple 36 University of Sydney GI database
Lentils 32

Source: Copyright ©2008 American Diabetes Association From: Diabetes Care, December 2008 31:2281–2282.
Reprinted with permission from The American Diabetes Association.

Knowledge of the glycaemic index allows athletes, coaches and sports dietitians
to determine what carbohydrate foods to eat and when to eat them. Manipulated
correctly, this can enable the athlete to optimise their carbohydrate availability and
thereby optimally enhance their performance and recovery. Put more simply, there
would appear to be times when foods with a low glycaemic index provide an
advantage, and times when foods with a high glycaemic index are better. For best
performance, athletes need to understand which foods have high and low glycaemic
index ratings and when it is best to eat them.

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   149

5.2 Energy fuels: converting food to energy

High GI foods (70 and above)

High
Rice Cornflakes Watermelon White bread

Glycaemic index foods Medium GI foods (56 to 69)

Popcorn Sweet potato Muesli Porridge

Low GI foods (55 and under)

Low

Pasta Corn Lentils Oranges

FIGURE 5.7 Examples of carbohydrate foods and their glycaemic index rankings

Carbohydrates in the body

Glucose is the simplest When carbohydrates are digested, they are broken down into glucose for transportation
form of carbohydrate and the via the circulatory system (blood) and then stored as glycogen in the muscles and
basic ingredient for anaerobic liver. Any excess carbohydrates can be stored as fat in the form of triglycerides within
and aerobic glycolysis.
adipose tissue around the body.
Glycogen is the storage form of
glucose found in the muscles and Carbohydrates as an energy source
in larger quantities in the liver.
Carbohydrates are the most versatile fuel source available to supply energy for ATP
resynthesis. Carbohydrates in the form of glycogen can provide the energy for ATP
resynthesis under both anaerobic (no oxygen required) and aerobic (oxygen required)
conditions. For example, glycogen can supply energy for ATP resynthesis during both
high-intensity, short-duration activities, such as sprinting 200 metres or repeated
work periods during a game of football (anaerobic activities), as well as being able to
provide energy during submaximal, longer-duration activities, such as a 1500-metre
swim or 5-kilometre jog (aerobic activities). At rest and during low-intensity exercise,
carbohydrates contribute approximately one-third of the body’s energy requirements,
with fats providing the other two-thirds.

Carbohydrates in the diet

Carbohydrates should make up approximately 55–65 per cent of total daily
energy intake, although athletes in heavy training and competition may require a
higher percentage intake (60–80 per cent) to ensure adequate levels in the body
each day.

150  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

Fats
Fats (or lipids) are found in many different foods and can be divided into: Fats (lipids) are an essential
1. saturated fats component of a balanced diet
and should comprise about
2. unsaturated fats.
20–25 per cent of the
Saturated fats are found in animal foods such as dairy products (e.g. milk, cheese) and daily food intake.
meat products (see figure 5.8). This type of fat contains a substance called cholesterol that
has been implicated in cardiovascular disease. When blood-cholesterol levels rise, blood
vessels may become lined with cholesterol deposits leading to cardiovascular problems.

FIGURE 5.8 Examples of foods

containing saturated fats

Unsaturated fats (see figure 5.9) come in two forms: polyunsaturated and mono-
unsaturated. Polyunsaturated fats are found in most vegetable oils (e.g. sunflower
oil) and oily fish (e.g. tuna), whereas mono-unsaturated fats are found in foods such
as olive oil, avocados and nuts. Both types of unsaturated fat help lower the total
cholesterol level and contain essential fatty acids that the body cannot produce itself.
Free fatty acids are a broken-
Fats in the body down transportable form of fats.
Fats are broken down through digestion and made available to the bloodstream as
Triglycerides are the stored
free fatty acids and glycerol. They are stored intramuscularly as triglycerides, with
form of fats found in adipose
excess amounts stored subcutaneously within adipose tissue around the body, where tissue and skeletal muscle.
they act as a substantial energy reservoir.

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   151

5.2 Energy fuels: converting food to energy

FIGURE 5.9 Examples of foods

containing unsaturated fats

Fats as an energy source

Fats are the most concentrated form of energy for ATP resynthesis. Gram for gram, fats
Fuels for provide more energy than carbohydrates, with fats providing about 9 kilocalories per
Unit 3 gram whereas carbohydrates provide about 4 kilocalories per gram. Despite this, fats are
energy
AOS 2 Summary screen primarily used during rest and low-intensity exercise. At rest, fats provide approximately
and practice two-thirds of the energy needs of the body, with carbohydrates contributing the remaining
Topic 1
questions
Concept 1
one-third. During exercise, the percentage of fats being used as an energy source decreases
as the exercise intensity increases. This is because, metabolically speaking, fats are more
difficult to break down and, therefore, their rate of energy release is too slow (considerably
slower than that from carbohydrates) during high-intensity activity where ATP resynthesis
must keep pace with the rapid rate of ATP use. However, fats as an energy source become
increasingly important when stores of carbohydrate start to deplete during endurance
exercise (usually after 90–120 minutes of continuous activity).

Fats in the diet

It is generally recommended that fats should make up about 20–25 per cent of the
average daily energy intake, although for endurance athletes in training 25–30 per cent
may be more appropriate.

Protein
Protein is an essential component Animal foods such as meat, poultry, fish, eggs and dairy products are rich in protein
of a balanced diet. Protein allows and contain all the essential amino acids. Plant foods such as cereals, grains, lentils,
for muscle growth and repair, beans and peas are also good sources of protein, although they do not contain all of
fights disease, helps chemical
the essential amino acids.
reactions and transports materials.

Amino acids are the building Protein in the body

blocks of protein. Protein is broken Protein is broken down through digestion into amino acids of which there are two
down through the process of
types:
digestion into amino acids.
1. essential amino acids — cannot be made by the body, so must be consumed as
part of the diet

152  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

2. non-essential amino acids — can be manufactured from other amino acids in the
body.
Excess protein (amino acids) is converted to fats and stored within adipose tissue.
Proteins help the formation, growth and repair of body tissue, especially muscle
tissue and cells. They also help in the production of red blood cells, hormones and
enzymes.

FIGURE 5.10 Examples of

protein-rich foods

Protein as an energy source

Under normal circumstances protein contributes only minimal energy for ATP
resynthesis (estimates put this figure at no more than 5–10 per cent). However, in
extreme circumstances (such as starvation or ultra-endurance events), when the
body has severely depleted its supplies of carbohydrate and fat, proteins can become
a viable source of energy for the replenishment of ATP. Due to complex reactions
required to break down the food fuels of fats and protein, energy is produced at a
slower rate when produced from carbohydrate.

Protein in the diet

Nutritionists recommend that proteins contribute about 15 per cent of the average
daily food intake. Athletes in training may require slightly more protein in their diet,
especially athletes involved in strength and power sports.

Protein and carbohydrates

Protein and carbohydrates make excellent partners for post-exercise nutrition. When
consumed together, they stimulate a greater release of insulin. Put more simply, the
addition of protein amplifies the insulin response and promotes glucose delivery to
depleted muscle cells.
İİ Insulin also plays a key role in the dynamics of protein synthesis.
İİ Insulin stimulates protein synthesis and helps to reduce protein breakdown.
The consumption of protein is therefore essential on two fronts:
İİ to help boost insulin release
İİ to provide the basic building blocks for muscle repair.
Examples of healthy snacks that include both protein and carbohydrates:
İİ yoghurt
İİ milk drinks
İİ fruit smoothies
İİ lean meat or cheese sandwiches.

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   153

5.2 Energy fuels: converting food to energy

Summary of food fuels

The elite athlete will adjust percentage food fuel intake in consultation with a coach/
dietician to ensure their needs are met. For example, the elite athlete may require a
greater level of protein intake if building and repairing muscle is needed. Most elite
Interactivity athletes will have a greater intake of fuel than will the general population, due to their
Summary of food fuels excessive energy requirements.
Searchlight ID: int-6790 Table 5.2 provides a summary of the food fuels that are used to provide energy for
ATP resynthesis.
TABLE 5.2 Summary of food fuels

Storage form
Food sources Transport form in muscle Excess

Carbohydrates Low glycaemic index: Glucose Glycogen İİ Liver —

most fruits and vegetables (except potatoes glycogen
and watermelon), grainy breads, pasta, İİ Converted into
peas, lentils, milk and yoghurt fats — adipose
High glycaemic index: tissue
sugar, honey, potatoes, watermelon, many
breakfast cereals, most white rices and
white bread

Fats (lipids) Saturated fats: Free fatty acids Triglycerides Adipose tissue
meat products and dairy products and glycerol
Unsaturated fats:
vegetable oils, oily fish (e.g. tuna), olive oil,
nuts and avocado

Protein Animal foods: Amino acids Amino acids Adipose tissue

meat, poultry, fish, eggs and dairy products
Plant foods:
cereals, grains, lentils, beans and peas

TEST your understanding conditions would proteins be used to supply energy

  1 Explain the role of glycogen in providing energy for physical activity?
for physical activity.   6 How would knowledge of the glycaemic index of foods
  2 What percentages of carbohydrate, fat and protein are assist an athlete in terms of athletic performance?
recommended as part of the daily dietary intake?   7 Explain why, physiologically, it is inadvisable to
  3 How would the dietary intake of food fuels differ for a consume a sugary food (with a high glycaemic index)
weight-lifter compared with a long-distance runner? just prior to beginning exercise.
  4 Complete the following table to show the relationship
APPLY your understanding
between food fuels, the breakdown of these food fuels
and the energy system or systems that use each food   8 Practical activity: individual diet and energy
fuel. Record your total dietary intake for a continuous
3-day period. Record this intake in an appropriate
Broken-down Associated energy table form. Assess the percentages of carbohydrate,
Food fuel form system or systems fat and protein in your diet each day and for the
3-day period overall. Using your own dietary
Carbohydrates İİ İİ knowledge as a guide, how could you improve
İİ your diet to meet your energy needs? Write a
brief report on your findings.
Fats İİ İİ
İİ EXAM practice
Protein İİ İİ
  9 Explain the role of creatine phosphate. 2 marks
10 What is the most concentrated form of energy for ATP
resynthesis? 1 mark
5 Carbohydrates and fats are the main food fuels used to
supply energy for ATP resynthesis. Under what

154  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

5.3 Energy systems and pathways

KEY CONCEPT The energy required for ATP resynthesis is obtained via three
energy systems or pathways.

The energy that is required to enable ATP resynthesis to occur can be obtained via
three distinct yet closely integrated metabolic pathways or energy systems that operate
together to satisfy the energy requirements of the muscle. Two of these energy systems
are anaerobic pathways and the third is an aerobic pathway, as shown in figure 5.11.

Energy systems

Anaerobic Aerobic

ATP–CP Anaerobic Aerobic or

system glycolysis system oxidative system

FIGURE 5.11 The body relies on three energy systems — two anaerobic systems and one
aerobic system.

The ATP–CP system refers to the processes involved in the breakdown of stored
phosphagens — ATP and creatine phosphate — without oxygen being involved. This
system is also commonly referred to as the ATP–PC system, the phosphate energy
system, the phosphocreatine (PC) system or the phosphagen system.
The anaerobic glycolysis system involves the metabolism of carbohydrates
(glycogen) to lactic acid through a series of chemical steps that do not require oxygen,
whereas the aerobic system (or oxidative system) refers to the complete metabolism
of primarily carbohydrates (glycogen) and/or fats (triglycerides) in the presence of
oxygen.

ATP resynthesis: demand, rate and yield

All three energy systems contribute to the resynthesis of ATP during physical activity.
How each system works alongside the other energy systems is referred to as the
interplay of energy systems. To determine which of the three energy systems is the
predominant supplier of energy for ATP resynthesis at any point in time during an ATP demand refers to how
activity, and which energy system contributes energy predominantly over the duration much ATP is required during an
of a total activity or event, we need to understand the concept of ATP demand. activity and the rate at which
it is expended and, therefore,
During any activity, ATP resynthesis (supply) must be able to meet the ATP demand needs to be resynthesised.
of the activity. Two factors determine the ATP demand of an activity:
1. exercise duration — how long the activity lasts for Rate refers to how quickly
2. exercise intensity — how hard the exercise is performed. ATP is resynthesised.
Exercise intensity determines the rate of ATP use and, consequently, resynthesis Yield refers to the total amount
during the activity. Exercise duration determines the total amount or yield of ATP of ATP that is resynthesised
expended that is required to be resynthesised over the course of the activity. Generally during an exercise bout.

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   155

5.3 Energy systems and pathways

speaking, as exercise duration increases, the intensity at which it can be performed

decreases.
To help illustrate the concept of ATP demand, rate and yield, let us consider two
different activities.
100-metre sprint
İİ Completed in around 10 seconds, the 100-metre sprint is a high-intensity activity,
during which the rate of ATP expenditure is very rapid as the leg muscles are
required to contract powerfully and very quickly. Consequently, the rate of ATP
resynthesis must also be very rapid in order to keep pace with the demand.
However, because of this event’s short duration (less than 10 seconds), the yield
(total amount) of ATP required is low.
Marathon
İİ Takes around two hours and 15 minutes to complete. Is undertaken at
submaximal intensity and the rate at which ATP is required is much lower since
the muscles are not required to contract as forcefully or as quickly as in the
100-metre sprint. Due to the marathon’s much longer duration, though, the yield
(total amount) of ATP required is much, much greater (see figure 5.12).

4
Whole-body ATP turnover

3
(mol/kg)

0
Rest 100-metre sprint Marathon
Event
FIGURE 5.12 The 100-metre sprint and the marathon place different ATP demands on the
athlete. Note that ATP turnover during a 100-metre sprint is estimated to be almost three times
greater than during a marathon.
Source: Adapted from Poortmans JR 2004, Principles of exercise biochemistry, 3rd edn rev., Karger Publishing.

Meeting ATP demands

The two anaerobic energy systems (ATP– CP and anaerobic glycolysis) can supply
Unit 3 Energy systems energy for ATP resynthesis at a rapid rate. However, they can do this for only a
and pathways
AOS 2
Summary screen
short period of time, due to the much smaller yield of energy for ATP resynthesis.
Topic 1 and practice Therefore, the anaerobic pathways are the major energy systems used during high-
Concept 2
questions intensity, short-duration exercise, since muscles need a rapid supply of ATP during
such activities. The aerobic system, on the other hand, supplies energy for ATP
resynthesis at a much slower rate than the anaerobic pathways, but is capable of
supplying a much greater yield of energy for ATP resynthesis than the anaerobic
pathways. Therefore, the aerobic system is the predominant supplier of energy for
ATP resynthesis when we are at rest, and also during longer-duration exercise that is
performed at submaximal intensity.

156  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

 While the rate of energy production via the aerobic system is much slower than
that of the two anaerobic systems, it produces far more energy for ATP resynthesis
than either of these anaerobic systems for a given amount of ‘fuel’.

Yield of ATP
In terms of ATP yield:
İİ the ATP–CP system can produce only 0.7 moles of ATP from 1 mole of CP
İİ the anaerobic glycolysis system can produce only 2 moles of ATP from 1 mole of
glucose
İİ the aerobic system can produce 38 moles of ATP from 1 mole of glucose
İİ the aerobic metabolism of fats produces by far the most ATP from a given amount
of ‘fuel’. One mole of fat can produce in excess of 100 moles of ATP.

Rate of ATP
When we consider rate of ATP supply, the reverse applies.
İİ The ATP–CP system can supply ATP at maximal intensity rate of 3.6 moles per
Interactivity
minute.
Capacities of the three energy
İİ The anaerobic glycolysis system can supply ATP at a high intensity rate of systems
1.6 moles per minute. Searchlight ID: int-6791
İİ The aerobic system can supply ATP at a slow rate of around 1 mole per minute.
These differences in the capacity of the three energy systems are summarised in
table 5.3.

TABLE 5.3 Capacities of the three energy systems

Aerobic system
Anaerobic
ATP–CP system glycolysis system Carbohydrate (glycolysis) Fats (lipolysis)

Fuel source Creatine phosphate Glucose Glucose FFA

Glycogen Glycogen Triglycerides

Rate Most rapid Rapid Slow Slowest

3.6 moles/min 1.6 moles/min 1.0 mole/min < 1.0 mole/min

Yield (moles of ATP per Very small Small 38 (glucose) 129 (FFA)
mole of fuel source) <1 2 39 (glycogen) 387 (triglycerides)

Dominant time period 0–10 seconds 10–75/90 seconds 75/90 seconds–90 minutes 4+ hours

Event Power Speed Endurance Ultra-endurance

Notes about table 5.3:

İİ There is a trade-off between rate and yield for each of the energy systems.
İİ As the rate of ATP resynthesis increases, the yield decreases.
İİ The values shown in the table are general values and can vary from individual to
individual.
İİ The capacity to produce energy via each of the three energy systems can vary with
training.
İİ There is a transition period where one energy system is increasing its relative
contribution while another is decreasing its relative contribution (interplay of
energy systems).
İİ Fatigue-limiting factors will determine the transition from one energy system to
another.

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   157

5.3 Energy systems and pathways

As you move down the pyramid: As you move up the pyramid:

Increase need for oxygen Decrease need for oxygen

CHO

Increase yield of ATP Fat Decrease yield of ATP

Decrease rate of ATP synthesis Protein Increase rate of ATP synthesis

FIGURE 5.13 The characteristics of the food fuels

Yield of ATP is the amount of ADP that can be resynthesised to ATP. A higher
amount of ATP available means more ATP can be broken down, providing larger
amounts of energy for muscle contraction. For example, fats provide a large yield of
ATP (100) compared to CHO (38 ATP).
Rate of ATP is the speed at which ADP can be resynthesised to ATP. The quicker
that ADP can be resynthesised, the quicker it can be broken down again to provide
energy for muscle contraction. For example, the rate of ATP using CHO is 1 mole/min
compare with fats (< 1 mole/min).

TEST your understanding recovery in between each activity. Have a partner time
1 List the three energy systems that are responsible for how long it takes you to complete each activity and
the production of energy for ATP resynthesis. then swap and do the same for them.
2 For each energy system, indicate the chemical and/or İİ A basketball lay-up
food fuels that can be used by that energy system. İİ A 200-metre sprint
3 What two factors determine the ATP demand of an İİ An agility circuit around the gymnasium
exercise bout or activity? İİ 20 situps
4 Explain the difference between rate and yield in terms of İİ A 1-kilometre jog around the oval
ATP demand. Record how you felt during and immediately after
5 Rank the three energy systems in order from fastest (1) each activity. What energy system was predominant
to slowest (3) in terms of the rate at which they are during your performance of each activity? Why was it
capable of providing energy for ATP resynthesis. important to record the time taken to complete each
6 Rank the three energy systems in order from lowest (1) activity? Why was it important to allow for adequate
to highest (3) in terms of the yield of ATP they are recovery time (rest) between each activity? Present
capable of producing from an equivalent amount of your findings and answers to these questions as a
their fuel source. written report.

APPLY your understanding EXAM practice

7 Practical activity: energy systems used in physical 8 State the rate and yield of ATP for anaerobic glycolysis.
activities  2 marks
As a class, perform the following series of physical
activities and/or events, allowing adequate time for

158  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

5.4 The ATP–CP system

KEY CONCEPT The characteristics of the ATP–CP system for physical activity,
including rate and yield of ATP, fatigue factors and recovery rates

The ATP–CP (or ATP–PC) system is the least complicated of the three energy systems,
and it produces energy for ATP resynthesis most rapidly. The ATP–CP system relies
on the muscular stores of ATP and creatine phosphate. When creatine phosphate is
eLesson
broken down, the energy and phosphate group released is then used to resynthesise ATP–CP
ATP. Therefore, as rapidly as ATP is broken down for muscular contraction, it is Searchlight ID: eles-0787
continually resynthesised from ADP and Pi by the energy released by the breakdown
of creatine phosphate. However, creatine phosphate stores within the muscle are
also limited and they deplete rapidly, particularly during high-intensity activity. This The ATP–CP system provides
process is shown in figure 5.14. energy for the resynthesis of
ATP through the breakdown
of creatine phosphate without
oxygen being involved.
Creatine ATP
phosphate

Energy Energy

Creatine
ADP + Pi

For muscular
contraction

FIGURE 5.14 The release of energy via the ATP–CP system for ATP resynthesis is quick
and efficient, but short-lived.

When undertaking maximal-intensity exercise, ATP stores in the muscle will last for
approximately 1–2 seconds. Thereafter, the resynthesis of ATP from the breakdown
of creatine phosphate will continue until such time that creatine phosphate stores
become depleted. On average, this occurs after approximately 6–8 seconds of high-
intensity exercise. Combined, the ATP–CP system can therefore sustain all-out
(maximal) exercise for approximately 8–10 seconds. If the activity is to continue
beyond this immediate period, the body must rely predominantly on another energy
system to provide energy for ATP resynthesis.
In conclusion, the ATP–CP system can provide only a very limited amount (yield)
of energy for ATP resynthesis, although it is able to supply this energy at a very rapid
rate. As a consequence, this system is the predominant energy system used during
high-intensity activities such as sprints, throws and jumps that take approximately
0–10 seconds to perform.

The ATP–CP system and exercise

To further illustrate how the ATP–CP system functions, let us consider two activities in
sport: one that takes just a few seconds to perform — a drive off the tee in golf — and
another that takes about 10 seconds to perform — the 100-metre sprint in athletics.

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   159

5.4 The ATP–CP system

The golf drive

The drive off the tee in golf takes only a second or so to execute. The energy required
to perform this movement is derived almost exclusively from the breakdown of the
muscular stores of ATP, which on average will last for 2–3 seconds of all-out effort (see
figure 5.15). Fatigue limiting factor is reduced levels of ATP, and a passive recovery
will replenish ATP stores at the fastest rate.

FIGURE 5.15 The drive off the tee in golf is an example of a powerful movement that relies
heavily on the ATP–CP system.

The 100-metre sprint

İİ At the beginning of a 100-metre sprint (see figure 5.16), all three energy systems
are activated.
İİ From the explosive push-off from the starting blocks until a few seconds into
the sprint, the muscles’ ATP stores provide the energy for the repeated muscular
contractions.
İİ During these few seconds, ATP stores in the muscles diminish, and the amount of
ADP produced from the spent ATP increases.
İİ From this point in the event, the muscular stores of creatine phosphate now
provide the energy and free phosphate for the resynthesis of new ATP from ADP,
allowing the athlete to continue the sprint at maximal intensity.
İİ Rate of ATP is 3.6 moles/min
İİ Yield is <1 mole of ATP
İİ Towards the end of the race (from about 6 to 10 seconds onwards), the muscles’
stores of creatine phosphate are greatly depleted. The percentage energy
Unit 3 ATP–CP system contribution from the anaerobic glycolysis system during the final few seconds of
AOS 2
rate and yield the race becomes much more significant.
Summary screen İİ Fatigue limiting factor is depletion of creatine phosphate.
Topic 1 and practice
İİ Passive recovery through rest or low intensity cool-down will replenish ATP
questions
Concept 3 and CP stores at the fastest rate, with 87% of the ATP and CP restored within
60 seconds.

160  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

 Adenosine

P P

×
Adenosine

C P

P
6 C — P 1 P P P

The ATP–CP (phosphate) system

1 The power athlete at the start of
the event, muscles primed and full of
ATP and CP stores.
2 At the beginning of a 100-metre sprint,
all three energy systems are activated. The
maximal explosive effort to leave the starting
blocks immediately uses up some of the
Adenosine stored ATP in the muscles, resulting in ADP. Adenosine
3 The muscle stores of CP split, releasing Energy
energy. Rate of ATP is 3.6 moles/min
P
P P and yield of is <1 mole of ATP.
P P
4 This energy allows the single phosphate
P molecules left from the spent ATP to be
5 reattached to the ADP creating more ATP 2 C
— P

×
Energy that allows the maximal effort to continue.
5 This replenishing process continues while the
C P athlete completes the race at maximal effort.
6 The athlete crosses the finish line with muscle
stores of ATP and CP depleted. Fatigue limiting
Adenosine factors are reducing levels of ATP and
depletion of CP stores.
7 CP stores are quickly replenished with
P a passive recovery with 87% of ATP
P P
C — P
and CP restored within 60 seconds.

×
Adenosine
Adenosine

×
C P
C P
P P P
P P
4 Energy 3

FIGURE 5.16 The cycle of

ATP being broken down and
resynthesised for powerful muscle
movement centres around energy
being released via the breakdown
of creatine phosphate.

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   161

 5.4 The ATP–CP system

Fatigue
Fatigue can be defined as The causal mechanisms of fatigue
physical and/or mental lethargy depend on the type, duration and intensity
or exhaustion triggered by of the exercise being performed, as well
stress, exercise, overwork,
as other considerations such as the fibre-
illness or disease.
type composition of the involved muscle
or muscles, and the fitness and training
status, nutritional state and mental state
of the athlete. The fatigue experienced
in these predominantly anaerobic events
is very different from that experienced
during and after a prolonged aerobic
event, such as a marathon that takes over
two hours to complete.

Fuel depletion
When we refer to fuel depletion as a
fatigue-causing mechanism, we are in
fact referring to the depletion of energy
fuels or substrates that serve to power
muscular contractions. They include
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and FIGURE 5.17 The fatigue experienced at the
creatine phosphate (CP). completion of a marathon is different from the
fatigue felt after completing an event like the
400-metre run.
Creatine phosphate
depletion
During maximal intensity, short-duration, anaerobic-type activities, muscular stores
of ATP are used within the first few seconds of activity. Once these stores have been
depleted, the muscles then use their creatine phosphate stores as fuel to provide
energy to replenish ATP from ADP and Pi.
İİ Creatine phosphate stores also deplete rapidly, and after about 10 seconds of
all-out effort, the muscles’ stores of creatine phosphate are almost fully depleted.
İİ As creatine phosphate stores deplete, the ability to rapidly replenish ATP is
considerably reduced.
İİ The consequence of this reduction in the rate of
ATP resynthesis is that activity cannot be sustained
at the same intensity.
100 İİ The failure of the metabolic processes to

ATP
resynthesise ATP at the required rate results in
energy deficiency or muscular fatigue. It is never
CP
Percentage of resting value

80 more obvious than towards the end of a burst of

sprinting that fatigue is not only loss of the force
60 that muscles can produce but also impairment of
their shortening speed.
İİ Creatine phosphate stores play a role in fatigue
40 during single and repeated sprints but also may
play a role in long duration exercise with bouts of
Exhaustion short duration, maximal intensity work.
20

FIGURE 5.18 ATP and CP levels during maximal sprint exercise

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Source: Reprinted with permission from J.H. Wilmore, D.L. Costill, and W.L.
Kenney, 2008, Physiology of sport and exercise, 4th ed. (Champaign, IL:
Time (seconds) Human Kinetics), page 52.

162  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

Recovery
Post-exercise recovery aims to overcome the effects of fatigue and restore the body Recovery is the overcoming or
to its pre-exercise condition. Adequate and effective recovery is essential to provide reversal of the fatigue experienced
the body with the opportunity to replenish, repair and rebuild itself in readiness for as the result of participation in
a training session or some form
the next training session or exercise bout. Without sufficient recovery, subsequent of exercise bout, where body
performances will be compromised. systems repair damaged tissue
and replenish energy stores.
Passive recovery
After an athlete has completed maximal intensity and short duration activities, the ATP
and the creatine phosphate stores must be rebuilt within the muscle if the ATP–CP
system is to be utilised as a fuel source for the next activity.
İİ At the end of the activity, breathing rate is above normal and during this passive
recovery time of resting or low-intensity activity, ATP and CP within the muscle
are being rebuilt during the time of excess post-oxygen consumption (EPOC).
İİ The extra oxygen is used to restore ATP and some of the restored ATP is broken
down. The energy from this is used to combine creatine and phosphate back into
CP stores within the muscle.
İİ During passive recovery:
ATP–CP
– 50% of the ATP and CP is restored within 20 seconds Unit 3
fatigue and
– 70% of the ATP and CP is restored within 30 seconds AOS 2 recovery
– 75% of the ATP and CP is restored within 40 seconds Topic 1 Summary screen
– 87% of the ATP and CP is restored within 60 seconds and practice
Concept 4 questions
– most of the ATP and CP intramuscular stores are replenished within
approximately 3 minutes.

TEST your understanding (c) Research a range of other laboratory and/or field
1 Describe the intensity and duration of a sporting activity tests that can be used to provide an indication of
where the ATP–CP system is the predominant energy the capacity of the ATP–CP system. Explain how
system. performance in each of these tests relates to the
2 Outline the advantages and disadvantages associated capacity of this system.
with the ATP–CP system.
3 Which fitness components would be most closely EXAM practice
associated with the ATP–CP system? Explain the 5 The world record time for the 100-metre sprint is
reasoning for your responses. 9.58 seconds.
(a) State the energy system. 1 mark
APPLY your understanding (b) Justify your response to part (a). 2 marks
4 Practical activity: phosphate recovery test
As part of a class activity, undertake the phosphate
recovery test. Refer to the Phosphate recovery
document in your eBookPLUS for details of how to Digital document
perform this test. Phosphate recovery
(a) Use your understanding of energy systems to explain the Searchlight ID: doc-1115
interplay of the three energy systems that would occur
during the performance of the phosphate recovery test.
(b) Use your understanding of energy systems to explain
why, during the phosphate recovery test, each
participant’s performance tends to decline over the
course of the repetitions performed.

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   163

5.5 The anaerobic glycolysis system

KEY CONCEPT The characteristics of the anaerobic glycolysis system for physical
activity, including rate and yield of ATP, fatigue factors and recovery rates

In the anaerobic glycolysis system, muscular stores of glycogen are converted into
glucose and then, with the aid of enzymes, this glucose is broken down into a substance
Pyruvic acid, also referred to called pyruvic acid (or pyruvate). If oxygen is not available in sufficient quantities at
as pyruvate, is an intermediate this stage in the metabolic pathway then pyruvic acid is further converted to lactic acid.
product in the metabolism of During this series of reactions, energy is released, which is used to resynthesise ATP from
carbohydrates, formed by the
anaerobic metabolism of glucose.
ADP and Pi. The lactic acid that is produced dissociates into lactate and hydrogen ions
(H+) within the muscle. The process of anaerobic glycolysis is shown in figure 5.19.

Glycogen

eLesson
Anaerobic glycolysis
Searchlight ID: eles-0788
2–3 ATP
Glucose

Energy Energy

Pyruvic acid
ADP + Pi

Insufficient
FIGURE 5.19 The process of For muscular
oxygen
anaerobic glycolysis is more contraction
complex than that involved in the
ATP–CP system, with many more Lactic acid Lactate + Hydrogen ions
chemical steps involved.

The anaerobic glycolysis system and exercise

The anaerobic glycolysis The anaerobic glycolysis system is also activated at the onset of exercise and operates
system provides energy for the as the predominant supplier of energy for ATP resynthesis in the period from around
resynthesis of ATP through the 10 seconds of maximal effort (the time period when the ATP–CP system is no longer
breakdown of glycogen through
a series of chemical steps
able to provide energy due to the depletion of CP stores) to around 60 seconds of
that do not require oxygen. high-intensity effort. However, the aerobic energy system could become the predominant
supplier of ATP as early as 30 seconds. The anaerobic glycolysis system may also
become the predominant energy supplier during repeated short, high-intensity efforts
(such as repeated sprint efforts), where the recovery period between efforts is too short
to allow full replenishment of creatine phosphate stores. Furthermore, when a performer
has gone beyond their maximum oxygen uptake level during an exercise bout, the
anaerobic glycolysis system increases its contribution to meet the demands of the task.
At this intensity, the aerobic system is unable to produce ATP at a fast enough rate to
fully meet the body’s demands for the time until the performer is forced to either stop
due to exhaustion or decrease the exercise intensity due to fatigue.
The 400-metre athletic event
Weblink To further illustrate how this system functions, let us consider the 400-metre running
Cathy Freeman event in athletics. The men’s world record for the 400 metres is currently held by
Wayde van Niekerk of South Africa who set a time of 43.03 seconds in 2016, while
the record for the women’s 400 metres is currently 47.60 seconds set by Marita Koch
of Germany in 1985. Cathy Freeman famously won the gold medal in the 400 metres
at the 2000 Sydney Olympics in a time of 49.11 seconds (see figure 5.20).

164  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

 How Freeman won gold 2 THE BACK STRAIGHT Jamaica’s Lorraine Graham
clocks 12.14 sec for the first
100 m, stealing a metre from
3 200 m MARK Merry turns on the after Freeman (12.30 sec) and
burners with a Britain’s Katharine Merry
Ogunkoya
backstraight 100 m split (12.32 sec). Freeman
Seyerling
of 11.48 sec. Graham establishes her free-wheeling
(11.56 sec) in lane 4 Freeman rhythm.
attacks Ana Guevara in Guevara
lane 5, stealing 2 m. Graham
Freeman stays relaxed Merry
with a slowish 11.78 sec Fraser
second 100 m. Kotlyarova

1 AT THE START Freeman reacts

fourth to the gun,
but she accelerates
4 100 m TO GO powerfully through
the first 60 m while
staying relaxed.

Merry
START

Graham 5 FINISH
Merry
Fraser Powering off the bend into
Freeman the home-straight, Freeman
Graham
Kotlyarova takes the lead with 50 m to
go. She splits a phenomenal
Graham (12.30 sec) 12.97 sec for the final
and Merry (12.28 sec) maintain their Guevara 100 m. Graham
attack and lead at 300 m. Freeman (13.58 sec) and
Seyerling Freeman
flows into the turn and makes the Merry (13.64)
decisive move midway into the third cannot resist
100 m which she splits in 12.06 sec. Freeman’s finish.
Ogunkoya

4 Donna Fraser (GBR) 49.79

400 m G S B
5 Ana Guevara (MEX) 49.96

final 6 Heide Seyerling (RSA) 50.05

placings Cathy Freeman

(AUS) 49.11
Lorraine Graham
(JAM) 49.58
Katharine Merry
(GBR) 49.72
7 Falilat Ogunkoya (NGR)
8 Olga Kotlyarova (RUS)
50.12
51.04

FIGURE 5.20 How Cathy Freeman

İİ During the 400-metre athletic event, the production of ATP relies on all three won gold
energy systems but predominantly on anaerobic glycolysis (see figure 5.21).
İİ When the athlete pushes off the starting blocks, the ATP–CP energy system allows
for an explosive start to the race.
İİ However, after about 6–10 seconds, the ATP–CP system quickly loses its primary
role in the production of energy for ATP resynthesis as CP stores are rapidly depleted.
İİ For intensity to be maintained, anaerobic glycolysis assumes predominance
throughout the middle to later stages of the race. During this time period
(10 to 45+ seconds) glycogen stores within the muscle are used predominantly
anaerobically in order to provide the energy needed to replenish ATP, thereby
allowing the muscles to continue propelling the athlete around the track.
İİ The aerobic system also plays a significant role in providing energy for ATP
resynthesis during the final phase of the event (the final 100 metres or so). Recent
studies indicate that in a 400-metre event taking approximately 45 seconds to
complete, the aerobic contribution to ATP resynthesis during the event could be
as high as 40 per cent, with the other 60 per cent derived from the two anaerobic
systems.

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   165

5.5 The anaerobic glycolysis system

LA
6

ADP + glycogen
O2
ATP 1

The anaerobic glycolysis system

1 On blocks at start of 400 m race.
2 At the beginning of the 400-metre
sprint, all three energy systems ADP + CP
are activated. At 60–100 metre point, ATP
ATP–CP system is less dominant
due to CP being depleted.
As intensity is high, anaerobic
glycolysis now becomes the
dominant ATP supplier. Adenosine
3 End of back straight at 200 m mark.

×
Anaerobic glycolysis predominant.
4 Entering home straight, about 100 m P P
5 2
from home. Increasing reliance on C P
LA
aerobic system.
5 Metabolic fatigue (increased H+ ions)
does not prevent finishing the race,
but does cause a slowing down
ADP + glycogen
during the last 80 m of the race.
No O2
ATP 6 End of 400 m race. ADP + glycogen
No O2
ATP

LA LA

4 ADP + glycogen
3
No O2
ATP

FIGURE 5.21 The 400-metre

event provides a good example
of an activity that relies heavily on
the anaerobic glycolysis system.

166  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

A final word about anaerobic glycolysis
The contribution of the anaerobic glycolysis system to the supply of energy for ATP Anaerobic
resynthesis increases rapidly after the initial 5–15 seconds of maximal-intensity Unit 3
system rate
exercise. This coincides with a drop in maximal power output as the immediately AOS 2 and yield
available phosphogens, ATP and creatine phosphate, deplete after approximately Topic 1 Summary screen
6–10 seconds. For approximately between 10 and 30 seconds of sustained maximal and practice
Concept 5 questions
intensity activity, the majority of energy comes from anaerobic glycolysis. After
approximately 45 seconds of sustained maximal activity there is a second decline in
power output as activity beyond this point corresponds with a growing reliance on
the aerobic energy system.

Fatigue
Accumulation of metabolic by-products
Metabolic by-products or metabolites are substances produced as a result of chemical A metabolic by-product or
reactions within the body associated with the production of energy for ATP resynthesis. metabolite is a substance
They are the ‘leftovers’, and include lactic acid (lactate and hydrogen ions), as well as produced as a result of chemical
reactions within the body
inorganic phosphate (Pi) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). associated with the production
of energy for ATP resynthesis.
Lactic acid
Lactic acid accumulates in the muscles only after relatively short duration, high-
intensity exercise.
Potential causes of lactic acid induced fatigue include:
İİ impaired isometric muscle contraction force
İİ impaired isometric muscle velocity force
İİ inhibition of glycolysis due to a decrease in intramuscular pH.
The lactic acid levels of endurance athletes, such as marathon runners and
triathletes, at the completion of their events are not much higher than resting levels,
despite their obvious fatigue.

Hydrogen ions (H+)

Research indicates that the accumulation of hydrogen ions in the muscle cells
(stemming from their dissociation from the lactic acid as a result of anaerobic glycolysis
during high-intensity activity) results in an increase in the acidity within the muscle
(otherwise known as muscle acidosis). This increased acidity results in a decrease in Muscle acidosis is a condition
the muscle pH from the normal value of around 7.1 at rest to 6.4 at exhaustion, a in which the pH of the muscle
value that appears to be incompatible with normal muscle cell function. Changes in decreases as a result of the
accumulation of metabolic
pH of this magnitude adversely affect energy production and muscle contraction, by-products such as hydrogen
resulting in muscular fatigue. ions within the muscle cells.
A reduction in intracellular pH to less than 6.9 has been shown to inhibit the rate of
glycolysis and ATP production by inhibiting the action of essential glycolytic enzymes, pH is a measure of the acidity or
particularly phosphofructokinase or PFK. Furthermore, hydrogen ion accumulation alkalinity of a solution, numerically
equal to 7 for neutral solutions,
has been shown to disrupt the muscle contractile process through interference with increasing with increasing
the role that calcium (Ca2+) plays in the mechanisms involved with the coupling of alkalinity and decreasing
the actin–myosin cross bridges. with increasing acidity.
It is worth knowing that if the intramuscular pH level was to fall too low (e.g. down
to a pH of 5.6), the muscle cells would effectively be killed. Fortunately, the body
contains buffers, such as bicarbonate, which function to minimise the disrupting
influence of the accumulating hydrogen ions. Because of this buffering capacity,
the hydrogen ion concentration is kept lower than it otherwise would be, limiting the
decline in pH to 6.6–6.4 at exhaustion. Lactate also plays a key role in reducing the
accumulation of hydrogen ions and minimising the decrease in muscle pH and is an
important source of fuel for skeletal muscles and the brain.

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   167

5.5 The anaerobic glycolysis system

Inorganic phosphate (Pi)

One of the consequences of rapid creatine phosphate hydrolysis during high intensity
exercise is the accumulation of inorganic phosphate (Pi), which has also been shown
to inhibit muscle contraction. You will recall that when ATP is used to provide the
energy for muscular contraction, it breaks down to ADP + Pi + energy. At the same
time, creatine phosphate breaks down to creatine + Pi + energy. These processes
result in an increase in Pi within the muscle. The exact mechanisms by which
the rising levels of Pi contribute to muscular fatigue are still not fully known, but
it would appear that it too (like increasing hydrogen ions) may have something to
do with interference with the role of calcium (Ca2+) in the contractile process and/or
interference with the cross bridge coupling cycle.

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

Some research also points to rising levels of ADP that accompany high-intensity
exercise as a possible mechanism of fatigue during such activities, although its exact
role is still not well understood. However, it appears that rising levels of ADP interfere
with muscle excitation–contraction coupling in a complex way, but predominantly
through interference with the role that calcium (Ca2+) plays in the contractile process.

Recovery
Active recovery
Active recovery is low-intensity Research has shown that an active recovery is an efficient first step in enabling
(60–70% MHR) activity completed the body to recover from exercise, particularly exercise lasting for more than a few
at the end of an exercise bout seconds. After an athlete has completed a strenuous high-intensity anaerobic exercise
that allows the body to recover
bout at intensity close to or at maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max.), the fastest
by maintaining an elevated
blood flow to the muscles and lactate/hydrogen ions clearance is achieved by active recovery at exercise intensity
preventing venous pooling, lower than the individual’s lactate inflection point. Rather than sitting or lying down
gradually returning the body to as soon as exercise is completed, the athlete should undertake light activity at a low
its resting physiological state. intensity for a period of 5–10 minutes. The active recovery can also take the form of
light, aerobically based cross-training activities performed after the exercise session.
The active recovery is used to:
İİ reduce heart rate to resting levels
İİ replenish oxygen levels in the blood, body fluids and myoglobin
İİ increase blood flow to the working muscles
İİ remove higher lactate concentration levels
İİ accelerate oxidation as this boosts the clearance rate of lactate
eLesson
İİ resynthesise high-energy phosphates
Active recovery
Searchlight ID: eles-2754 İİ support the small energy cost to maintain elevated circulation and ventilation
İİ remove metabolites after exercise.
If previous exercise was strenuous, where lactate and body temperature have
increased considerably, EPOC recovery would be slow (slow component). EPOC
recovery may take several hours, depending on intensity and duration, before
returning to pre-exercise oxygen consumption levels.
These activities should be different from those normally performed in the exercise
bout. An example would be undertaking light pool work after a game of football.
Venous pooling is an
Studies have shown that active recovery can help to prevent venous pooling of blood
accumulation of blood in
the veins in inactive muscles after strenuous activity. Venous pooling occurs as the active muscles are no longer
following activity. acting as pumps to propel the blood back to the heart. It can leave the athlete feeling
dizzy as blood flow is compromised to the vital organs such as the brain.

168  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

 12

11

10
Bood lactate concentration (mM)

5 65%
4
65%
3 Passive
2
35%
1 65–35% Anaerobic
Unit 3
Resting baseline system fatigue
0 AOS 2 and recovery
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Topic 1 Summary screen
Time (min) and practice
Concept 6 questions
FIGURE 5.22 Blood lactate levels following maximal exercise during passive and active
recoveries of VO2 max.

TEST your understanding explain the interplay of the three energy systems that
1 What is the only fuel food that can be catabolised would occur during the performance of this test.
anaerobically?
2 What is the name for the series of reactions in which
EXAM practice
this process takes place? 7 (a) Name the predominant energy system for the
3 What are the end products of this anaerobic process? 200-metre sprint. 1 mark
4 Describe the intensity and duration of a sporting activity (b) State the predominant fuel for the 200-metre
where this anaerobic process is the predominant sprint. 1 mark
energy system. (c) Explain how the rate of ATP production influences
5 Outline the advantages and disadvantages associated the average rate of speed for a 200-metre
with the anaerobic glycolysis system. sprinter. 3 marks
(d) At the end of the sprint, an active recovery session
APPLY your understanding
was used. Explain how this facilitates a faster recovery
6 Practical activity: measuring the capacity of the compared to passive recovery. 2 marks
anaerobic glycolysis system
As part of a class activity, undertake a 400-metre run
test. Use your understanding of energy systems to

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   169

5.6 The aerobic system

KEY CONCEPT The characteristics of the aerobic system enable it to produce the
greatest yield of energy for ATP resynthesis but only at a slow rate.

The aerobic system provides The aerobic system (or oxidative system) is the slowest energy system to contribute
energy for the resynthesis of ATP towards ATP resynthesis due to the complex nature of its chemical reactions, but it
through the breakdown of various
energy fuels (mainly glycogen and
is capable of producing the greatest yield of ATP energy when comparing all three
triglycerides) through a series of energy systems. It is also the most versatile of the three energy systems in that it can
chemical steps that require oxygen. use a variety of different fuels including carbohydrates (glycogen), fats (triglycerides
and free fatty acids) and, under extreme conditions, proteins.

Aerobic energy production from carbohydrates

eLesson
Aerobic metabolism of The aerobic metabolism of carbohydrates involves three processes to produce energy
carbohydrates for ATP resynthesis (see figure 5.23):
Searchlight ID: eles-2756 1. aerobic glycolysis (increasingly referred to as slow
Stage 1 glycolysis as opposed to anaerobic or fast glycolysis)
2. the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)
Glycogen 3. the electron transport chain.

2–3 ATP
Glucose

Energy Energy
FIGURE 5.23 The process
of aerobic metabolism of Pyruvic acid
carbohydrates (glycogen) is more ADP + Pi
complex than that involved in
the anaerobic metabolism of Stage 2
glycogen.
Acetyl
+ Oxygen For muscular
coenzyme A
contraction

2 ATP
Krebs cycle Energy

Stage 3

Electron Energy
Energy
transport chain
ATP + Pi
34 ATP

Aerobic glycolysis
Aerobic glycolysis (or slow glycolysis) is exactly the same series of reactions as
Acetyl coenzyme A is an anaerobic glycolysis (or fast glycolysis) in that glycogen is converted to glucose and
important molecule in metabolism.
then broken down by a series of chemical steps to pyruvic acid (pyruvate). However,
It is produced during the second
stage of aerobic metabolism, in the presence of sufficient oxygen, pyruvic acid is converted to a substance called
which occurs in the mitochondria. acetyl coenzyme A and channelled into the Krebs cycle rather than being converted
to lactic acid.
The Krebs cycle is a series of
enzymatic reactions involving the
oxidative metabolism of acetyl
The Krebs cycle
coenzyme A, which releases The Krebs cycle is a complex series of chemical reactions that continues the oxidisation
energy for the resynthesis of ATP. of glucose that was started during aerobic glycolysis. Acetyl coenzyme A enters the

170  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

Krebs cycle and is broken down into carbon dioxide and hydrogen, allowing more
energy for ATP resynthesis to be produced. The hydrogen ions produced in the Krebs
cycle are then transported to the electron transport chain.

The electron transport chain

Hydrogen ions within the electron transport chain combine with oxygen to form water The electron transport chain is
(H2O). This process results in even more energy for ATP resynthesis being produced. the third and final stage in aerobic
The end products of this process are carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). metabolism in which hydrogen
ions are converted into water and
carbon dioxide while generating
Aerobic energy production from fats energy for ATP resynthesis.

Aerobic lipolysis The aerobic system can metabolise fats as well as

carbohydrates to produce energy for ATP resynthesis.
Fats Lipolysis is the term used to describe the breakdown Lipolysis is the metabolic
of fat (triglycerides) into the more basic units of breakdown of triglycerides
into free fatty acids and
glycerol and free fatty acids. Glycerol and free fatty
glycerol within muscle cells.
acids are then broken down to acetyl coenzyme A via
a process called beta oxidation. Acetyl coenzyme A Beta oxidation is the process by
Glycerol and free
can now enter the Krebs cycle and, from this point on, which fatty acids are broken down
fatty acids
fat metabolism follows the same path as carbohydrate in the mitochondria to generate
acetyl coenzyme A, the entry
Beta oxidation metabolism.
molecule for the Krebs cycle.

Acetyl
+ Oxygen
coenzyme A

For muscular eLesson

contraction Aerobic metabolism of fats
Searchlight ID: eles-2757
129 ATP
Krebs cycle Energy

FIGURE 5.24 The process

Energy of aerobic metabolism of fats
produces a greater yield of
energy for ATP resynthesis
Electron than the aerobic metabolism of
Energy
transport chain ADP + Pi carbohydrates, but requires more
oxygen to do so.

Comparing carbohydrate and fat metabolism

The aerobic system can produce ATP through either fats (fatty acids) or carbohydrates
(glycogen). The key difference is that the breakdown of fats produces significantly
more ATP (greater yield) compared with that obtained from an equivalent amount
of carbohydrates. However, the metabolism of fats requires far more oxygen than the
metabolism of the equivalent amount of carbohydrates. Therefore, if your body is to
use fats as the fuel source for ATP resynthesis it must be able to provide sufficient
oxygen to meet the greater metabolic demand. If not, then the exercise intensity must
decrease so that the oxygen requirement is reduced.

Aerobic energy production from proteins

Protein is thought to make only a small contribution (usually no more than 5–10 per
cent) to energy production. However, amino acids, the building blocks of protein, can
be either converted into glucose or into other intermediates used by the Krebs cycle
such as acetyl coenzyme A. Protein may make a more significant contribution during
very prolonged exercise (e.g. ultramarathons), perhaps as much as 15–20 per cent of
total energy requirements.

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   171

5.6 The aerobic system

The mitochondria
Stages 2 and 3 of aerobic metabolism (the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain)
Mitochondria are cell structures occur within the mitochondria. The greater the number and size of mitochondria
or organelles that can be viewed within the muscle cells, the greater the capacity for energy production.
as the power generators of the
cell, converting nutrients into ATP.
Mitochondrion

Glycogen

Fat Protein Oxygen

Glucose Carbon
FIGURE 5.25 The mitochondria ATP dioxide ATP
are cell structures that act as Pyruvic Krebs
Hydrogen Water
the power generators of the cell, acid cycle Electron
converting oxygen and nutrients transport chain
into ATP.

The aerobic system and exercise

The aerobic system is used predominantly when at rest and during low- to moderate-
intensity exercise. When you are at rest, your body has an abundant oxygen supply,
so the energy required for the resynthesis of ATP is provided almost exclusively by
the aerobic energy system. It relies on the breakdown of fats to provide about two-
thirds of the energy required, while the other one-third comes from the breakdown
of carbohydrates. However, when we are exercising, the body’s preferred fuel is
generally carbohydrates, and the higher the exercise intensity the greater the reliance
on carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are the preferred fuel source during exercise because:
İİ they can be metabolised aerobically or anaerobically
İİ carbohydrates produce energy at a faster rate than fat
İİ complete oxidation of carbohydrate requires less oxygen than complete oxidation
of fat
İİ carbohydrate stores are more readily accessible than fat stores (this is true because
triglycerides have to be reduced to glycerol and free fatty acids before they can be
used to generate cellular energy).
The aerobic system, along with the other two energy systems, is also activated at
the beginning of high-intensity exercise and it will become the predominant energy
system after approximately 60 seconds of continuous activity. Of course, by this time
Unit 3 Aerobic system the intensity of the activity will have decreased (it will now be what we refer to as
rate and yield submaximal exercise), and the body’s supply and delivery of oxygen to the working
AOS 2
Summary screen muscles will have increased as a result of acute bodily responses to the demands
Topic 1 and practice
questions
of the activity. The aerobic system continues to be the predominant contributor to
Concept 7 energy production for ATP resynthesis during continuous submaximal exercise that
exceeds 1–2 minutes in duration.

Fatigue
The fatigue experienced in predominantly aerobic events is different from that
experienced during and after a short, high-intensity anaerobic event, such as
100-metre or 400-metre sprints.

Fuel depletion
When we refer to fuel depletion as a fatigue-causing mechanism, we are in fact
referring to the depletion of energy fuels or substrates that serve to power muscular

172  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

 contractions. Glycogen is also the preferred fuel used by the aerobic system during
exercise of sustained submaximal intensity (endurance exercise).

(a)
30
ATP (mmol/kg dry weight)

25
During exercise, the overall muscle ATP
20 does not fall below 10 to 20% of normal
values. The three energy systems help
maintain levels of ATP within the muscle.
15

10
Rest 10 min Fatigue
(b)
600
(mmol/kg dry weight)

500
Muscle glycogen

400 During exercise, muscle glycogen

300 stores decrease continuously. The rate
of depletion increases with increasing
200 exercise intensity. Fatigue coincides with
limited glycogen stores.
100

0
Rest 10 min Fatigue
Time point
FIGURE 5.26 Muscle ATP concentration at rest and various stages of prolonged cycling (a)
and muscle glycogen concentration at the same points during the same exercise bout (b)

Depletion of intramyofibrillar glycogen cluster

Glycogen is stored within the muscle as clusters in three different sites:
İİ sub-sarcolemmal glycogen cluster (muscle fibre membrane)
İİ intermyofibrillar glycogen cluster (between myofibrils)
İİ intramyofibrillar glycogen cluster (within the myofibril — major glycogen cluster).
The majority of muscle glycogen stores (approximately 75%) are stored in within
the myofibril but exact distributions depend on training, muscle fibre type, fibre use
and type of exercise. Most of the intramyofibrillar glycogen is stored near the t-tubules
of the sarcoplasmic reticulum which has an important role for releasing calcium
(Ca+) for the excitation–contraction coupling process. Depletion of intramyofibrillar
glycogen may cause a reduction in the production of ATP and impair the formation of
actin-myosin cross bridges and the development of muscle force.

Depleted glycogen and hypoglycaemia

During various forms of exercise, the body will rely on four primary food fuel sources:
muscle glycogen, muscle triglycerides, blood glucose and free fatty acids. The exercise
mode, intensity and duration, training status, pre-exercise fuel status of the athlete
and environmental conditions will determine which fuel is being utilised for ATP
replenishment. During long endurance exercise, as muscle glycogen is depleted, blood
Hypoglycaemia is when blood
glucose levels are maintained by the breakdown of glycogen in the liver. An increase
sugar levels have dropped
in blood glucose use will lead to a situation where the liver can no longer supply too low due to prolonged
glycogen and hypoglycaemia can develop. Hypoglycaemia may contribute to fatigue strenuous exercise and
by limiting fuel supply to the working muscles and the brain. depleted glycogen stores.

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   173

5.6 The aerobic system

Glycogen depletion during aerobic (endurance) exercise

During prolonged submaximal intensity aerobic (or endurance) exercise, the body
preferentially uses muscle glycogen stores as the fuel source for providing energy for
ATP resynthesis. Unfortunately, muscle glycogen stores are also limited and deplete
relatively quickly.
İİ Muscle glycogen stores can be depleted within as little as 40 minutes during intense
prolonged exercise such as distance running, although, more typically, glycogen
stores can fuel continuous submaximal exercise for periods of 90–120 minutes.
İİ As glycogen stores deplete during prolonged endurance exercise, there is an
increased reliance on fat (free fatty acid) metabolism. This increased reliance on fat
oxidation necessitates a decrease in exercise intensity. Research strongly suggests
that there is a correlation between depletion of glycogen stores and muscular
fatigue.
İİ Depletion of muscle glycogen during prolonged, exhaustive exercise causes a
decrease in calcium release inside the muscle, reducing muscle contractions.
İİ At exercise intensities between 65 per cent and 85 per cent of maximal oxygen
uptake (VO2 max.), muscular fatigue is highly correlated with depletion of muscle
glycogen stores.
İİ Furthermore, glycogen depletion typically results in exercise intensity having to
decrease to a level that can be supported predominately by fat metabolism; around
50 per cent of maximal oxygen uptake.

100

90 Muscle triglycerides

80
Energy expenditure (%)

70

60 Plasma FFA

50

40

30
Blood glucose
20
Muscle glycogen
10

0
0 1 2 3 4
Exercise duration (hours)
FIGURE 5.27 Contribution of primary food fuels during submaximal intensities and various
durations

An increased reliance on fat oxidation further reduces an individual’s exercise

capacity, as less ATP is generated from fats compared to glycogen per litre of oxygen
consumed. About 7 per cent less energy is produced per given amount of oxygen with
fat as a fuel compared to glycogen (carbohydrate) as a fuel. Once glycogen is depleted
Hitting the wall is a term and fats become the predominant substrate, exercise pace must slow because less
used in endurance sports to energy can be produced. Thus, glycogen depletion is associated with an inability to
describe a condition caused by maintain the rate of prolonged aerobic exercise. In marathon running, the point in the
the depletion of glycogen stores
in the muscles and liver, which
race at which this occurs (typically around 28–35 kilometres) is referred to as ‘hitting
manifests itself as precipitous the wall’. In cycling, it is called ‘bonking’. Studies on perceived exertion (how difficult
fatigue and loss of energy. an effort seems to be) also indicate that participants typically do not report exercise as

174  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

being highly stressful or fatiguing until such time as muscle glycogen stores are near
depletion (see figures 5.28 and 5.29). Thus, the sensation of fatigue during prolonged
exercise seems to coincide with a decreased concentration of muscle glycogen.

180
Muscle glycogen stores (mmol/kg)

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 30 60 90 120 150
Exercise time (min)

E = Exhaustive
VH = Very heavy
H = Heavy
E
M = Moderate
Perceived exertion level

L = Light
VH

0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 FIGURE 5.28 Glycogen depletion

Exercise time (min) and perceived exertion levels

‘The Wall’
100
Muscle glycogen Fatty acids
Substrate as % of O2

75
consumption

50
Blood glucose
25

0
0 100 200 300 FIGURE 5.29 ‘Hitting the wall’
Minutes (glycogen depletion)

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   175

5.6 The aerobic system

While glycogen depletion is clearly associated with muscular fatigue during

endurance-type activities, it is not an exclusive factor.

Summary
In summary, fuel depletion contributes to metabolic fatigue within the muscle due to
a lack of intracellular energy to power muscle contractions. In essence, the muscle is
unable to continue contracting at the same rate or force, basically because it lacks the
energy to do so.

Impaired muscle excitability

Peripheral fatigue can also involve impairment of the mechanisms involved in
muscle excitability; in other words, impairment in the processes involved in muscle
excitation–contraction (E–C) coupling, which arises when a nervous impulse arrives
at the muscle membrane. We have already seen that the accumulation of metabolic
by-products such as hydrogen ions, inorganic phosphate and ADP are thought to
interfere with the contractile process, including the excitation–contraction coupling
Muscle excitation–contraction process. Also implicated in interference with this process is potassium (K+).
(E–C) coupling is the term used
to describe the physiological Potassium
process of converting an electrical The excitability of the muscle membrane (membrane potential), or in other words its
stimulus to a mechanical response.
receptiveness to nervous stimulation, appears to be influenced by several substances
that move into and out of the intracellular and intercellular spaces of the muscle
during the contractile process. One of these substances is potassium (K+). During
muscle contraction, potassium moves out of the muscle cells into the intercellular
space. It builds up in the t-tubule system and the muscle fibre in general, and has
the effect of depolarising the muscle membrane, making it more difficult to excite
The t-tubule system is a network the muscle and therefore muscle contractions are inhibited or reduced. This occurs
of tiny tubes in muscle fibres
that allows electrical signals to
most markedly during high-intensity exercise. This appears to be some kind of safety
move deep inside the muscle mechanism protecting the muscle from damage that might result from repeated
and excite the muscle fibre. nervous stimulation.

Recovery
Active recovery is also beneficial in accelerating the process of ridding the muscle cells
of any metabolic by-products that may have been produced and accumulated during
the exercise period. During the active recovery period, the rate of oxygen consumption
by the athlete remains above the required rate, given their level of activity. The term
‘excess post oxygen consumption’ (EPOC) has typically been used to describe this
phase. Active recovery is suitable after aerobic type activities and allows:
Unit 3 Aerobic system İİ resynthesis of high-energy phosphates
fatigue and İİ replenishment of oxygen in the blood
AOS 2
recovery
İİ replenishment of body fluids
Topic 1 Summary screen
and practice İİ replenishment of myoglobin.
Concept 8 questions If previous exercise was primarily aerobic, EPOC recovery would be completed
within several minutes (fast component).

Interactivity
Mechanisms of peripheral muscular
fatigue
Searchlight ID: int-6793

176  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

 1

Adenosine

P P

O2 Adenosine
Energy
P P
5 P P 2
The aerobic glycolysis system
ADP + glycogen
O2 LA 1 Start of 20-minute cross-country race.
ATP
2 Low sub-maximal effort with HR
around 70–80 per cent of maximum.
3 Sufficient O2 levels allow ATP to be
continuously replenished from ADP.
4 Any periods of acceleration or hill work
will increase reliance on anaerobic energy
supply, but are generally controlled by
ADP + glycogen
following periods of lower exertion where
O2
O2 supplies become plentiful again. ATP
5 At end of race, fatigue is generally
from joint fatigue, dehydration
(extreme conditions), central fatigue
4 LA or accumulation of by-products.

ADP + glycogen
O 2?
ATP

FIGURE 5.30 Aerobic glycolysis

3 is best exemplified in any low-to-
moderate-intensity longer duration
event, in which it provides the
bulk of the required energy to
resynthesise ATP.

Mechanisms
of peripheral
muscular fatigue

Accumulation Impaired
Fuel
of metabolic muscle
depletion
by-products excitability

Adenosine Creatine Inorganic Adenosine

Hydrogen
triphosphate phosphate Glycogen phosphate diphosphate
ions (H+)
(ATP) (CP) (Pi) (ADP)

FIGURE 5.31 The mechanisms of peripheral muscular fatigue

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   177

5.6 The aerobic system

TEST your understanding (a) Use your understanding of energy systems to explain
1 Describe the intensity and duration of a sporting activity the interplay of the three energy systems that would
in which the aerobic system is the predominant energy have occurred during your performance of the
system. 20-metre multi-stage shuttle run test.
2 Outline a specific sporting activity or situation that (b) Research a range of other laboratory and/or
clearly illustrates the use of the aerobic system as field tests that can be used to provide an indication
the predominant energy system. of the capacity of the aerobic system. Explain how
3 Outline the advantages and disadvantages associated performance in each of these tests relates to the
with the aerobic system. capacity of the aerobic system.
4 What is the final common metabolic pathway for
oxidative metabolism of fat, carbohydrate and protein? EXAM practice
5 Where in the cell do the reactions making up this 7 (a) State the duration and fuel required for the aerobic
pathway take place? pathway. 2 marks
APPLY your understanding (b) Identify two by-products of the aerobic energy
system. 2 marks
6 Practical activity: multi-stage fitness test
(c) Explain why the average speed for a 1500-metre
As part of a class activity, undertake the 20-metre
shuttle run test. runner is slower than that for a 400-metre
sprinter. 3 marks

178  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

5.7 Energy systems at work: interplay of
energy systems

KEY CONCEPT Energy systems work together to supply the energy required
for ATP resynthesis.

This subtopic will look at how the energy systems contribute during rest and exercise
conditions. This will help you understand how the body adapts its metabolic activity
during the transition from rest to exercise.

ATP production at rest

When at rest your body is not under physical stress and it has an abundant oxygen
supply, so the energy required for the resynthesis of ATP is provided almost
exclusively by the aerobic energy system. It relies on the breakdown of fats to
provide about two-thirds of the energy required (again because of the abundance of
oxygen), while the remaining one-third comes from the breakdown of carbohydrates
(see figure 5.32).

Anaerobic ATP + Lactic acid

1
Glucose 3

2
Fats 3 + O2
ATP + CO2 + H2O
Aerobic

FIGURE 5.32 At rest we rely almost exclusively on the aerobic system for energy production,
with fats acting as the major food fuel.

ATP production during exercise

There is no exact or definitive point where one energy system drops off and
another energy system becomes the predominant energy supplier. Rather, there is a
gradual transition from one system being predominant to another system assuming
predominance.

Rest-to-exercise transitions
Three rest-to-exercise transition scenarios can help to illustrate this interplay or Interplay of energy
transition of energy systems and when each of the three energy systems are called systems refers to the energy
upon to provide the major portion of the ATP needed to sustain exercise at any given systems working together, but
at different rates, to supply the
intensity. In looking at each scenario, it is important to recall that all the energy ATP required for an activity.
systems are contributing towards ATP production simultaneously throughout any
exercise bout, but the proportional contribution of ATP from each system to the
metabolic demand will shift according to exercise intensity.

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   179

5.7 Energy systems at work: interplay of energy systems

12

ATP (mmol/kg dry muscle/second)

10

0
Rest 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 > 100

Exercise intensity (percentage VO2 max.)

FIGURE 5.33 As the relative exercise intensity increases, the rate of ATP production rises
concurrently to meet the exercise energy demand.
Source: Brown, SP, Miller, WC & Eason JM, 2005, Exercise physiology: basis of human movement in health and
disease, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, page 76.

Transition from rest to maximal-intensity exercise for

0 to 6 seconds
İİ The ATP–CP system is the only system with the capacity to meet the high power
output demand of very high-intensity exercise.
İİ Although the other energy systems will produce ATP at slower rates during
maximal intensity exercise, their proportional contribution to the energy supply
will be minimal.

Transition from rest to high-intensity exercise for 30 to 45 seconds

İİ Because of the longer duration of this exercise bout, intensity has to be reduced in
order for the activity to continue for this period of time.
İİ After the first 6–10 seconds of exercise, the primary responsibility for providing
energy for ATP resynthesis shifts from the ATP–CP system to the anaerobic
glycolysis system, as creatine phosphate stores become depleted.
İİ Towards the end of the exercise bout, the aerobic system will be contributing quite
significantly to ATP resynthesis.
İİ If the activity were to continue beyond 45–60 seconds, the intensity would have
to be decreased to a moderate or lower level. At this lower exercise intensity, the
aerobic system will assume the role of predominant energy supplier

Transition from rest to low/moderate intensity exercise

İİ It is vital to understand that any time energy demand is increased above resting
levels — whether it be starting out on a slow jog or pushing out of the blocks
at the start of a 100-metre sprint — this increased energy demand immediately
requires an increased oxygen supply to the working muscles as the body strives to
continue to work predominantly aerobically.
İİ However, the respiratory and circulatory systems are unable to meet this increased
demand immediately, so the body must use the anaerobic energy pathways to
supplement the production of ATP until such time as the body is able to increase
its oxygen delivery to meet the oxygen demand of the activity.

180  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

İİ Ifthe activity is being performed at low intensity, then this increase in oxygen
supply will not take long to achieve and the aerobic system will quickly resume
the role of predominant energy supplier.
İİ However, with progressively higher exercise intensities, the relative energy
contributions of the anaerobic systems become greater and greater.

Intermittent exercise
Many team sports require the players not only to run at maximal speeds for a short
duration, but also to maintain their speed and endurance throughout the whole match.
There may be periods within the match to recover CP and glycogen stores or reduce
levels of lactate and hydrogen ions. For any intermittent activity, it is more accurate to
consider the energy system contribution and interplay at various stages of performance
by considering the key factors of intensity, duration, recovery periods and availability
of fuels throughout the whole event. For example, an AFL footballer playing in the full-
forward position will rely on the ATP–CP system for maximal intensity short duration
sprints to mark the ball. During low-intensity periods, the player could have sufficient
time to replenish CP stores or reduce levels of lactate and hydrogen ions.

The time–energy system continuum

A means by which exercise physiologists have explained the relative contribution and
interplay of the three energy systems during exercise is via the time–energy system
continuum. This continuum assumes that an individual is exercising at a maximum
sustainable intensity for a continuous period of time. Figure 5.34 indicates the relative
contributions of each of the energy systems to the total energy requirements under
these conditions. Figure 5.35 also indicates the relative percentage contribution of the
three energy systems to maximal exercise of various durations.

ATP store
Interactivity
ATP–CP system Understanding energy terms
Anaerobic glycolysis Searchlight ID: int-6789

Overall performance
% of maximum rate of energy production

Aerobic system
T = Threshold point

2 sec T 10 sec T 1 min 2 hrs

Time

FIGURE 5.34 Approximate relative contributions of the three energy systems to energy
production at maximum sustainable exercise intensity for varying durations

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   181

5.7 Energy systems at work: interplay of energy systems

100

75

Energy contribution (%)

Aerobic energy

50

25 Anaerobic glycolysis

ATP–CP
0
0 15 30 60 90 120 180 240 300 360
Performance time (seconds)
FIGURE 5.35 Relative percentage contribution of the three energy systems to maximal
exercise of various durations

The identified percentage contributions of each energy system shown in the two
graphs may vary due to data being obtained from different researchers. Table 5.4
presents a compilation from a number of studies over the last 10 years of the relative
anaerobic and aerobic contribution to maximal exercise efforts of different durations.

TABLE 5.4 Anaerobic and aerobic energy system contributions to maximal exercise efforts of
different durations

Duration of exhaustive Percentage anaerobic Percentage aerobic

Interplay exercise (seconds) contribution contribution
Unit 3
of energy
AOS 2 systems 0–15 88 12
Topic 1 Summary screen
and practice 0–30 73 27
Concept 9 questions
0–45 63 37

0–60 55 45

0–90 44 56

0–120 37 63

0–180 27 73

0–240 21 79

Data obtained from both trained and untrained individuals during run, swim, bench or cycle ergometry exercise (Gastin,
2001).

182  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

TEST your understanding APPLY your understanding
1 At the onset of exercise, why are ATP and 6 Practical activity: interplay of energy systems
creatine phosphate the preferred energy sources over Select a specific activity from a sport of your choice.
carbohydrates and fats? Explain the interplay of energy systems that would
2 During aerobic exercise the body may use both occur during performance of this activity. Make sure
carbohydrates and fats to provide energy. Their you indicate the typical duration and intensity of the
relative contribution depends on the intensity of activity.
the exercise. Explain the relationship between intensity 7 Practical activity: 400-metre sprint test
of aerobic exercise and relative use of carbohydrates Cathy Freeman’s win in the 400 metres at the 2000
and fats as fuel. Sydney Olympics has been voted the greatest
3 If the body starts to deplete carbohydrate (glycogen) Australian Olympic performance of all time. Freeman
stores during prolonged exercise bouts, it relies on won the race in a time of 49.11 seconds. In small
fats as the food fuel for providing energy for ATP groups, conduct your own 400-metre sprint test.
resynthesis. What is the major disadvantage of using Using stopwatches and heart rate monitors, each
fats as a fuel during exercise of this nature? group is to collect data on their sprinter in 100-metre
4 Netball is a physically demanding sport that splits. Clearly and accurately outline in your own
requires many skills. The energy demand on players words how the three energy systems would have
depends on the skills they are performing and the contributed to the sprinter’s performance. Ensure
position they are playing. Identify the predominant that you use data when discussing the interplay of the
energy system required to perform the following energy systems.
in netball:
(a) The Goal Keeper jumping up to grab a rebound EXAM practice
(b) The Centre covering much of the court throughout the 8 Paul Biedermann broke the world record for the
match 400-metre swim with a time of 3:40:07 minutes in
(c) The Goal Defence breaking away from her opponent 2009. Explain how the energy systems interplayed
to provide energy for Paul to complete this swim in
and receiving a pass from the Goal Keeper
record time. 6 marks
(d) The Goal Attack sprinting 10 metres to receive the ball
from the Goal Keeper, passing to the Centre player,
sprinting into the goal third to receive a pass from the
Centre player and then shooting a quick bounce pass
Interactivity
to the Goal Shooter in the goal circle Characteristics of the three energy
(e) The Umpire running up and down the systems
sidelines throughout the match Searchlight ID: int-6792
5 Complete the table below outlining the characteristics of
the three energy systems.

Anaerobic
Characteristic ATP–CP glycolysis Aerobic

Fuels used (chemical and food)

Intensity and duration of peak energy production

Examples of activities in which the system is the

predominant source of energy

Rate of energy supply

Energy yield per comparative amount of fuel source

By-products

Fatigue limiting factors

Type of recovery

Advantages of the energy system

Disadvantages of the energy system

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   183

5.8 The significance of lactate

KEY CONCEPT Lactic acid splits into lactate and hydrogen ions. Lactate can
provide fuel for energy production and reduce fatigue.

Lactate
Within muscle cells, lactic acid quickly dissociates (splits) into lactate and hydrogen ions
(H+). For many years, lactic acid and lactate were seen to be very much the same thing and
the prevailing knowledge was that the accumulation of lactic acid (lactate) that resulted from
anaerobic glycolysis during high-intensity exercise was the cause of local muscular fatigue.
Lactate acts as an important intermediary in numerous metabolic processes; in
particular, as a mobile fuel source for aerobic metabolism.

The fate of lactate: the lactate shuttle

Lactate shuttles are the Lactate can be shuttled, referred to as lactate shuttles, or moved intracellularly from
processes by which lactate is the muscle cell cytoplasm to the mitochondria, extracellularly from one muscle fibre
shuttled from one location to to a nearby adjacent muscle fibre, and between the muscle and the bloodstream where
another where it is converted to
glucose that can then be used
it can then be transported to other tissues and organs.
to provide further energy. The intracellular lactate shuttle involves the movement of lactate between the
muscle cell cytoplasm where it is produced and the mitochondria where it is oxidised
Type 1 slow-twitch oxidative to pyruvate, which then passes through the various stages of aerobic metabolism.
fibres contain large and In this way lactate is acting as an important intermediary fuel source for aerobic
numerous mitochondria, high
levels of myoglobin and a high
metabolism. Extracellular lactate shuttles act to move lactate between tissues and
capillary density. They are very organs. Intramuscularly, most lactate moves out of active fast-twitch glycolytic fibres
resistant to fatigue and have a and into active oxidative type 1 slow-twitch oxidative fibres where it again acts as a
high capacity to generate ATP fuel source for energy production during aerobic metabolism.
by oxidative metabolism. Some of the lactate also diffuses out of the muscle itself into the bloodstream. From
there the lactate is transported to other tissues and organs, most notably the heart,
respiratory muscles, brain and liver. The heart, respiratory muscles and brain are able to
use lactate as an important fuel source, and in fact studies have shown that during high-
intensity exercise these tissues use blood-borne lactate as their fuel source in preference
The Cori cycle is the metabolic to other fuels such as glucose. In the heart, for example, the uptake of lactate increases
pathway in which lactate many-fold as the intensity of exercise increases, while the uptake of glucose remains
produced by anaerobic glycolysis unchanged. These tissues take up lactate at a fast rate to satisfy their energy needs.
in the muscles moves via Lactate in the bloodstream is also transported to the liver where it is converted to
the bloodstream to the liver, blood glucose and glycogen. This glucose can then be transported back to the muscles
where it is converted to blood
glucose and glycogen.
to act as a fuel source for further muscular contraction. This process is referred to as
the Cori cycle (see figure 5.36).

Glycogen Glycogen

Fatty acids Glucose Glucose

6 ATP 2 ATP

2 Pyruvate 2 Pyruvate

CO2 + H2O 2 Lactate 2 Lactate

FIGURE 5.36 The Cori cycle Liver Blood Arm muscle

184  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

 It is also important to note that when lactate diffuses into the bloodstream from the
active muscles it takes with it some of the hydrogen ions (H+) that are also produced
as a result of anaerobic metabolism. In this way lactate helps to reduce the hydrogen eLesson
The Cori cycle
ion accumulation within the muscle and so helps to delay the onset of muscle acidosis,
Searchlight ID: eles-2755
which is implicated as a cause of muscular fatigue.
To summarise, the lactate shuttle involves the following series of events:
1. As we exercise, pyruvate is formed.
2. When insufficient oxygen is available to break down the pyruvate, lactate is
produced.
3. Lactate enters the surrounding muscle cells, tissue and blood.
4. The muscle cells and tissues receiving the lactate either break down the lactate to
provide energy for immediate use or use it in the creation of glycogen.
5. The glycogen then remains in the cells until energy is required.

Lactate inflection point

Changes in the lactate concentration of blood can be determined by graphing the
results of blood testing during incremental exercise (exercise that progressively
increases in intensity). Figure 5.37 identifies the lactate inflection point (LIP) which The lactate inflection
is the last point where lactate production and removal is balanced. It marks the point (LIP) represents the
highest intensity point where
point on the graph where there is an exponential or non-linear increase in the lactate there is a balance between
concentration in the blood. lactate production and
It is also identified as the final exercise intensity or oxygen uptake value at which removal from the blood.
the blood lactate remains relatively stable during a maximal aerobic test.

Significance of the lactate inflection point

The LIP establishes the exercise intensity beyond which a given exercise or power
output cannot be maintained for any sustained period of time. Exercise intensities
beyond the LIP are associated with a shortened time to fatigue or exhaustion. The eLesson
Lactate inflection point
higher the exercise intensity beyond the LIP, the more rapid the onset of fatigue. This
Searchlight ID: eles-2758
decreased time to exhaustion appears to be primarily associated with an increase in
the acidosis within the muscle due to the accumulation of metabolic by-products
including, but not necessarily limited to, hydrogen ions.
The LIP can also be used to determine the highest intensity of aerobic exercise an
athlete can sustain without the rapid accumulation of hydrogen ions. This is because
the rise in blood lactate concentration is related to rising levels of hydrogen ions
within the muscle (remember, lactic acid dissociates into hydrogen ions and lactate).
It appears that the LIP can serve as a reasonably good indirect marker for muscle cell
metabolic conditions that increase muscle acidosis, which in turn leads to muscular
fatigue.
Blood lactate concentration (mmol)

Lactate inflection

Exercise intensity

FIGURE 5.37 General representation between exercise intensity and blood lactate
concentration and lactate inflection

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   185

5.8 The significance of lactate

TEST your understanding

1 What is the fate of lactate that is produced in the muscle
cells as a result of anaerobic metabolism? Why do we Interactivity
call the processes involved lactate shuttles? Lactate inflection point
2 Explain in your own words the meaning and significance Searchlight ID: int-6794
of LIP.

EXAM practice
3 The 400-metre sprinter will work at an exercise intensity
level above their lactate inflection point. What occurs
physiologically beyond this LIP point? 3 marks

186  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

KEY SKILLS ENERGY SYSTEMS AND
INTERPLAY OF ENERGY SYSTEMS

KEY SKILLS İİ yellow identify the action

word
İİ Participate in a variety of physical activities and describe, using appropriate terminology,
İİ pink key terminology
the interplay and relative contribution of the energy systems İİ blue key concepts
İİ Perform, observe, analyse and report on laboratory exercises designed to explore the
İİ light grey marks/marking
relationship between the energy systems during physical activity and recovery scheme
İİ Explain the fatiguing factors associated with the use of the three energy systems under
varying conditions

UNDERSTANDING THE KEY SKILLS

To address these key skills, it is important to remember the following:
İİ The role of ATP to produce energy and how it is resynthesised
İİ The role of energy fuels or substrates that are used to provide the energy required for ATP
resynthesis. You may be asked how food/chemical fuels resynthesise ATP; for example,
how muscle glycogen can resynthesise ADP to ATP.
İİ ATP can be resynthesised via three energy pathways: ATP–CP, anaerobic glycolysis and
aerobic energy systems
İİ Understand, in specific detail, the characteristics of the three energy systems including
fuel sources, rate of ATP, yield of ATP, dominant time period and type of event, fatigue and
recovery
İİ Relationship between intensity of exercise and rate of ATP
İİ Relationship between duration of exercise and yield of ATP
İİ Fatiguing factors such as CP stores could deplete, and hydrogen ions and lactate levels
STRATEGIES TO DECODE
could increase to a level that changes energy systems
THE QUESTION
İİ Each physical activity has a dominant energy system
İİ Interplay of the three energy systems İİ Identify the action word:
İİ Many factors contributing to fatigue    Describe — provide a
detailed account of interplay
İİ Recovery strategies used to return to pre-exercise conditions
of energy systems
İİ Key terminology: 1500  m
runner, duration of 4 minutes
PRACTICE QUESTION
and 30 seconds
Brooke, a 20-year-old high-level female 1500  m runner, is preparing for the Australian Track and İİ Key concept: Energy system
Field Championships. Her current personal best time is 4 minutes 30 seconds. interplay — understanding
Describe the energy system interplay in a 1500  m track event of a similar time to Brooke’s. how the energy systems
(6 marks) operate together
İİ Marking scheme: 6 marks
— always check marking
SAMPLE RESPONSE scheme for the depth of
response required, linking to
At the start of the 1500-metre race, all energy systems contribute to the supply of ATP with key information highlighted in
one system being dominant. As the athlete explodes away from the starting blocks, all energy the question
systems contribute, however the ATP–CP is the predominant energy system due to the maximal
intensity and the need to replenish ATP quickly (3.6 moles/min) for the first 6 to 10 seconds. As
limited PC stores quickly deplete and there continues to be a need to supply ATP at a fast rate,
anaerobic glycolysis becomes the predominate energy system for the next 30 to 45 seconds as
exercise intensity is maintained. ATP is resynthesised at a fast rate (1.6 moles/min) with muscle HOW THE MARKS
glycogen broken down without oxygen available. Any increases of intensity during the race, ARE AWARDED
sprint to finish line, may see an increased contribution from the anaerobic glycolysis system. İİ 1 mark: stating all energy
As the duration of the race continues beyond 60 seconds, the aerobic energy system becomes systems contribute
the dominant energy system for the rest of the race. The aerobic ES begins to have a greater İİ 1 mark: stating ATP–CP
contribution (duration is 4.5 minutes) to resynthesising ATP, at a slower rate (1.0 moles/min) system utilised at the
explosive start
but with a greater yield (38 moles of ATP) as the body is able to supply oxygen to the working
İİ 1 mark: CP stores depleting
muscles.
İİ 1 mark: to maintain intensity,
anaerobic glycolysis is utilised
İİ 1 mark: aerobic system is
dominant due to the duration
being greater than 60 seconds
İİ 1 mark: aerobic ES
resynthesises ATP with the
greatest yield as oxygen is
able to break down glycogen

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   187

CHAPTER REVIEW ENERGY SYSTEMS AND
INTERPLAY OF ENERGY SYSTEMS

CHAPTER SUMMARY

ATP: The body’s energy currency

İİ The energy for physical activity is released by the catabolism (breaking down) of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). This energy source is stored in only very limited quantities within
muscles and must be constantly replenished or resynthesised in order for muscular
contractions to continue.
İİ ATP breaks down to ADP and Pi. ATP can be resynthesised from ADP and Pi but energy is
required in order to do this.
İİ The energy required to resynthesise ATP from ADP and Pi is produced via three energy
pathways: the ATP–CP (or phosphate) energy system, the anaerobic glycolysis system and
the aerobic system.

Energy fuels
İİ The fuels or substrates that are used by the body’s three energy systems include creatine
phosphate, carbohydrates, fats and protein. The energy systems break down these fuels to
provide the energy to resynthesise ATP.
İİ Creatine phosphate is a chemical compound which, like ATP, is stored in limited quantities
within muscle cells.
İİ Also like ATP, creatine phosphate is a high-energy substance capable of storing and
releasing energy via the high-energy bond that binds the creatine and phosphate parts
of it together. When this bond is broken, energy is released that enables ATP to be
resynthesised from ADP and Pi.
İİ Carbohydrate is broken down into glucose. Glucose is stored as glycogen in the muscles
and liver. Any excess is stored as fat in adipose tissue around the body.
İİ Fats provide more energy per gram than the other fuels, but the body prefers carbohydrate
as an energy source during exercise because it is easier to break down and produces
energy at a faster rate.
İİ Protein is used as an energy source only when carbohydrate and fats are depleted; for
example, in extreme conditions such as in ultra-endurance events.

Energy systems and pathways

İİ The ATP–CP system uses creatine phosphate to create new ATP supplies without using
oxygen. The ATP–CP energy system can create ATP very quickly, and is the predominant
energy contributor to maximal intensity, short-duration activities of up to 6–10 seconds’
duration.
İİ The anaerobic glycolysis system involves the metabolism of glycogen stores within the
muscle without oxygen needing to be present. The anaerobic glycolysis system takes
longer to create ATP than the ATP–CP system, and it is the major contributor to high-level
exertions of 10–60 seconds’ duration. This system creates lactate and hydrogen ions as
by-products.
İİ The aerobic energy system can use glycogen and fats (and protein under extreme
conditions) to provide energy for ATP resynthesis, but oxygen must be present for the
chemical reactions involved in aerobic metabolism to take place.
İİ The aerobic system is the major contributor to energy production during rest and low- to
moderate-intensity activity. It becomes the primary energy contributor to sustained maximal
activity after approximately 60 seconds.
İİ Aerobic metabolism occurs primarily within specialised cell structures known as
mitochondria, which can be considered the ‘power houses’ of the cell.
İİ Tables 5.5 and 5.6 summarise the main information that has been presented in this chapter.

188  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

TABLE 5.5 Summary: the conversion of food to energy

Characteristics Carbohydrates Fats Proteins

Conversion İİ Transported in the blood as İİ Free fatty acids in blood İİ Broken down through digestion
and storage glucose İİ Stored as triglycerides in muscle into amino acids
İİ Stored in muscle cells as muscle İİ Stored as fat in adipose tissue İİ These amino acids stored in
glycogen muscles as muscle amino acids
İİ Stored in liver as glycogen İİ Excess amino acids stored as
İİ Excess carbohydrates stored as fat in adipose tissue
fat in adipose tissue

Major role and İİ The most readily available İİ The most concentrated form of İİ Help the formation, growth and
function source of energy to fuel working energy, but a secondary source repair of body tissue
muscles during exercise of energy during moderate- to İİ Help in the production of red
performance (moderate- to high- high-intensity exercise blood cells and enzymes
intensity exercise) İİ Primarily used as a source of İİ Provide an emergency fuel
energy during rest and low- source for energy during
intensity exercise prolonged exercise, when
carbohydrate and fat stores are
depleted

Use İİ At rest and during low-intensity İİ At rest provide approximately İİ Generally only occurs in extreme
exercise provide about one-third two-thirds of the energy needs situations such as starvation
of the energy required of the body and ultra-endurance events such
İİ During moderate- and high- İİ As exercise intensity increases, as the Hawaii triathlon
intensity exercise are used as the percentage of fats being
the primary energy source used as an energy source
İİ Carbohydrates as fuel can last decreases
for up to 90–120 minutes of İİ Fats as an energy source
continuous exercise become increasingly important
when stores of carbohydrates
become depleted during
endurance exercise (usually after
90–120 minutes of continuous
activity)

Percentage İİ Average person: 55–60 per cent İİ Average person: 20–25 per cent İİ Average person: 15 per cent
of total daily İİ Athletes in training: 60 per İİ Endurance athletes in training: İİ Athletes in training: strength
intake cent or greater, or 7–10 grams 20–30 per cent athletes may require slightly
of carbohydrate per kilogram more protein in their diets
body mass

Common food Foods with low glycaemic Saturated fats: İİ Animal foods such as meat,
sources index: İİ Found in animal foods such as poultry, fish, eggs and dairy
İİ Those carbohydrate-rich foods milk, cheese and meat products products are rich in protein
that take longer to digest and İİ This type of fat contains and contain all the essential
release glucose at a slower but cholesterol (implicated in amino acids
more sustained rate cardiovascular disease) İİ Plant foods such as cereals,
İİ Include bread, cereals, pasta, grains, lentils, beans and peas
Unsaturated fats:
lentils and baked beans İİ Two groups of unsaturated fats: are also good sources of protein,
Foods with high glycaemic polyunsaturated and mono- although they do not contain
index: unsaturated. all of the essential amino acids
İİ Those carbohydrate-rich foods İİ Polyunsaturated fats are
that are digested rapidly and found in most vegetable oils
release glucose at a fast rate (e.g. sunflower oil) and oily fish
İİ Include sugar, honey, bananas, (e.g. tuna)
potatoes, jelly beans, soft drinks İİ Mono-unsaturated fats are found
and sports drinks in olive oil, avocados and nuts
İİ Both types of unsaturated fats
help lower total cholesterol levels

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   189

CHAPTER REVIEW ENERGY SYSTEMS AND INTERPLAY OF ENERGY SYSTEMS

TABLE 5.6 Summary: characteristics of the three energy systems

Characteristics ATP–CP system Anaerobic glycolysis system Aerobic system

Alternative name İİ Phosphagen system

or names İİ ATP–PC system
İİ Creatine phosphate system
İİ Phosphate system

Aerobic or İİ Anaerobic İİ Anaerobic İİ Aerobic

anaerobic

Fuel or fuels İİ Creatine phosphate İİ Carbohydrates — stored İİ Carbohydrates — preferred fuel

used (also known as as glycogen within muscle during exercise
phosphocreatine) — stored cells and the liver İİ Fats — stored as triglycerides in
in small quantities within muscle cells and the liver. Used
muscle cells predominantly when body at rest,
and during lower-intensity exercise
(up to about 50–65 per cent of
maximum oxygen uptake)
İİ Proteins — only in extreme
circumstances such as starvation
or ultra-endurance events

Maximal rate İİ Fastest rate of energy İİ Provides energy for ATP İİ Slowest system to provide energy
of energy release for resynthesis of resynthesis rapidly, but not for ATP resynthesis due to complex
production ATP from ADP and Pi as quickly as the ATP–CP nature of its chemical reactions,
İİ 3.6 moles per minute system and the fact that sufficient oxygen
İİ This is because this system İİ 1.6 moles per minute has to be made available to the
is the least complicated of İİ This is due to a more complex muscle cells
the three energy systems series of chemical reactions İİ 1.0 mole per minute
(fewer chemical steps), that results in glycogen
and because creatine breaking down to glucose
phosphate is found and then to pyruvic acid and
within the muscle cells then eventually to lactic acid
themselves

Maximum ATP İİ Small amounts of ATP İİ Approximately twice as much İİ Vastly greater amounts of ATP
production produced ATP produced as the ATP–CP produced compared with the two
(yield) per mole İİ Less than 1 mole system anaerobic systems
of fuel source of ATP per mole of İİ Approximately 2 moles of İİ 38 moles of ATP from 1 mole of
phosphocreatine ATP per mole of glycogen glucose
İİ Over 100 moles of ATP from 1 mole
of fat (but more oxygen required)

Duration and İİ Activated at the beginning İİ Also activated at the beginning İİ Also activated at the start of high-
intensity of of maximal-intensity of high-intensity activity intensity exercise and will become the
peak energy exercise İİ Predominant energy predominant supplier of energy for
production İİ Predominant energy contributor for ATP ATP resynthesis during continuous
supplier within the first resynthesis from the time submaximal intensity exercise that
6 seconds of high- when the phosphagen system exceeds 1–2 minutes in duration
intensity exercise, but its is rapidly depleting up until İİ In a maximal effort lasting
capacity is depleted after about 30–60 seconds during 75 seconds, equal energy is
6–10 seconds of maximal high-intensity exercise derived from the aerobic and
intensity exercise İİ May also become anaerobic systems
predominant producer of İİ Predominant supplier of energy for
energy for ATP resynthesis ATP resynthesis when at rest and
during repeated short-duration during submaximal activity
maximal intensity efforts that İİ As event duration increases and
have insufficient recovery time intensity decreases, the contribution
to allow for full replenishment of the aerobic system to energy
of creatine phosphate stores production increases while that of
the anaerobic systems diminishes

190  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

 Characteristics ATP–CP system Anaerobic glycolysis system Aerobic system

Specific İİ Athletic field events İİ 400-metre athletic event İİ 10  0 00-metre athletic event
examples (e.g. high jump, shot put) İİ 50-metre swim İİ Marathon
İİ Short sprints (50- to İİ High-intensity tennis rally of İİ 2000-metre rowing event
100-metre) 15–30 seconds’ duration İİ Mid-field players in many team sports
İİ Tennis serve (e.g. Australian Rules, soccer)
İİ Gymnastics vault
İİ Golf drive

Fatigue limiting İİ Depletion of creatine İİ Changes in the intra-muscular İİ Depletion of glycogen stores
factors phosphate stores environment due to the
accumulation of hydrogen
ions (H+)

Type of recovery İİ Passive İİ Active İİ Active

Metabolic İİ Inorganic phosphates (Pi) İİ Lactic acid — lactate and İİ Carbon dioxide (CO2)
by-products İİ ADP hydrogen ions (H+) İİ Water (H2O)
İİ ADP İİ Heat
İİ ADP

Links to fitness İİ Muscular strength İİ Anaerobic capacity İİ Relevant to all fitness components
components İİ Muscular power İİ Local muscular endurance because it provides the basis for
İİ Anaerobic power İİ Speed and agility recovery in anaerobic-type tasks as
İİ Speed and agility İİ Muscular power well as the bulk of energy production
İİ Reaction time for submaximal activities

Fatigue
İİ Fatigue is the inability to continue functioning at the level of one’s normal physical abilities,
and usually manifests itself as local muscular fatigue.
İİ Muscular fatigue is a highly complex phenomenon that consists of numerous factors acting
at multiple sites within the contracting muscles themselves.
İİ The causal mechanisms of local muscular fatigue depend on the type, duration and
intensity of the exercise being performed, as well as other factors such as the fibre-type
composition of the involved muscle or muscles, the fitness and training status of the
athlete, the nutritional state of the athlete, and even the athlete’s mental state.
İİ Fatigue may result from fuel depletion, the accumulation of metabolic by-products and/
or impaired muscle excitability. Whatever the causal mechanism, the muscular fatigue that
results manifests itself as the eventual lack of ability of a single muscle or local group of
muscles to do work at a given intensity.

Recovery
İİ Recovery can be defined as the overcoming or reversal of fatigue experienced as a result
of training or some form of exercise.
İİ In general terms, the recovery process encompasses active recovery or passive recovery
immediately post-exercise.
İİ Active recovery is at a lower intensity and is used to:
–– reduce heart rate to resting levels
–– replenish oxygen levels in the blood, body fluids and myoglobin
–– increase blood flow to the working muscles
–– remove higher lactate concentration levels
–– accelerate oxidation as this boosts the clearance rate of lactate
–– resynthesise high-energy phosphates
–– support the small energy cost to maintain elevated circulation and ventilation
–– remove metabolites after exercise.
İİ Passive recovery is used to replenish ATP and creatine phosphate stores at the fastest
rate.

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   191

CHAPTER REVIEW ENERGY SYSTEMS AND INTERPLAY OF ENERGY SYSTEMS

EX AM PREPARATION

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1 State the energy rate and yield associated with the ATP–CP system.
(A) Rate is 0.7 moles per minute and yield is 3.6 moles per mole of fuel substrate
Interactivity
(B) Rate is 1.6 moles per minute and yield is 1.0 moles per mole of fuel substrate
Energy systems and interplay of
(C) Rate is 3.6 moles per minute and yield is 0.7 moles per mole of fuel substrate
energy systems quiz
(D) Rate is 3.6 moles per minute and yield is 38.0 moles per mole of fuel substrate
Searchlight ID: int-6795
2 List the metabolic by-products of the aerobic energy system.
(A) Carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions and ADP
(B) ADP, water and heat
(C) Lactate and inorganic phosphates
(D) Carbon dioxide, water and heat
3 Complete the following diagram outlining the metabolism of lactic acid.
Sit VCAA exam Lactic acid + oxygen → ______________ + __________________
(A) Lactate and hydrogen ions
(B) Inorganic phosphates and carbon dioxide
(C) Carbon dioxide and water
(D) Lactate and water
4 In which energy system or systems are hydrogen ions a metabolic by-product of the
chemical process?
(A) Anaerobic glycolysis
(B) ATP–CP
(C) Aerobic glycolysis
(D) Aerobic lipolysis
5 State an advantage of using creatine phosphate as a fuel.
(A) Readily available in the liver
(B) Breaks down slowly with oxygen
(C) Provides a large yield of ATP at a rapid rate
(D) Breaks down rapidly without oxygen
6 State which factors significantly influence the causes of fatigue.
(A) Nutritional and training status of the athlete, type, intensity and duration of exercise
(B) Intensity and duration of exercise
(C) Nutritional and training status of the athlete
(D) Type of exercise
7 Lactic acid is a by-product of
(A) aerobic lipolysis.
(B) aerobic glycolysis.
(C) anaerobic glycolysis.
(D) lactate.
8 ‘Hitting the wall’ is a term used to describe a condition caused by
(A) the depletion of fat stores.
(B) the depletion of glycogen stores.
(C) the depletion of creatine phosphate stores.
(D) an increase in lactate.
9 The point just before hydrogen ions increase exponentially is known as
(A) pyruvate inflection point.
(B) lactic acid inflection point.
(C) lactate inflection point.
(D) lactate transition point (LT1).
10 The goalie and wing player in hockey would possibly complete the following recovery
activities.
(A) Passive recovery (wing player) and active recovery (goalie)
(B) Passive recovery (wing player) and passive recovery (goalie)
(C) Active recovery (wing player) and active recovery (goalie)
(D) Passive recovery (goalie) and active recovery (wing player)

192  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

TRIAL EX AM QUESTIONS

Question 1 (adapted from ACHPER Trial Exam 2015, question 2)

Wayde van Niekerk from South Africa is the current Olympic champion in the
400  m track event. Van Niekerk won this event in Rio in a time of 43.03 seconds.
Mo Farah from Great Britain is the current Olympic champion in the 10 000  m
track event. He won his gold medal in a time of 27 minutes 5 seconds.
List the predominant energy system used to complete their specific event.
 2 marks
Wayde van Niekerk (400  m)
Mo Farah (10 000  m)

Question 2 (ACHPER Trial Exam 2015, question 8)

Passive and active recovery strategies can both be effective. Identify the best time
to engage in each recovery strategy and provide a suitable example for each.
Passive recovery strategy Active recovery strategy
Best utilised
Example

 4 marks

Question 3 (ACHPER Trial Exam 2015, question 11d)

Discuss the predominant fuels required for resynthesis of ATP in race walking
compared to the High Jump event. 4 marks

Question 4 (ACHPER Trial Exam 2014, question 8b part iii)

Jana Pittman is a Australian athlete. Prior to 2013 she represented Australia
in the 400  m hurdles at the summer Olympics and World Championships. Her
fastest time was 53.82 seconds and she won the World Championships twice.
She represented Australia in the two-person Bobsled at the 2014 Sochi Winter
Olympics. Jana is the ‘brakeperson’ which involves pushing a sleigh (with her
partner in unison) on ice for approximately 50 metres in 6 seconds before loading
into the bobsled to ride to the finish line.
Jana would incorporate recovery techniques into her training. Active and passive
recovery are better suited to certain events. Identify the type of recovery best
suited to each of Jana’s events and justify your selection. 4 marks
400  m Hurdles Bobsled
Type of recovery
Justification

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   193

CHAPTER REVIEW ENERGY SYSTEMS AND INTERPLAY OF ENERGY SYSTEMS

Question 5 (ACHPER Trial Exam 2014, question 10)

Relative contribution of energy systems during exercise
100

Aerobic

Energy contribution (%)

75

50

25
Anaerobic glycolysis
ATP–CP
0
0 10 30 60 120 180 240
Time (seconds)

a. Describe the relationship between the three energy systems as shown in the
graph. 2 marks
b. At what time does the anaerobic glycolysis system become predominant?
 1 mark
c. Explain why there is a delay before the aerobic energy system becomes
predominant and what occurs in the interim. 2 marks
d. Why does the ATP–CP energy system predominantly contribute to energy
production for only a short period of time? 1 mark

Question 6 (ACHPER Trial Exam 2013, question 11b)

Brooke, a 20-year-old high-level female 1500-m runner, is preparing for the
Australian Track and Field Championships. Her current personal best time is
4 minutes 30 seconds.
In various periods throughout the race, Brooke exercises above her VO2
maximum. Outline how the body enables this increase in intensity to happen.
 2 marks

Question 7 (ACHPER Trial Exam 2014, question 12a, d)

The graph below shows a recreational runner’s blood lactate concentration
during two different running treadmill tests until they reach exhaustion. The
second test was completed four months later, after the runner had undertaken a
regular training program.
Blood lactate concentration

D
C

A
B


Speed (kph)

194  UNIT 3 • Movement skills and energy for physical activity

a. Identify what the points labelled A and B represent. 1 mark
b. The test is completed when the runner is unable to continue, due to fatigue.
What is the most likely cause of this fatigue? 1 mark

Question 8 (ACHPER Trial Exam 2013, question 13)

The anaerobic energy systems (ATP–CP and anaerobic glycolysis) have a finite
capacity, which ultimately impacts on performance. Outline the major fatiguing
factors for the ATP–CP and anaerobic glycolysis energy systems, and their impact
on performance in the diagram below. 4 marks

ATP–CP Anaerobic glycolysis

Major cause of fatigue: Major cause of fatigue:

Impact on performance: Both energy Impact on performance:

systems have
a finite
capacity

Question 9 (ACHPER Trial Exam 2008, question 16)

Bryan Clay (USA) won the Gold Medal in the decathlon at the Beijing
Olympics in 2008. He competes in 10 different events over a 48-hour
period. Three of these events and his results are shown below.
Use this information to complete the table below. 7 marks

One characteristic
Predominant of this energy
Major fuel/s energy system system that
Event and used for this used in this makes it suitable
result event event for the event

400-metre run i. ii. iii.

48.92 secs

Shot put Phosphocreatine iv. v.

16.27 m

1500-metre run vi. Aerobic energy vii.

5 min 06.59 secs system

CHAPTER 5 • Energy systems and interplay of energy systems   195