FSC112/CHM 101

• The trends of atomic radii, ionization energies,

electronegativity of the elements based on their
position in the periodic table

• Chemical equations, chemical reactions and

stoichiometry

• Calculations based on chemical equations

• The limiting reactant concept

The trends of atomic radii, ionization energies,

electronegativity of the elements based on their

position in the periodic table

Modern Periodic Table
 The Periodic Table
✓ The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of elements in

the order of increasing atomic number (number of protons)

✓ The occurrence of similar properties at regular intervals,

with increasing atomic number is known as Periodicity

 THE PERIODIC TABLE- A BRIEF HISTORY
➢ A number of books name main group and the transition elements
as A and B subgroups respectively.
➢ The s-block and p-block were numbered as groups I to VII and
zero (0)
➢ There is also the d-block and f-block

✓ The work of 19th century chemists such as Newland, Lother and

most especially Mendelev, led to what is today known as the

Periodic Table.

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 Blocks in the Periodic Table

1 Groups 8

1 1s 2 3 4 5 6 7 1s s-block
2 2s 2p p-block
3 3s 3p d-block
f-block
Periods

4 4s 3d 4p

5 5s 4d 5p

6 6s La 5d 6p

7 7s Ac 6d

4f Lanthanide series

5f Actinide series
Groups (columns)
The Periodic Table
Metals, left
1 2 of red line 3 4 5 6 7 0
Non metals,
1 right of red 1
2 line 2
3 Transition metals 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
Periods (rows)
• Elements are arranged in order of their atomic number.
• The elements in each group have similar properties.
• Elements show changing trends across a period.
 Elements in the same Group in the Periodic
Table
➢Elements are arranged such that elements in a
particular vertical column (Group) have the
same number of electrons in its valence shell.
• Li [He] 2s1
• Na [Ne] 3s1
• K [Ar] 4s1
• Rb [Kr] 5s1
➢The elements arranged in groups (columns) possess related
chemical and physical properties
Elements in the same Period but different groups
in the Periodic Table
➢Each element in a horizontal row (Period) differs
from the preceding element by addition of an
electron to the electron shell and a proton to the
nucleus.
• Li Be B C
• 3 4 5 6
[He]2s1 [He]2s2 [He]2s22p1 [He]2s22p2
➢The elements arranged in periods (rows) possess
progressively different physical and chemical properties
 ns2np6
Ground State Electron Configurations of the
ns1
Elements for the outer most e-

ns2np1

ns2np2
ns2np3

ns2np4
ns2np5
ns2

d10
d1

d5

4f
5f
 Periodicity of Elements
➢Periodicity refers to the recurring trends that are observed in

properties of elements in the periodic table

➢ Periodicity is caused by regular and predictable variations

in element atomic structure.

 Periodic Properties
➢Periodic properties are the properties of the elements which depend

on their electronic configuration

➢These are properties that repeat after certain intervals or down a

group in the periodic table

➢Elements show gradual changes in certain physical properties

across a period or down a group.

Periodic properties include:
Atomic Radius Ionic Radius Ionization Energy
Electron Affinity Electronegativity
 Periodic properties
➢The trends of the following;

• Atomic Radius

• Ionization Energy

• Electronegativity
 Atomic Radii

Atomic Radius – This is half the distance between 2

nuclei of a homo diatomic molecule.
Treand:
• Atomic radius decreases across a period owing to
increase in the positive charge from the protons.

• Each added electron feels a greater and positive

charge because the protons are pulling in the same
direction.

Large Small .
 Trends in Atomic Radii
➢This is Influenced by three factors:

1. Energy Level of the valence electron

✓The higher the energy level the further the

distance from the nucleus.

✓Distance from nucleus is in order of energy

level

1<2<3<4<5<6<7
2. Nuclear charge - this is the number of protons in the nucleus
✓The higher the charge the closer the electrons to the
nucleus.
Nuclear charge = atomic number
✓Higher the atomic number, the smaller the size
3. Shielding or screening effect by inner electrons -this is the
screening of outermost electrons from the nucleus by the
inner electrons (electron repulsion)
✓The greater the shielding or screening effect, the larger the
size
 Ionization Energy
• Ionization energy (IE) is defined as the energy (in
kJ/mole) required to remove the most loosely
bound electron from an isolated gaseous atom to
form a positive gaseous ion

• If a small amount of energy is supplied to an

atom, electrons may be promoted to a higher
energy level, but if the amount of energy supplied
is sufficiently large the electron may be
completely removed.
 First Ionization Energy
First Ionization energy is the minimum energy (kJ/mol)
required to remove an electron or first electron from a
gaseous atom in its ground state to form a gaseous
ion .
X(g) X+(g) + e-
I1 first ionization energy
X+(g) X2+(g) + e-
I2 second ionization energy
X2+(g) X3+(g) + e-
I3 third ionization energy
I1 < I2 < I3
✓ Ionization energy is always endothermic, that is energy is added

to the atom to remove the electron.

✓ The energy required to remove an electron from an atom reduces

as the size of the atom increases.

✓ Ionization energy and atomic radius are inversely

proportional

✓ The larger the atom, the smaller the ionization energy, the larger

the atomic radii

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 Factors Affecting Ionization Energy

Nuclear Charge
The larger the nuclear charge, the greater the ionization energy.
Shielding effect
The greater the shielding effect, the less the ionization energy.
Radius
The greater the distance between the nucleus and the outer
electrons of an atom, the less the ionization energy.
Sublevel
An electron from a full or half-full sublevel requires additional
energy to be removed.
 Full and half full orbitals in IE
➢ Full and half full orbitals are stable

➢ filled ns and np orbitals i.e. ns2 and np6

➢ half filled np3 orbitals

✓ They have higher ionization energy than is expected

due to reluctance of orbital to lose its stability

 Group trends in Ionization Energy (IE)
➢ Group trends is based on first, second, third, fourth etc IE

➢ Down a group, first IE decreases because

✓ Atomic radius of the atoms increases

✓ Shielding effect increases.

 First Ionization Energies
(in kilojoules per mole)

H He
1312.1 2372.5

Li Be B C N O F Ne
520.3 899.5 800.7 1086.5 1402.4 1314.0 1681.1 2080.8

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
495.9 737.8 577.6 786.5 1011.8 999.7 1251.2 1520.6

K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
418.9 589.9 578.6 761.2 946.5 940.7 1142.7 1350.8

Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
402.9 549.2 558.2 708.4 833.8 869.0 1008.7 1170.3
 Periodic Trends in IE
• Atoms in the same period have valence electrons in the

same energy level.

• Same shielding.

• nuclear charge increases across the period

• So IE generally increases from left to right.

• Exceptions at full and 1/2 full orbitals.

 Ionization Energies of s- and p-block elements
• For elements in the second and third row of the
periodic table, successive ionization energies increase
steadily as electrons are removed from the valence
orbitals (2s or 2p & 3s or 3p) followed by a large
increase in ionization energy when electrons are
removed from filled core levels.

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• First ionization energies tend to increase across the period of
the periodic table because the valence electrons do not
screen each other, allowing the effective nuclear charge to
increase steadily across the row.

• Valence electrons are attracted more strongly by the nucleus,

so atomic sizes decrease and ionization energies increase.

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• The first ionization energies of the elements in the first six
rows of the periodic table illustrate three trends:
1. Changes seen in the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth

rows of the s and p blocks follow the same pattern.

Ionization energies increase from left to right across each

row.

2. First ionization energies decrease down a group due to the

following reasons in a-d

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a. Filled inner shells are effective at screening the valence
electrons, so there is a small increase in the effective
nuclear charge.
b. The atoms become larger as they acquire electrons.
c. Valence electrons farther from the nucleus are less tightly
bound, making them easier to remove and causing
ionization energies to decrease.
d. A larger nucleus radius corresponds to a lower ionization
energy.

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3. Because of the trends described in 1 and 2;
a. The elements that form positive ions most easily (have the lowest
ionization energies) lie in the lower-left corner of the periodic table

b. Those elements that are hardest to ionize lie in the upper-right corner
of the periodic table

c. Ionization energies increase diagonally from lower left to upper right

d. Minor deviations from this trend can be explained in terms of
particularly stable electronic configurations, called pseudo-inert gas
configurations, in either the parent atom or the resulting ion.
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 Electronegativity

➢Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an

atom in a molecule to attract electrons to itself.

➢This concept was first proposed by Linus Pauling

(1901-1994) who later won a Nobel Prize for his

efforts.
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to
attract toward itself the electrons in a covalent
bond

A . B

Metals: Low tendency to attract electrons, high

tendency to release electrons.

Non-metals: High tendency to attract electrons, low

tendency to release electrons.
➢ Small atoms attract electrons more strongly than large
ones, and hence small atoms are more electronegative.

➢ Atoms with nearly filled shells of electrons tend to have

higher electro-negativities than those with sparsely
occupied ones.

➢ If two atoms have similar electro-negativities, the bond

between them will be predominantly covalent.

➢ A large difference in electronegativity leads to a bond with

a high degree of polar character, that is the bond is
predominantly ionic. 33
 Group Trends in Electronegativity
• Down a group in the periodic table, the size of the atom
increase therefore valence electrons are further away from
the nucleus and better shielded from the nuclear charge .

• This results in less attraction of nucleus for the valence

electrons.

• For that reason the electronegativity decreases as you go

down the group

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 Periodic Trends in Electronegativity
• The atoms have same energy levels but size decreases

across the period.

• Attraction of nucleus for valence electrons increases.

• Hence, Electronegativity increases from left to right

across a period

• F is highest or most electronegative element

 Recap
➢ Periodic table

➢ The History

➢ Periodic properties

➢ Trends with respect to

a. Ionic radius

b. Ionization energy

c. Electro-negativity
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 Questions
1. Which one of the following statements concerning elements in the Periodic Table is
• correct?
• A) Elements of the same group all have the same number of electrons in the
• outermost occupied electron shell.
• B) Elements of Group 16 occur as cations in ionic compounds.
• C) Oxides of elements in Groups 16 and 17 are basic.
• D The halogens (Group 17) are all gases at room temperature.
• E) The Group 13 elements are all metals.

2. In the periodic table, the elements are arranged in order of increasing

A. Atomic number B. Atomic mass C. Number of valence electrons D. Electronegativity

3. Which one of the following elements has the lowest first ionization energy?
A. Li B. Mg C. Na D. Al

4. Across the period atomic size decreases due to

A. shielding effect B. photoelectric effect
C. increase in nuclear force of attraction D. decrease in nuclear force of attraction
 Activity
Q: The electron configuration of elements A, B
and C are [He]2s1, [Ne]3s1 and [Ar]4s1
respectively. Arrange the elements in
increasing order of the first ionization
potential (in kJ mol–1).

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Why does Metals have low ionization energy; nonmetals have
high ionization energy?

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2. Which of the following order is correct for the
first ionization energies of their elements?
1) B < Be < N < O
2) Be < B < N < O
3) B < Be < O < N
4) B < O < Be < N