Branches of Science

Major Branches of Earth Science

Geology Physical Geology Histological

Studies the Earth's Geology
materials and aim to Aims to understand
understand the process that the origin of Earth
occur below and on its and the
surface development of the
- Comparing other planet through its
rocks (the history
characteristic) - How are the
rocks made?

Meteorology - Study of the

atmosphere and the
processes that
produce weather
and climate

Oceanography - Scientific study of

the ocean, including
its physical
properties, sea floor
topography,
chemical
composition,
ecosystems, coastal
processes, and
marine life.
- It integrates
chemistry, biology,
physics, and
geology.

Astronomy - The study of the Why do we need to study

universe includes the universe?
celestial objects - In order to
such as stars, understand what is
planets, comets, and happening in Earth
galaxies. It involves - Earth is a dynamic
 Major Branches of Earth Science

understanding their body with

origins, movements, interacting parts.
compositions, and
the physical laws
that govern them.

Properties of the Earth System

- Runs on energy from the sun and Earth’s internal heat
- Has interconnected cycles that affect each other ( like how the water cycle can affect the
atmosphere, weather, climate, different organisms) causing changes throughout the whole
system.

Atmosphere (Air) Hydrosphere (water) Geosphere (Land) Biosphere (All living

things)

- All - Layers of the - All living

- Protects the microorganis Earth (Crust, organisms on
planets, heat, ms need Mantle, and Earth,
and etc. water. etc) including
- Without the - All the water - How plants,
atmosphere it on Earth, earthquake animals, and
can shape how including something humans, as
we live (we’ll oceans, lakes, something well as the
just die ig.) rivers, - The solid part ecosystems
- The layer of groundwater, of Earth, they form.
gases and ice, and consisting of The biosphere
surrounding still water. It rocks, interacts with
Earth, which plays a vital minerals, and the other
includes role in the land itself. spheres to
oxygen, supporting IT includes support life
nitrogen, and life, shaping the Earth’s and maintain
other gases. It the land and crust, mantle, ecological
protects the regulating and core, and balance.
planet, climate is involved in
regulates processes like
 temperature earthquakes,
and enables volcanic
weather and activity, and
climate. the formation
of mountains.

Nature of Science Inquiry

F H T
acts are ypothe heory
collecte sis e
d to i levated

I. ASTRONOMY
a. Origin and Fate of the Universe

HOW DID THE UNIVERSE BEGIN?

What creation story do you believe in?
Our galaxy is still expanding…

- The Big Bang Theory is the most accepted theory of the Origin of the Universe.

UNIVERSE
● Vast, all-encompassing system of matter, energy, space, and time
● Believe to have begun 13.8 billion of years ago and is constantly expanding ever since
● Cosmology is the study of the universe; its origin, structure, and behavior.

The Big Bang Theory

● Suggests that the universe began a signal, extremely hot, and dense point around 13.8
billion years ago
● The Big Bang was an expansion, rather an explosion, of space itself
● Proponent: George Lemaître
the hypothesis of the primeval atom or cosmic egg
● The one who made it solid was Edwin Hubble

>Cosmological Redshift (The Facts)

 ● Atmosphere of stars absorbs specific wavelengths of light, this tell us the chemical comp
and relative distance
● Galaxies moving away from shifted to longer (redder) wavelengths
● Edwin Hubble discovered that most galaxies are moving away from us and that their
speed is proportional to their distance.
● Violet is near while red is far from the naked eye.
● It’s moving away from because the galaxy is expanding
>Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation(The Facts)
● Discovered by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson by accident and received a Nobel Prize
in 1978
● Left over radiation from the BigBang; very cold 2.725k
● This “first light” has stretched over billions of years due to the universe's expansion, and
it now appears in the microwave part of the EM spectrum.

Timeline of the big bang

How old is our universe? = 13.8 billion years

Singularity epoch)

0 to 10−43seconds
All matter was condensed into a single point. All fundamental forces are unified

1. Grand Unification
−43
10 seconds
- Those fundamental forces are one
- Gravity seperates
- After that, formations of elementary particles (quarks, electrons, neutrinos)

How many fundamental forces? -

1. Gravity
2. Electromagnetism
3. Strong nuclear force
4. Weak nuclear force

2. Inflationary Epoch
10^36 to 10-32 seconds
- Extremely rapid exponential expansion
- Extremely high temperatures
- Separated Strong nuclear force
 3. Quark Soup
10-32 to 1 second
- 4 fundamental forces separated but still existing
- At this point, the universe became cold. This forms stronger bonds.
- Liquid-like material formed out of quarks and gluons, the most basic known building
blocks of matter.

4. Nucleosynthesis
3 to 20 minutes
- The universe kept on cooling down
- Protons formed
- Protons and neutrons combine through nuclear fusion to form hydrogen helium and
lithium
- Helium (first element that was formed)

5. Recombination
240,000 to 300,000 years
- The electrons are capable on attaching sa elements (atoms) and it led to the formation of
light (photon)
- The universe cooled enough for hydrogen and helium to form neutral atoms, allowing
light to travel freely and creating the CMBR

6. Dark Age
300,000 to 150 million years
- This period has NO stars at all
- Lightless period before star formation.
- Dominated by diffuse matter, low energy and dark matter

7. Reionization
240,000 to 300,000 years
- Quasars formed which emitted intense radiation
- The universe is composed of ionized plasma
- Birthplace of stars

8. Star and Galaxy Formation

300 - 500 million years
9. Solar System Formation
300,000 - 150 million years
FATE OF THE UNIVERSE (HOW WILL THE UNIVERSE D I E)

#1 Big Crunch
● The expansion of the universe reverses, and the universe collapses
● The universe will stop expanding.
● Gravitational contraction would follow, causing all matter to eventually collide and
coalesce into the high-energy, high density state from which the universe began.

#2 Open Universe
● The universe expands forever
● If the density of the universe is less than the critical value, about one atom for every cubic
meter, it will continue to expand forever.

Stellar Evolution
Stellar birth
Nebula → Protostar → main-sequence star → red giant stage → variable stage → planetary
nebula stage → white dwarf stage (SuperNova and White Dwarf) → Neutron star/Black hole
→ to black dwarf
● Birthplace of stars: Nebula interstellar clouds, rich in dust and gases
● Trigger: Shockwave from a catastrophic explosion or supernova (death of a nearby star)
● Mechanism: gravitational attraction of particles causes the cloud to contract, pulling
particles to the center

Protostar Stage
● Is not yet a star, because its not yet HOT
● Not hot enough to engage in nuclear fusion; not yet a star.
● Contraction continues as the core of the developing star heats up to 10 million K.
● Radiates energy in the red wavelength
● Temperature needed for nuclear fusion, 10,000,000 Kevins

[Stable] Main Sequence Star

● Outward pressure balances the inward gravitational force
● Stars spend 90% of their life as a hydrogen-burning main sequence star
● The sun is expected to remain a stable main sequence star for another 5 billion years.

Red Giant Stage

For some cases supergiants
● Usable hydrogen in the star’s interior is consumed, leaving a helium rich core
 ● The core contracts since it no longer has gas pressure necessary to support against inward
force of gravity
● The core’s collapse causes its temperature to rise, expanding the star’s outer gaseous shell

Variable Stage
● Eventually the star's gravitational force stops outward expansion and the two opposing
forces, gravity and gas pressure, again achieve balance
● Variable stars alternately expand and contract, and never reach equilibrium.
● We often see these as stars whose brightness changes irregularly.

Burnout and Death

● Stars exhaust their usable nuclear fuel and collapse in response to their immense gravity
○ For low-mass stars WHITE DWARF
■ Stellar Remnants
● After low and medium mass stars consume their remaining fuel,
gravity causes them to collapse into white dwarfs.
● Contains degenerate matter
Neutron Stars
○ Remnants of explosive supernova events
○ Electrons are forced to combine with prodspjvfjerorv(what is this?)
Black Holes
● Densest object in the universe
● Immense surface gravity, even light cannot escape it
● Formed after a supernova event
○ For medium-mass stars PLANETARY NEBULAE
○ For massive stars SUPERNOVA
● Stages
● Burnout and Death
● Stellar Remnants
a. Nebular Hypothesis
b. Formation of the Earth’s Layers and the Atmosphere

NEBULAR THEORY

● Solar system formed from a rotating cloud of gas and dust (solar nebula).
● The nebula collapsed under gravity → formed a protosun at the center.
● Conversion of gravitational energy to thermal energy heated the disk.
● Cooling → rocky and metallic materials condensed into solid particles.
 ● Iron, nickel, and silicate materials (high melting points) formed near the protosun;
volatile compounds (water, ammonia, methane) formed farther away.
● Repeated collisions → dust particles formed planetesimals → planets.
● A Mars-sized body (Theia) collided with proto-Earth → debris formed the Moon.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM

● Planets' proximity to the protosun determined composition:

○ Terrestrial planets (inner) – rocky, made of high-melting materials.
○ Jovian planets (outer) – gas and ice-rich, larger due to cold temperatures.
● Protoplanets beyond Mars contain water, CO₂, ammonia, and methane.

FORMATION OF EARTH'S LAYERS AND ATMOSPHERE

● Larger planetesimals merged → proto-Earth.

● Intense heating → iron and nickel melted → formed dense iron-rich core.
● Lighter materials rose → magma ocean → cooled to form primitive crust.
● Chemical differentiation → formed iron-rich core, crust, and mantle.
● Theia collision → debris formed the Moon.
● Volcanic eruptions released gases → formed primitive atmosphere (water vapor, CO₂,
sulfur dioxide).
● Cooling → water vapor condensed → rain filled low areas → oceans formed.
● Asteroid and comet impacts → added water and organic molecules.
● First life forms (prokaryotes) emerged → cyanobacteria released oxygen → oxygen
accumulated in atmosphere.

EARTH'S MATERIALS
Minerals

● Naturally occurring, inorganic solids with crystalline structures and chemical formulas.
● Characteristics:
○ Naturally occurring
○ Solid
○ Orderly crystalline structure
○ Generally inorganic
○ Definable chemical composition

Optical Properties:
 ● Luster: How light reflects off a mineral’s surface (metallic, submetallic, nonmetallic).
● Light Transmission:
○ Opaque – no light passes through
○ Translucent – light passes, but no image
○ Transparent – light and image pass through
● Streak: Color of mineral in powdered form.
● Crystal Shape: Form of a crystal (bladed, prismatic).
● Strength:
○ Brittle – shatters easily
○ Malleable – hammered into shapes
○ Hardness – resistance to scratching (Moh's scale)
○ Cleavage – tendency to break along planes of weakness

ROCK CYCLE & TYPES OF ROCKS

Processes:

● Melting: Rocks melt → magma

● Cooling and Crystallization: Magma cools → igneous rock
● Weathering, Erosion, Deposition: Rocks broken down → transported → deposited
● Lithification: Sediments compressed → sedimentary rocks
● Metamorphism: Heat and pressure → metamorphic rocks
● Uplift: Rocks exposed to surface → starts cycle again

Igneous Rocks:

● Extrusive: Small crystals, rapid cooling (ex: basalt, pumice)

● Intrusive: Large crystals, slow cooling (ex: granite, gabbro)
● Felsic: Light-colored, rich in silica
● Mafic: Dark-colored, rich in magnesium and iron
● Intermediate: Mix of felsic and mafic

Sedimentary Rocks:

● Detrital: Formed from weathered rock fragments (ex: sandstone, shale)

● Chemical: Formed from precipitation of dissolved minerals (ex: evaporites)
● Organic: Formed from organic material (ex: coal, chalk)

Metamorphic Rocks:

● Foliated: Layered texture due to directed pressure (ex: slate)

● Non-Foliated: No layers; uniform texture (ex: marble)
● Agents of Metamorphism:
○ Heat – triggers recrystallization
○ Stress – causes deformation
○ Chemically active fluids – enhance recrystallization
MOUNTAINS
Endogenic Processes:

● Driven by geothermal energy (internal)

● Includes tectonic activity, volcanism, earthquakes

Tectonic Activity:

● Convergent: Plates collide → mountains

● Divergent: Plates pull apart
● Transform: Plates slide past each other

Volcanic Activity:

● Intrusive: Magma solidifies below surface

● Extrusive: Magma erupts as lava

EXOGENIC PROCESSES

● Driven by external forces (sun, wind, water)

● Weathering: Breakdown of rocks
○ Mechanical: Physical breakdown (ex: frost wedging)
○ Chemical: Breakdown by chemical reactions (ex: oxidation)
● Erosion: Transport of sediments by wind, water, gravity
● Deposition: Settling of sediments in new locations
● Mass Wasting: Downslope movement of rocks/soil due to gravity
○ Creep: Slow movement
○ Slide: Rapid movement
○ Flow: Torrents of water carrying debris
○ Fall: Freefall of rock fragments

LANDFORMS
- natural feature of the earth’s surface that has a distinct shape and structure

Structure:

Major Type- Mountains, hills plateaus, plains

Minor Types- Canyons, valleys, buttes, basins

 ● Mountains:
- Uplifted land, steep slopes and small summy
- has to be 1000ft tall and formed for 1M years
Ex: Dormant volcanoes (volcanic mountain), Mt. Apo
PROCESSES: OROGENESIS

OROGENESIS- is a process of mountain formation, typically as a result of collision and

interaction of tectonic plates

Key processes:

- Collision of plates; subduction of faulting;volcanism

> Fold Mountains- formed by uplift of mainly folded sedimentary rock strata under
compressional forces

- Create at convergent plate boundaries. Sometimes calle continental collision zones or

compression zones
- Collision + Fold
- Tectonic plate movement

> Fault Block Mountain- formbed by the movement of large coastal blocks along faults
- formation of mountains along fault lines, and one are elevates
Ex: Sierra Nevada, Right-Valley Mountain

*faults- fracture of zone of fractures in the Earth’s crust along which movement has occurred

Dome Mountain

- When molten rock pushes the Earth’s crust upward but does not break through the
surfaces
- Swelling + uplift of land due to high heat
- Ex: Half Dome, Adirondaracks

● Plateaus:
- flat elevated landforms with steep insides
● Referes as table land
- Elevated flatlands formed by tectonics/volcanism+ crustal shortening
- ExL Kukenan Tupui, Venezuela

Formed through:
Crustal Shortening- lateral shortening in a fold mountain belt by compression cause by plate
collision

Plains: Broad, flat land formed by deposition/erosion, ir gebtky rolling ares if kabd
Ex: Great Plains, North America. Bicol Plain, Central Luzon

Formed through:
Deposition- Sediments deposited by rivers or wind
Erosion- long-term leveling or landscapes by weathering and erosion

● Hills: Small rounded elevations w/ an elevated, smaller and less steep than mountains

Formed by: Erosion, tectonic and volcanic activity, deposition

Ex: Chocolate Hills

● Valleys: Low areas between hills/mountains formed by erosion

River Erosion- water cuts through rock over time

Glacial Erosion- U- shaped valleys formed by moving glaciers

● Deltas: Triangular landforms at river mouths meet longer water bodies

Formed by: Deposition sediment carried by rivers settle when water velocity decreases

Ex: Nile Delta