🌿 Definitions of Species

Biological Species Concept

 Species Definition: Group of organisms with similar morphological and physiological

features able to breed and produce fertile offspring.
o Challenges: Difficult and time-consuming to determine interbreeding and
fertility.
 Morphological Species Concept:
o Groups organisms by observable physical features.
 Ecological Species Concept:
o Defines species based on shared ecological niches.

Binomial Nomenclature

 System Developed by: Carl Linnaeus in the 18th Century.

o Format: Two-part scientific name (genus and species).
o Example: Saccharomyces cerevisiae (commonly known yeast).
o Writing Rule: Italicised or underlined if italics aren't possible.

🌍 The Three Domains: Archaea, Bacteria & Eukarya

Taxonomy Overview

 Definition: Practice of biological classification.

 Purpose: Understand evolutionary relationships.
 Hierarchical System: Multiple ranks, with the domain being the highest.

Domains

1. Archaea (Prokaryotes)
o Prokaryotic, often extremophiles.
o Unique Features:
 Unique membrane lipids.
 No peptidoglycan in cell walls.
 Ribosomal similarities with eukaryotes.
o Example: Halobacterium salinarum.
2. Bacteria (Prokaryotes)
o Simple, prokaryotic cells without nuclei.
o Cell Division: Binary fission.
o Example: Streptococcus pneumoniae (causes pneumonia).
3. Eukarya (Eukaryotes)
 o Membrane-bound nuclei and organelles.
o Cell Division: Mitosis.
o Reproduction: Sexual or asexual.
o Example: Canis lupus (wolves).

Differences between Archaea & Bacteria

 Membrane Lipids:
o Archaea: Ether linkages.
o Bacteria: Ester linkages.
 Ribosomes:
o Archaea: 70S similar to eukaryotes.
o Bacteria: 70S.
 Cell Wall Composition:
o Archaea: No peptidoglycan.
o Bacteria: Peptidoglycan present.

🦠 Eukarya Kingdoms
Protoctista
  Broad, diverse eukaryotic kingdom not fitting other three kingdoms.
 Can be unicellular or multicellular.
 Examples: Protozoa (animal-like cells), Algae (plant-like cells).

Fungi

 Oldest organisms known, eukaryotic.

 Characteristics:
o Non-cellulose cell walls.
o Heterotrophic, decomposers or parasites.
o Simple body forms, often reproduce via spores.
 Example: Bread mould.

Plantae

 Multicellular, autotrophic eukaryotes.

 Characteristics:
o Cellulose cell walls, chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
o Structural differentiation into tissues and organs.
 Example: Bristlecone pines.

Animalia

 Multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes.

 Characteristics:
o Differentiated cells, no cell walls.
o Complex bodies with nervous and chemical communication.
 Example: Blue whales.
🦠 Viruses
Characteristics

 Acellular, only visible under electron microscope.

 Depend on host cell machinery for replication.
 Sit outside the traditional classification system due to lacking life characteristics.

Genetic Classification

 Classified by nucleic acid type: DNA or RNA, single or double-stranded.

 Examples:
o DNA Single-stranded: Canine parvovirus type 2.
o RNA Single-stranded: SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19 virus).

These notes comprehensively outline the classification of species, domains, kingdoms, and
viruses as per the given A-level Biology curriculum. 🌿🦠

Ecosystems & Niches

Ecosystem Characteristics

 Definition: A relatively self-contained community of interacting organisms and the

environment.
 Components:
o Biotic: Living organisms interacting within the ecosystem.
o Abiotic: Non-living elements, e.g., soil, water, and climate.
 Energy Flow & Nutrient Recycling: Essential processes within ecosystems.

Scale & Complexity

 Vary greatly in size and complexity:

o Simple: Deserts with limited diversity.
o Complex: Tropical rainforests with extensive biodiversity.

Example

 Forest Ecosystem:
o Biotic Components: Trees, birds, mammals, insects, fungi.
o Abiotic Components: Soil, water, rocks, climate conditions.
Niche

 Definition: Includes the habitat, energy acquisition, and interactions of a species.

 Example: Dung Beetle (Scarabaeus satyrus):
o Utilizes dung as a food source.
o Rolls dung into balls for storage and transportation.

🌍 Biodiversity
Definition & Importance

 Study of variation within and between life forms.

 Critical for ecosystem resilience and environmental stability.

Assessment Levels

1. Ecosystem Diversity: Variety of different ecosystems within an area.

2. Species Diversity: Number and evenness of different species.
3. Genetic Diversity: Variation of alleles within a species' genome.

Biodiversity Examples

 High Biodiversity: Coral reefs with extensive microhabitats.

 Low Biodiversity: Sandy deserts with uniform conditions.

🔍 Random Sampling
Purpose

 To measure biodiversity accurately, especially in large or complex ecosystems.

Methods of Sampling

1. Random Sampling:
o Positions are determined randomly to avoid bias.
2. Systematic Sampling:
o Positions are chosen systematically, which may introduce bias.

Application
  Use random sampling when distribution patterns are unclear or uniform.

📏 Testing for Distribution & Abundance

Key Methods

1. Frame Quadrats:
o Used to mark off areas for sampling.
o Calculations include species frequency and density.
2. Line and Belt Transects:
o Track species distribution changes across physical gradients.
o Produce qualitative (line) or quantitative (belt) data.
3. Mark-Release-Recapture:
o Suitable for estimating mobile animal populations.
o Employs Lincoln Index for population estimates.

📊 Correlation Methods
Pearson's Linear Correlation

 Determines linear relationship between two variables.

 Requires quantitative, normally distributed data.
 Null hypothesis: No correlation exists.
 Equation: [ r = \frac{\sum (x - \bar{x})(y - \bar{y})}{(n-1)S_xS_y} ]
o ( r ) is the correlation coefficient.
o Worked Example provided for calculation.

Spearman's Rank Correlation

 For non-quantitative or non-linear data.

 Uses rank differences to assess correlation.
 Equation: [ r_s = 1 - \frac{6\sum D^2}{n(n^2 - 1)} ]
o Worked Example included for calculation.

🐢 Simpson's Index of Diversity

Purpose
  Measures species diversity considering both richness and evenness.

Calculation

 Formula: [ D = 1 - \sum \left(\frac{n}{N}\right)^2 ]

o n: Number of individuals per species.
o N: Total number of organisms.

Interpreting Results

 High D Value: Indicates high biodiversity.

 Low D Value: Indicates low biodiversity.

💡 Examiner Tip: Familiarize with formulas and calculation methods for statistical analyses as
they are crucial for exams. Always assess the appropriateness of statistical tests based on the data
conditions.

This structured summary should serve as a comprehensive guide to understanding biodiversity in

context with ecosystems, niches, and analytical methods relevant for assessments.

🌍 Reasons for Extinction

 Extinction: Occurs when a species dies out completely.
o Natural Process: Historically common; significant evidence from fossils and
ancient DNA.
o Mass Extinction Events: Periods when numerous species go extinct quickly due
to environmental shifts (e.g., Ice Age, asteroid impacts).
o Current Mass Extinction: Believed to be caused largely by human activities.
 Causes:
o Climate Change: Increased CO₂ from fossil fuels leads to global temperature
rises, sea level rise, melting ice caps, and ocean acidification, impacting habitats
(e.g., polar bears struggle due to melting ice).
o Competition: Limited resources lead to competition between species, affecting
population sizes.
o Introduction of Species: Non-native species (e.g., grey squirrels) can outcompete
or introduce diseases to native species.
o Hunting by Humans: Historically necessary for survival, now often for sport;
can lead to population declines.
o Habitat Loss: Destruction of environments is the primary extinction driver.
Includes deforestation, wetland drainage, and pollution.
o Genetic Impacts: Small populations face inbreeding, reduced genetic diversity,
and thus lower adaptability to change.
🌿 Reasons for Maintaining Biodiversity
 Biodiversity: Range of genes, species, and habitats in an area, contributing to
environmental stability and adaptability.
 Reasons:
o Ecological: Increases ecosystem stability and resilience to change.
o Economic: Valuable resources such as medicines (e.g., paclitaxel) and
ecotourism.
o Aesthetic: Nature inspires creativity and brings joy.
o Social: Activities like birdwatching and hiking foster human connections to the
environment.
o Moral/Ethical: Responsibility to protect other species and maintain biodiversity.
o Environmental: Provides essential services like carbon sequestration, water
purification, and nutrient cycles.
o Agricultural: Genetic diversity in wild relatives aids crop resilience.

Reason Explanation
Moral and ethical Obligation to minimize human impact on biodiversity.
Ecological Enhances ecosystem stability and resilience.
Environmental Vital ecological services (e.g., CO₂ absorption, nutrient cycling).
Economic Resources for medicine, tourism, and scientific research.
Aesthetic Nature's beauty serves as artistic inspiration and emotional fulfillment.
Agricultural Genetic variation in wild species can protect crops from diseases.

Methods of Conservation
 Conservation Strategies:
o National/Marine Parks: Protect ecosystems with regulated human activity,
promote tourism, and engage locals.
o Zoos: Captive breeding programs for reintroduction and scientific research,
despite challenges in maintaining genetic diversity.
o Botanic Gardens: Cultivate endangered plants for reintroduction, study growth
and reproduction.
o Frozen Zoos: Store genetic material of animals to preserve genetic diversity for
future use.
o Seed Banks: Store seeds to preserve plant genetic diversity and aid future
reintroduction.

Conservation
Role
Method
Regulation of human activities for ecosystem protection and public
National Parks
engagement.
Marine Parks Conservation of marine life with restrictions on fishing and pollution.
Zoos Captive breeding, research, and education.
Botanical Gardens Plant breeding and research.
Frozen Zoos Long-term storage of animal genetics for conservation.
Seed Banks Long-term storage of plant diversity to aid conservation.

🔬 Assisted Reproduction
 Techniques:
o IVF (In Vitro Fertilisation): External fertilization with subsequent embryo
transfer.
o Embryo Transfer: Utilize surrogate females to bear embryos from endangered
species, ensuring reproductive success.
o Surrogacy: Alternative species take on embryo pregnancies to reduce risks for
endangered mothers.

✅ Examiner Tip: Recognize the role of IVF and other assisted reproduction techniques in the
conservation of endangered species, not just human fertility treatments.

🚫 Controlling Invasive Species

 Invasive Species: Typically introduced by human activities; can overwhelm ecosystems
due to lack of natural predators.
 Issues: Displace native species, introduce diseases, alter habitats.
 Case Study: Cane toad in Australia, introduced for pest control, became a problematic
invasive species.

🌐 Role of IUCN in Conservation

 IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature): Global authority on
biodiversity and conservation measures.
o Red List: Public list categorizing threat levels of various species.
 CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species): Regulates trade
of endangered species, categorized into three appendices with varying levels of trade
restrictions.

This guide covers key points of conservation efforts as per the CIE A Level Biology syllabus,
offering an academic foundation for understanding biodiversity significance and conservation
challenges.