LESSON 1A: TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS PARTS OF THE HEART

★ TRANSPORT – essential • cardiac muscle – involuntary, *striated (muscles that

in moving and delivering can contract and relax independently) type of muscle,
substances or particles, with associated nervous and connective tissues
such as oxygen, carbon • pericardial cavity – the potential space formed
dioxide, fluid, nutrients, and between the two layers of serous pericardium around
metabolic wastes to the the heart.
different parts of the body
• pericardium – a protective, fluid-filled sac that
surrounds your heart and helps it function properly.
2 MAIN TYPES OF CIRCULATION
• septum – divides the heart into two sides:
Open circulation Closed circulation
(open circulatory system) (closed circulatory system) RIGHT: receives deoxygenated blood from the body
– circulating fluid – blood or circulating
(hemolymph) DOES NOT fluid PASSES within LEFT: receives oxygenated blood from the lungs
PASS through enclosed blood vessels that
tubes; instead, it is transport blood away UPPER CHAMBER – atria sssssssssssss
pumped by the heart to from and back to the
a network of channels heart LOWER CHAMBER – ventricles sssssss
and cavities
(hemocoels) throughout • atrio-ventricular valves – located between the upper
the body and lower chambers
– gas exchange takes
• tricuspid valve – between right atrium and right
place in network of
channels and cavities ventricle
Ex: Vertebrates (insects Ex: Invertebrates • mitral valve – between left atrium and left ventricle
and anthropods) (earthworms)
FLOW OF BLOOD TO THE HEART
– heart pumps blood to into – Blood is pumped from the
small cavities/ homocoels, “hearts” to a system of
where gas exchange vessels in different parts of 1. non-oxygenated blood enters superior and
between tissues and the body and returns back inferior venae cavae (singular: vena cava) and fill
hemolymph takes place to the heart the right atrium
– then, blood diffuses back
to central cavity 2. tricuspid valve opens and brings blood to right
ventricle, then closes when blood reaches the right
COMPONENTS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: ventricle to prevent regurgitation
heart, blood, blood vessels, and valves
3. from right ventricle, blood is pumped into
★ HEART – pumps blood to all parts of the body pulmonary arteries ➡ capillaries of air sacs in the
- develops embryo 4 weeks following fertilization lungs (where exchange of gases take place)
- beats 2.5 billion times without interruption
4. oxygenated blood flows to pulmonary veins ➡ to
left atrium
5. mitral valve opens, and oxygenated blood is
pumped into the left ventricle

6. Blood flows from left ventricle to aorta through

aortic valve

Superior & inferior vena cava ➡ RIGHT ATRIUM ➡

tricuspid valve ➡ RIGHT VENTRICLE ➡ (pulmonary
ARTERIES) ➡ LUNGS ➡ (pulmonary VEINS) ➡ LEFT
ATRIUM ➡ mitral valve ➡ LEFT VENTRICLE ➡ aortic
valve ➡ AORTA
★ BLOOD ★ VALVES – flaps of tissues that prevent the
– internal circulating medium of the human body. backward flow or regurgitation of blood.
– carries nutrients and oxygen to the cells of the – located between atrium and ventricle, and at the
body and carry away carbon dioxide and base of arteries that are attached to the heart
nitrogenous waste from body cells.
– consists of 55% plasma (liquid part – composed NOTE!! Auscultation – act of listening to
of water, proteins, electrolytes, and other internal sound of the body, usually using
substances); 45% blood cells or formed elements: stethoscope.

• red blood cells (erythrocytes) – transport oxygen *Heart Valves – bicuspid, tricuspid, aortic valves
and carbon and carbon dioxide
• white blood cells (leucocytes) – for defense and
immunity PATTERNS OF CIRCULATION
• blood platelets (thrombocytes) – essential in
blood clotting TWO TYPES OF CIRCULATION
- composed of water proteins (made up of
1. Pulmonary circulation – movement of blood from
fibrinogen, globulin, and albumin while the rest are
heart to the lungs, and back to the heart
composed of nutrients, waste products, gases and
hormones), electrolytes, and other substances 2. Systemic circulation – follows pulmonary
circulation. Once blood is in the aorta of the heart, it
NOTE!! Cells receive nourishment from will move out of the heart to be circulated to all parts
dissolved substances carried in the plasma.
of the body and other subsystems like the:
Substances: minerals, vitamins, amino acids,
and glucose *Coronary circulation – supplies blood to the heart
itself and involves blood circulation within the heart
muscles
★ BLOOD VESSELS - a tube through which the blood
circulates in the body. *Renal circulation – moves blood to the kidneys and
back to the heart
3 TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS
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1. arteries ➡ thick-walled vessels which allow the

passage of oxygenated blood, except the pulmonary
artery. *aorta (largest artery)
2. veins ➡ thin-walled vessels that carry non-
oxygenated blood towards the heart, except for the
pulmonary vein *superior and inferior venae
cavae (two large veins in the body)
3. capillaries ➡ very thin (only one layer of cells)
blood cells, serves as sites through which materials
between the blood and cells are exchanged
➡ diffusion of materials readily takes places
 LESSON 1B: TRANSPORT IN PLANTS XYLEM TRANSPORT
- greater distances are traveled by water and
★ TRANSPORT – much simpler in plants minerals in plants through xylem
- substances taken from the soil must be distributed • Transpiration – release of water vapor through
to all parts of the plant’s body for its growth and openings in the leaves causes a pressure that pulls
development water up (osmosis and diffusion are passive forces
that help molecules move from one cell to another)
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS
• Water Potential – main factor that regulates the
1. Nonvascular plants – those without vascular transport process in plants
tissues (xylem and phloem) – it represents free energy or the potential to do
work
– they cannot grow high above the ground because
– used to predict where water will move
they do not have these tissues that help transport
substances
• Guttation – is caused by strong root pressure
2. Vascular plants – has vascular tissues (xylem and wherein plants exude water from structures called
phloem) 'hydathodes” on margins or tips of leaf blades.

Two types of tissues:

PHLOEM TRANSPORT
Xylem Phloem
- vascular tissues in - are tissues that help • Translocation – process in which food produced
plants that help transport the products by plants during photosynthesis is distributed by
transport water and of photosynthesis to all the phloem tissues throughout the different parts of
minerals to all parts of parts of the plant the plant
the body
- occupies the marginal
- occupies central part part • Turgor Pressure – results from the influx of water
(the largest part) into the cell causing the plasma membrane to push
against the cell wall (drives phloem transport)
*radial rays – tissues found along the trunks of trees
that function in the radial distribution of food • Bulk flow – takes place in the sieve tubes without
any need for additional energy due to the difference
in water potential between sieve tubes and xylem.
THREE DIFFERENT PATHWAYS

Three different pathways through which water and

minerals pass to reach the xylem tissues along the
central part of roots.

1. apoplast pathway – transport from cell to cell

through the cell walls (cell wall to cell wall)

2. symplast pathway – water and minerals pass

through a continuum of cytoplasm between cells (cell
to cell transport by cytoplasm to cytoplasm)

3. transmembrane transport – transport between cells

through the plasmodesmata

*Casparian strip – blocks the passage of water

through the cell walls.

- Water then detours through the plasma membrane

and protoplasts of the endodermis to reach xylem
tissues
 LESSON 2A: GAS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS • mucous membrane – layer of specialized cells,
lines the walls of the nasal passages that secrete
★ GAS EXCHANGE – refers to the process of bringing mucus.
blood to the lungs through the circulatory system • cilia – microscopic hairs on the surface cells of
mucous membrane
• animals with simple body organization (sponges) –
gas exchange is done through diffusion 2. Pharynx (throat) – passageways for food and air
• animals with complex body organization – gas • epiglottis – flap of cartilage that presses down and
exchange is done through a respiratory system covers the opening of the air passage when food is
swallowed
Aquatic animals – exchanges gases directly with body
cells and the environment (sponges, cnidarians, and 3. Larynx (voice box/Adam’s apple) – located at the
some worms); however, majority of the macroscopic upper end of the trachea and is involved in sound
aquatic animals use gills for gas exchange production

In fishes, the heart is two-chambered (1 atrium and 1 4. Trachea (windpipe) – transports air to and from
ventricle). Gas exchange is made more efficient the lungs. It is lined with mucous membranes
through countercurrent flow, where the blood and containing small hairlike projections called cilia.
water meet in opposite directions. – is divided into two hollow branches, the bronchi
Amphibians (frogs) – heart is three-chambered with 2 5. Bronchi (main passageways into the lungs)
atria and one ventricle – each bronchus is attached to the lungs
• Underwater – they use their moist skin for gas – is lined with cilia and mucus that help filter air
exchange (cutaneous breathing)
6. Lungs – inside the lungs, bronchus divides into
• Land – they use their lungs and sometimes their smaller branches: bronchial tubes which branch
most skin into smaller microscopic tubes: bronchioles

THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM – each bronchiole opens into thin-walled bulb-
shaped structures called air sacs or alveoli cells
BREATHING – process of inhaling and exhaling air which are surrounded by capillaries that are
which involves interactions of the diaphragm, ribs important in gas exchange
and abdomen II. Internal respiration – gas exchange between
During: inhalation – chest cavity expands, cells and the blood of the body
diaphragm flattens since its muscles contract,
which pushes down the abdomen (there is decrease • air moving into alveoli – rich in oxygen, poor in CO2
in air pressure in lungs) • blood in the capillaries surrounding air sacs
– low in oxygen, rich in CO2
Exhalation – diaphragm and rib muscles relax, and
lungs deflate (air pressure inside is greater) Thus, gases move by diffusion from areas of higher
concentration to areas of lower concentration
AIR PASSAGE AND GAS EXCHANGE

TWO TYPES OF GAS EXCHANGE

I. EXTERNAL RESPIRATION – exchange of gases
between the atmosphere and the lungs (alveoli
cells)

Organs involved:

1) Nose

• nostrils – two openings in the nose that serve as

entrance for the passage of air into the body
 LESSON 2B: GAS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS OTHER RESPIRATORY ORGANS IN PLANTS:

★ Stomata “breathing organs of plants” • Lenticels – small elevated, oval-shaped structures

found along the stem of plants which also function for
– pore found in the leaf epidermis which serve as entry gas exchange
points of gases in plants

– passageways for transpiration of water through • Pneumatophores – specialized roots that aid in gas
leaves during hot and windy days exchange (they are common in mangrove trees)

– commonly located at the lower epidermis of leaves

– they are openings in the leaves of plants flanked by

a pair of sausage-shaped cells called guard cells

*Guard cells – specialized epidermal cells that have

chloroplasts.

– The size of stomata is controlled by the condition of

the guard cells

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE OPENING AND

CLOSING OF THE STOMATA
• Turgor pressure – responsible for the opening and
closing of the stomata

When guard cells are turgid, the stomata are open.

*Daytime: guard cells are open during daytime

when photosynthesis takes place
*Nighttime: guard cells lose turgor as sucrose
produced during the day is unloaded outside (guard
cells become flaccid, and results in the closing of
the stomata)

Other factors:

1. Presence of abscisic acid (ABA) – a plant

hormone that plays and important role in
allowing potassium ions to move rapidly out of
the guard cells during drought, resulting in
decease in turgor pressure
2. Carbon dioxide concentration
3. Temperature
4. Light
 LESSON 3A: ANIMAL DEFENSE RESPONSES – passive immunity is acquired after a
person is exposed to a precarious
THREE LINES OF DEFENSE OF A HUMAN BODY disease
– An immune serum preparation is
1. First line of defense – involves integumentary
administered to provide the person
system.
with short-term immunity
– The outermost covering of the body (skin, mucous
membranes, urogenital tracts, and digestive tube) is b) Artificially acquired immunity – can be active or
the first barrier against invasion of microbes passive form, it can be introduced through a
vaccine, a substance that contains antigens
2. Second line of defense – is nonspecific
immunity (innate).
ANTIBODIES or IMMUNOGLOBULINS
– The body uses a battery of cells that are part of
the nonspecific immune system. The cells secrete – are proteins produced from the circulating
chemicals and proteins that help in the destruction lymphocytes that have the capacity to ward off foreign
of pathogenic microorganisms substances (antigens)

– takes action when first line of defense is breached – they can recognize and bind to an antigen
(bacterium or viruses) which could destroy them
3. Third line of defense – is specific immunity.
– This can identify and remove pathogenic – do not kill invading pathogens directly; rather, they
microorganisms that have evaded the innate cause destruction of pathogens by targeting them for
immune system an attack by other nonspecific cells

FIVE TYPES OF IMMUNOGLOBULINS (Ig)

• Humoral Immunity – ability to produce antibodies to
ward off foreign substances 1. IgG – present in circulation which comes in
contact directly with pathogens
TWO TYPES OF IMMUNITIES
– major form of antibody found in blood plasma and
1. Inborn Immunity – a genetic predisposition (we produced in secondary immune response
receive it from our parents and ancestors)
2. IgA – exists in bodily secretions (saliva, tears,
2. Acquired Immunity – antibodies could be obtained colostrum, breast milk, mucosal linings)
when we are exposed to antigens
– attach to antigens as to not reach the bloodstream
Two Types of Acquired Immunity:
3. IgM – is the broadest and is found circulating in the
a) Naturally acquired immunity – occurs when the body. They first encounter the pathogens that reach
person is exposed to a live pathogen, develops the
the bloodstream
disease, and becomes immune as a result of
primary immune response. This happens in: 4. IgE – plays big role in allergic reactions, particularly
in stimulating the release of histamines (is released
• active form – active immunity is obtained
when the body experiences allergic reaction)
once a person comes in direct contact with
a disease which provides a permanent 5. IgD – signifies antigen-antibody type
immunity differentiation
– could be done by administering a proper – attached to the surface of B-cells (produced by the
vaccine, in some cases booster shots are bone marrow and are part of the body’s adaptive
needed2 immune system that that generates antibodies)
– this provides a long-term immunity
★ VACCINATION – the process of introducing an
• passive form – passive immunity is attenuated or weakened antigen in a susceptible
obtained during fetal development through host.
the mother’s placenta and by breastfeeding
upon rearing the new born – It is done for the purpose of increasing immunity
against a particular infectious agent
• Nonspecific response / defense mechanisms: – In turn, they provide substances such as
physical barriers and inflammatory response hormones needed for plant growth

• Specific response / defense mechanisms: physical c) Azospirillium – also provide plant growth
barriers and inflammatory response hormones like gibberellic acid

2. Chemical defenses – involves the production of

toxins, which kills their enemies

• Cyanogenic glycosides – cyanide-containing

compounds that break down into cyanide when
ingested

• Cyanides – can stop cellular respiration by

blocking the electron transport chain. When this
happens, it kills the attacking organisms

• Manihotoxin – a bitter and toxic material found in

the outer covering of the modified roots of cassava

*Hemlock plant (Conium maculatum) – a highly

poisonous plant that could kill a person from 20
minutes to three hours after ingestion of its extract

• Ricin – an alkaloid found in castor beans (Ricinus

Communis) that is six times more lethal than
cyanide and twice as lethal as a cobra’s venom

Secondary metabolites – help drive away

predators, and may affect herbivores including
humans
– enclosed in membrane-bound organelles which
are separated from the rest of the cytoplasm so
that they do not get involved in cellular metabolism

LESSON 3B: PLANT DEFENSE RESPONSES Examples: caffeine, cocaine, nicotine, morphine

Allelopathy – some plants produce chemical

TWO TYPES OF PLANT DEFENSE MECHANISMS
toxins that are released to the ground which may
1. Physical defenses prevent seed germination or inhibit the growth of
other competing plants.
• First line of defense of plants: presence of dermal – minimizes shading and overcrowding among
covering (made up of epidermal tissues) plants

• Physical defense structures of plants:

trichomes, barks, spines and thorns

Bacteria and fungi beneficial to plants:

a) Rhizobium – nitrogen-fixing bacteria that helps

make the soil more fertile by turning nitrogen intro
nitrates which the plants can use.

b) Rhizobacterium – lives around the roots of

plants, benefit from root saps or exudates.