MINERALOGY
Symmetry Elements of
Crystallographic
Systems
CONTE Physical Properties
of Minerals
NT Process
Formation
of Minerals
MINERAL
OGY
It is a scientific discipline that is concerned
with all aspects of minerals, Including their
physical properties, chemical composition,
internal crystal structure, and occurrence and
distribution in nature and their origins in
terms of the physicochemical conditions of
formation.
MINERAL
To the scientific perspective (a naturally
The definition of the term "mineral" range occurring solid, generally formed by
from the historical perspective (any inorganic processes with an ordered
material that is neither animal nor internal arrangement of atom, sand, and
vegetable) through the legalistic chemical composition and physical
perspective (something valuable that properties that are either fixed or that
maybe extracted from the earth and is very within some definite range).
subject to depletion).
ELEMENTARY
KNOWLEDGE ON
SYMMETRY
ELEMENTS OF
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC
SYSTEMS
CRYST
ALS
A solid body bounded by plane natural
surfaces, which are the extermal
expression of a regular arrangement of
its constituent atoms orions (Berry,
Mason and Dietrich, 1983).
ZONE IN
CRYSTLAS
Azone in a crystal consists of a collection of a set
crystal faces that are parallel to a particular line (or
direction) term as the zone axis. On the other hand,
a zone plane occurs at right angles to the zone axis.
SYMMETRY
ELEMENTS
Plane of Symmetry
This is defined as a plane along which the crystal may be cut into exactly similar halves each
of which is a mirror image of the other. A crystal can have one or more planes of symmetry.
SYMMETRY
ELEMENTS
Axis of Symmetry - is a line about which a crystal may be rotated through 360° until it
assumes a congruent position; n may equal 2, 3, 4, or 6 (but not 1), depending on the number
of times the congruent position is repeated. These correspond respectively to 2-fold (diad),
3-fold (triad), 4-fold (tetrad), and 6-fold (hexad) axes.
SYMMETRY
ELEMENTS
Center of Symmetry - is the point from which all similar faces are equidistant. It is a point
inside the crystal such that when a line passes through it, you'll have similar parts of the
crystal on either side at same distances. A cube possesses a centreof symmetry, but a
tetrahedron does not.
SEVEN PRIMITIVE
CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF MINERALS
COLOR
Minerals can be characterized and classified by
their physical properties such as color, luster, LUSTER
form, hardness, cleavage, fracture, tenacity, and
specific gravity. Not all of these properties would FORM
necessarily be needed to identify any one HARDNESS
mineral; two or three of them taken together may
be sufficient, apart from optical properties CLEAVAGE
FRACTURE
TENACITY
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
COL
OR
Some minerals have a distinctive color, like the green color of chlorite,
but most naturally occurring minerals contain traces of substances which
modify their color. For example, quartz, which is colorless when pure,
may be white, grey, pink or yellow, when certain chemical impurities or
included particles are present.
STREAK
Much more constant is the colour of a mineral in the powdered
condition, known as the streak. Streak is the color of the powdered
mineral, which is usually more useful for identification than the
color of the whole mineral sample. Streak is done by scraping an
edge of the mineral across a piece of unglazed porcelain known as
"streak plate". This can produce small amount of powdered mineral
on the mineral on the surface of the plate. The color of the streak
can help to identify the unknown mineral.
LUSTER
Luster is the appearance of a mineral surface in
reflected light. It may be described as metallic, as in
pyrite or galena; glassy or vitreous, as in quartz;
resinous or greasy, as in opal; pearly, as in talc; or
silky, as in fibrous minerals such as asbestos and
satin-spar (fibrous gypsum). Minerals with no lustre are
described as dull.
MINERALS CAN BE DESCRIBE
AS
METALLIC GLASSY RESINOUS PEARLY SILKY
FORM
Minerals can also be identified by their forms. There are number of terms
which are commonly used to describe various shapes assumed by minerals in
groups or cluster.
Common shapes of mineral clusters: (a) Botryoidal (b) Reniform (c) Tabular
(d) Dendritic, (e) Acicular (fandg) Concretionary.
BOTRYOIDAL RENIFORM TABULAR
Consisting of spheroidal Terminates in round Showing broad
aggregations, somewhat masses; a surface of
resembling a bunch of
flat and plate-like.
rounded, kidney-like
grapes.
shapes.
FORM
CONCRETIONARY
DENDRITIC ACICULAR OR NODULAR
Moss-like or tree-like forms, Needle-like shape Terms applied to
generally produced by the that tapers to a minerals found in
deposition of a mineral. detached masses of
point or a blunt
spherical or ellipsoidal.
termination.
HARDNESS
Hardness, or resistance to
abrasion, is the resistance of a
mineral to scratching. It is a
property by which minerals may be
described relative to a standard
scale of 10 minerals knowns as the
Mohsscaleof hardness.
CLEAVAGE
It is the tendency of minerals to split along the crystallographic planes as a
result of structural locations of atoms and ions in crystal, creating planes of
relative weakness in their structure. Perfect, good, distinct, and imperfect are
terms used to describe the quality of mineral cleavage. Mica, for example, has
a perfect cleavage by means of which it can be split into very thin flakes;
feldspars have two sets of good cleavage planes.
FRACTURE
The nature of a broken surface of a mineral is known
as fracture, the break being irregular and
independent of cleavage. It is sometimes
characteristic of a mineral and, also a fresh fracture
shows the true colour of a mineral Fracture is
described as conchoidal, when the mineral breaks
with a curved surface, in quartz and flint; aseven,
when it is nearly flat; as uneven, whenit is rough;
andas hackly whenthesurface carries small
sharpirregularities.
TENACITY
It is the resistance of a mineral to crushing, breaking, or bending. Tenacity can
be described by the following terms: Brittle and malleable.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific gravity is the
"heaviness" ofa mineral. It is
defined as a number that
expresses the ratio between
the weight of a mineral and the
weight of an equal volume of
water.
QUARTS
The quartz family, feldspar family, and augite are
all groups of minerals that are important in geology
and have various applications in civil engineering.
The quartz family, also known as the silicate
family, is composed of silicon and oxygen atoms,
which combine to form the basic building blocks of
all silicate minerals. Quartz is the most common
mineral in the family, but other minerals such as
micas, feldspars, olivine, pyroxenes, and
amphiboles also belong to this group. These
minerals are important in geology for
understanding rock formation and composition, as
well as for various industrial applications such as
glass and ceramics production.
FELDSPAR
The feldspar family is a group of minerals that are
also part of the silicate family, and are the most
common minerals in the Earth's crust. They are
composed of aluminum, silicon, and oxygen, with
potassium, sodium, or calcium as common
additional elements. Feldspars are commonly
found in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary
rocks, and are used in a variety of industrial
applications.
AUGITE
Augite is a mineral that belongs to the pyroxene group,
which is a group of minerals that are important
rock-forming minerals in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Augite is composed of calcium, magnesium, iron,
aluminum, silicon, and oxygen, and has a dark green to
black color. It is commonly found in association with
other minerals, including feldspar, olivine, and
amphiboles, and is often used as an indicator mineral in
the study of the origins and evolution of rocks.
HORNBLENDE
Hornblende is a complex inosilicate series of minerals. It
is not a recognized mineral in its own right, but the name
is used as a general or field term, to refer to a dark
amphibole. Hornblende minerals are common in igneous
and metamorphic rocks.
Hornblende Uses
The primary utility of hornblende is its presence in
crushed amphibolite for use in railroad ballast and
highway construction. It is also used as dimension stone.
BIOTITE
Biotite is a name used for a large group of black mica
minerals that are commonly found in igneous and
metamorphic rocks. These include annite, phlogopite,
siderophyllite, fluorophlogopite, fluorannite, eastonite,
and many others. These micas vary in chemical
compositins but are all sheet silicate minerals with very
similar physical properties.
What is the use of biotite in construction?
Biotite has a small number of commercial uses. Ground
mica is used as a filler and extender in paints, as an
additive to drilling muds, as an inert filler and
mold-release agent in rubber products, and as a non-stick
surface coating on asphalt shingles and rolled roofing.
MUSCOVITE
Muscovite is the most common mineral of the mica
family. It is an important rock-forming mineral present in
igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. It readily
cleaves into thin transparent sheets. Muscovite sheets have
a pearly to vitreous luster on their surface. Used in the
manufacturing of paint, joint compound, plastics rubber,
asphalt roofing, cosmetics, drilling mud.
CALCITE
Calcite is the principal constituent of limestone and marble. These rocks are
extremely common and make up a significant portion of Earth's crust. They serve as
one of the largest carbon repositories on our planet.
The properties of calcite make it one of the most widely used minerals. It is used as a
construction material, abrasive, agricultural soil treatment, construction aggregate,
pigment, pharmaceutical and more. It has more uses than almost any other mineral.
GARNET
Garnet is a group of silicate minerals that are commonly found in
metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary rocks. The general formula for
garnet is A3B2(SiO4)3, where A and B are cations that can be replaced by
other elements. The most common garnet species include almandine,
andradite, grossular, pyrope, spessartine, and uvarovite.
Each of these species has a slightly different chemical composition and
crystal structure, resulting in a range of colors and physical properties. For
example, almandine garnet is typically dark red to reddish-brown, while
pyrope garnet is usually deep red. Grossular garnet can be green, yellow,
orange, or brown, depending on the trace elements present
COAL AND
Coal
PETROLEUM
Coal is one of the fuels used to cook food. It is as hard as stone and is black in
color. It is also used in thermal power plants to produce electricity. Coal is also
used as a fuel in some industries.
Coke
It is a tough, porous and black substance. It is an almost pure form of carbon.
Coke is used in the manufacture of steel and in the extraction of many metals.
Coal Tar
It is a black, thick liquid with an unpleasant smell. It is a mixture of about 200
substances. When heated in air, coal burns and produces mainly carbon dioxide
gas.
Coal Gas
Coal gas is obtained during the processing of coal to get coke.
COAL AND
Petroleum
PETROLEUM
• The word petroleum is derived from petra (rock) and oleum (oil) as it is
mined from between the rocks under Earth. Heavy motor vehicles like
trucks and tractors run on diesel.
• Petrol and diesel are obtained from a natural resource called petroleum.
• Petroleum is a dark oily liquid. It has an unpleasant odor. It is a mixture of
various constituents such as petroleum gas, petrol, diesel, lubricating oil,
paraffin wax, etc.
Coal and Petroleum:
Their origin and
occurrence in India
Coal in India
Coal mining in India began in 1774 when John Sumner and Suetonius Grant Heatly of the East India Company commenced
exploitation in the Raniganj Coalfield along the Western bank of Damodar river. Growth remained low for nearly a century due to
low demand.
Petroleum in India
The oil and gas industry in India dates back to 1889 when the first oil deposits in the country were discovered near the town of
Digboi in the state of Assam. The natural gas industry in India began in the 1960s with the discovery of gas fields in Assam and
Gujarat. As on 31 March 2018, India had estimated crude oil reserves of 594.49 million tons (MT) and natural gas reserves of
1339.57 billion cubic meters (BCM).
Coal and Petroleum:
Their origin and
occurrence in India
• India imports 82% of its oil needs and aims to bring that down to 67% by 2022 by replacing it with local exploration,
renewable energy and indigenous ethanol fuel.
• India was the third top net crude oil (including crude oil products) importer of 205.3Mt in 2018.131.
• The first oil deposits in India were discovered in 1889 near the town of Digboi in the state of Assam
• The natural gas industry in India began in the 1960s with the discovery of gas fields in Assam and Gujarat. Natural gas gained
further significance after the discovery of large reserves in the South Basin fields by ONGC in the 1970s.
Importance of Mineralogy in Civil
Engineering
Knowledge of mineralogy is necessary for a civil engineer because physical properties of
rocks are dependent upon the properties and composition of their constituent minerals.
Understanding the properties and applications of minerals such as those found in the
quartz family, feldspar family, and pyroxene group is important for civil engineers in
various aspects of their work, including geotechnical engineering, construction materials,
and soil mechanics.
HOW DO MINERALS FORM?
- Minerals form through processes called crystallization. Minerals (Crystals) can form in two ways
- Crystallization is a “crystal-forming process”. 1 Cooling of magma
* Minerals are crystals 2 Solution Evaporation
* Not all crystals are minerals!
- Sugar is a crystal.. Why is it not a mineral?
COOLING OF SOLUTION
MAGMA EVAPORATION
• Where would magma cool the slowest? • Minerals dissolve in water and create a solution
• Magma cools slowest inside Earth (intrusive) • Eventually, the water will evaporate and the
• Where would magma cool the fastest? minerals will fall out of solution and be left behind.
• Lava cools fastest when outside the Earth (extrusive) • When minerals fall out of a solution they are said
• Where would we find large crystals in minerals? to precipitate.
• EXAMPLE: Salt Water evaporating with salt
crystals left behind.
COOLING OF
MAGMA
COOLING OF
MAGMA
• Magma is melted rock liquefied into a pool of elements.
• Things like Fe, Mg, Ca are all floating around in the liquid magma.
• Just like water cooling to form ice, magma can cool so the elements in the liquid
become solids.
• The elements solidify and group together to form solid crystals called minerals and fall
out of the
COOLING OF
MAGMA
• The size of the minerals crystal depends on how fast the magma cools...
• Magma that cools Fast:
• The minerals do not have enough time to grow to they are small.
• COOLS FAST = SMALL CRYSTALS
• Magma that cools Slow
• The minerals crystals have lots of time to grow so they are large.
• COOLS SLOW = LARGE CRYSTALS
TRUE OR FALSE
1.Mineralogy is a scientific discipline that is concerned with all aspects of minerals, Including
their physical properties, chemical composition, internal crystal structure, and occurrence and
distribution in nature and their origins in terms of the physicochemical conditions of formation.
2.Minerals are cystals.
3.All minerals have the same hardness.
4.Feldspar is a mineral belonging to the pyroxene group, which is important in igneous
and metamorphic rocks. It's composed of calcium, magnesium, iron, aluminum, silicon,
and oxygen, and has a dark green to black color.
5.Muscovite is an important rock- forming mineral present in igneous, metamorphic,
and sedimentary rocks.
6.Coal tar is a black, thick liquid with an unpleasant smell.
MULTIPLE CHOICES
1.All three axes are unequal in length,and none is perpendicular to another.
a.Triclinic
b.Monoclinic
c.Hexagonal
2.Which of the following is NOT a physical property used to identify minerals?
a.Hardness
b.Cleavage
c.Chemical composition
3.Mineral's resistance to crushing, breaking, or bending.
a. Fracture
b. Tenacity
c. Cleavage
4.It is the principal constituent of limestone and marbles.
a. Calcite
b. Biotite
c. Hornblende
5.It is one of the fuels used to cook food. It is as hard as stone and is black in color. It
is also used in thermal power plants to produce electricity.
a.Coal
b.Coke
c.Coal tar
6.Minerals form through processes called?
a.Crystallization
b.Crystals
c.Floating
