Introduction to Fluid Mechanics hydrology provides results that are useful for

environmental engineering and for

Lecture 01
policymaking. Hydrology is important
Fluid Mechanics is a physical science dealing with the nowadays because of global challenges in
action of fluids at rest or in motion, and with applications providing water for human societies.
and devices in engineering using fluids. • Aerodynamics is the study of air flow. Topics
Two (2) Major Areas include lift and drag on objects (e.g.,
• Fluid Statics which deal with fluids at rest. airplanes, automobiles, birds), shock waves
• Fluid Dynamics which concerned with fluids associated with flow around a rocket, and the
in motion. flow through a supersonic Orde Laval nozzle.
Hydraulics deals with the application of fluid mechanics Aerodynamics is important for the design of
to engineering devices involving liquids, usually water or vehicles, for energy conservation, and for
oil. understanding nature.
Hydraulics deals with such problems as the flow of • Bio-fluid mechanics is an emerging field that
fluids through pipes or in open channels, the design of includes the study of the lungs and circulatory
storage dams, pumps, and water turbines, and with system, blood flow, microcirculation, and
other devices for the control or use of liquids, such as lymph flow. Biofluids also includes
nozzles, valves, jets, and flowmeters. development of artificial heart valves, stents,
What is fluid? vein and dialysis shunts, and artificial organs.
• Fluid is a substance whose molecules move Bio-fluid mechanics is important for advancing
freely past each other. health care.
• Fluid is a substance that will continuously • Acoustics is the study of sound. Topics
deform – that is, flow under the action of a include production, control, transmission,
shear stress. reception of sound, and physiological effects
of sound. Since sound waves are pressure
waves in fluids, acoustics is related to fluid
mechanics. In addition, water hammer in a
piping system, which involves pressure waves
in liquids, involves some of the same
knowledge that is used in acoustics.
• Microchannel flow is an emerging area that
involves the study of flow in tiny passages.
The typical size of a microchannel is a
diameter in the range of 10to 200
micrometers. Applications that involve
microchannels include microelectronics, fuel
cell systems, and advanced heat sink
designs.
• Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is the
application of numerical methods
implemented on computers to model and
solve problems that involve fluid flows.
Computers perform millions of calculations
per second to simulate fluid flow. Examples of
Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics flows that are modeled by CFD include water
• Hydraulics is the study of the flow of water flow in a river, blood flow in the abdominal
through pipes, rivers, and open channels. aorta, and air flow around an automobile.
Hydraulics includes pumps and turbines and • Petroleum engineering is the application of
applications such as hydropower. Hydraulics engineering to the exploration and production
is important for ecology, policymaking, energy of petroleum. Movement of oil in the ground
production, recreation, fish and game involves flowthrough a porous medium.
resources, and water supply. Petroleum extraction involves flow of oil
• Hydrology is the study of the movement, through passages in wells. Oil pipelines
distribution, and quality of water throughout involve pumps and conduit flow.
the earth. Hydrology involves the hydraulic • Atmospheric science is the study of the
cycle and water resource issues. Thus, atmosphere, its processes, and the interaction
 of the atmosphere with other systems. Fluid has not yet fully converted to the metric
mechanics topics include flow of the system.
atmosphere and applications of CFD to
atmospheric modeling. Atmospheric science is
important for predicting weather and is
relevant to current issues including acid rain,
photochemical smog, and global warming.
• Electrical engineering problems can involve
knowledge from fluid mechanics. For
example, fluid mechanics is involved in the
flow of solder during a manufacturing process,
the cooling of a microprocessor by a fan,
sizing of motors to operate pumps, and the Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Digits
production of electrical power by wind • Accuracy error (inaccuracy) is the value of
turbines. one reading minus the true value. In general,
• Environmental engineering involves the accuracy of a set of measurements refers to
application of science to protect or improve the closeness of the average reading to the
the environment (air, water, and/or land true value.
resources) or to remediate polluted sites. • Precision error is the value of one reading
Environmental engineers design water supply minus the average of readings. In general,
and wastewater treatment systems for precision of a set of measurements refers to
communities. Environmental engineers are the fineness of the resolution and the
concerned with local and worldwide repeatability of the instrument. Significant
environmental issues such as acid rain, ozone digits are digits that are relevant and
depletion, water pollution, and air pollution. meaningful.

Importance of Dimensions and Units

• Any physical quantity can be characterized by
dimensions. The magnitudes assigned to the
dimensions are called units.
• A number of unit systems have been
developed over the years. Despite strong
efforts in the scientific and engineering
community to unify the world with a single unit
system, two sets of units are still in common
use today:
➢ English System, which is also
known as United States Customary
System (USCS)
➢ Metric SI (from Le Système
International d’ Unités), which is
also known as the International
System.
• The SI (metric system) is a simple and
logical system based on a decimal
relationship between the various units, and it
is being used for scientific and engineering
work in most of the industrialized nations,
including England.
• The English system, however, has no Significant Digits
apparent systematic numerical base, and Significant figures (digits) are the digits in a number that
various units in this system are related to carry meaningful information about its precision. They
each other rather arbitrarily (12in=1ft, are crucial in scientific and technical measurements to
1mile=5280ft, 4qt=1gal, etc.), which makes it ensure accuracy and consistency.
confusing and difficult to learn. The United 1. All non-zero digits are significant. For
States is the only industrialized country that example, 123 has three significant figures.
2. Any zeros between non-zero digits are
significant. For instance, 1002 has four
significant figures.
3. Leading zeros (zeros to the left of the first
non-zero digit) are not significant. For
example, 0.0025 has two significant figures.
4. Trailing zeros in a decimal number are
significant. For example, 2.300 has four
significant figures.
5. Trailing zeros in a whole number with a
decimal point are significant. For example,
150.0 has four significant figures.
Properties of Fluids shear stress. It accounts
for the energy losses
Lecture 02
associated with the
Mass Density, ρ transport of fluids in
• The density, ρ, of a fluid is its mass per unit ducts, channels, and
volume. In the S.I. system it is expressed in pipes. Further, the
kg/𝑚3 (slugs per cubic foot viscosity plays a primary
in English System). role in the generation of turbulence. Viscosity is an
For water, ρ is 1000 kg/𝑚3 at 4℃ . extremely important fluid property in our study of fluid
• This means that density is the rate at which flow.
mass changes with respect to volume. In
other words, it tells us how much mass is
contained in a very small volume element as
that volume element becomes infinitesimally
small.
Specific Weight, γ
• A fluid property directly related to density is
Kinematic Viscosity, ν
the specific weight γ or weight per unit
In many problems concerning fluid motion, the viscosity
volume.
appears with the density in the form of
Units of kinematic viscosity is 𝑚𝑚2/𝑠
or centistokes in S.I. Note: 1 poise = 1
• where g is the local gravity. The unit of dyne-s/ 𝑐𝑚2 = 0.1 Pa-s 1 stoke = 0.0001 𝑚2/s (1 dyne
specific weight is N/ 𝑚3 (lb/𝑓𝑡3). For water, = 10−5𝑁) The value of ν of heavy oil may be high as
we use the nominal value of 9810 N/ 𝑚3. 900 𝑚𝑚2/𝑠, whereas for water, which has a relatively
Specific Gravity, s.g. low viscosity, it is only 1.1 𝑚𝑚2/𝑠 at 15 ℃
• The specific gravity, s.g., is often used to Sample Problem 3
determine the specific weight or density of a If the viscosity of water at 70 °C is 0.00402 poise and its
fluid (usually liquid). It is defined as the ratio of specific gravity is 0.978, determine its absolute viscosity
the density of a substance to the density of in Pa-s and its kinematic viscosity in 𝑚2/𝑠 and in
water at a reference temperature of 4℃ . stokes.
Sample Problem 4
A viscometer is constructed with two 30-cm-long
concentric cylinders, one 20.0 cm in diameter and the
other 20.2 cm in diameter. A torque of 0.13 N-m is
required to rotate the inner cylinder at 400 rpm
(revolutions per minute). Calculate the viscosity.

Sample Problem 1
A reservoir of glycerin has a mass of 1,200 kg and a
volume of 0.952 cu.m. Find its:
a) Weight, W Compressibility, β
b) Specific Weight, γ • Deformation that results from pressure
c) mass density, ρ changes.
d) Specific gravity, s.g.
• All fluids compress if the pressure increases,
Sample Problem 2 resulting in a decrease in volume or an
An object has a specific weight of 2.23 kN/𝑚3. increase in density.
Compute the following: A common way to describe the compressibility of a fluid
a) mass density is by the following definition of the bulk modulus of
b) mass if the volume is 0.001 𝑚3 elasticity, EB.
c) Specific volume
Viscosity, μ
Viscosity can be thought of as the internal stickiness of
a liquid. It is a measure of its resistance to tangential or
In words, the bulk modulus, is defined as the ratio of the
change in pressure (ΔP) to relative change in density
(Δρ/ρ) while the temperature remains constant.

The figure shows the rise of a liquid in a clean glass

capillary tube due to surface tension. The liquid makes
a contact angle β with the glass tube. Experiments have
Compressibility, β
shown that this angle for water and most liquids in a
The bulk modulus for water at standard condition is clean glass tube is zero.
approximately 2,100 MPa, or 21,000x the atmospheric
pressure. For air at standard condition, EB is equal to 1
atm.
Compressibility (also known as coefficient of
compressibility) is the fractional change in the volume of
a fluid per unit change in pressure in constant
temperature process.

The bulk modulus can also be used to calculate the Sample Problem 6
speed of sound in a liquid. What is the value of the surface tension of a small drop
of water 0.3 mm in diameter which is in contact with air
if the pressure within the droplet is 561 Pa?
Sample Problem 7
Sample Problem 5 Estimate the height to which water will rise in a capillary
Water in hydraulic press, initially at 137 kPa absolute, is tube of diameter 3 mm. Use σ = 0.0728 N/m and γ =
subjected to a pressure of 116,280 kPa absolute. Using 9810 N.
EB = 2.5 GPa, determine the percentage decrease in Vapor Pressure
the volume of water. Liquid molecules which possess sufficient kinetic energy
Surface Tension, σ are projected out of the main body of a liquid at its free
• Surface tension is the physical property which surface and pass into the vapor. The pressure exerted
enables a drop of water to be held in by this vapor is known as vapor pressure.
suspension at a tap, a vessel to be filled with An increase in temperature is associated with a greater
liquid slightly above the brim and yet no spill, molecular agitation and thus an increase in vapor
or a needle to float on a surface of a liquid. pressure. When the vapor pressure is equal to the
• All these phenomena are due to cohesion pressure of the gas above it, the liquid boils. The vapor
between molecules at the surface of a liquid pressure of water at 15 °C is 1.72 KN/𝑚2.
which adjoins another immiscible liquid or The relationship between the pressure, density, and
gas. temperature for an ideal gas is
• The best example for this phenomenon is oil
and water which is in contact with each other.
Surface tension has units of force per unit length, N/m.

Sample Problem 8
At 32 °C and 205 kPa gage, the specific weight of a
certain gas was 13.7 N/𝑚3. Determine the gas constant
of this gas.
Sample Problem 9
Similarly, the pressure force in the bubble is balanced A tank with a volume of 0.2 m3 contains 0.5 kg of
by the surface tension forces on the two circumferences nitrogen (R = 0.2968 kJ/kg-K). The temperature is 20
assuming the thickness of bubble is small. °C. What is the pressure?
Principles of Fluid Statics (Part 01) When the pressure is measured relative to prevailing
local atmospheric pressure, the pressure value is called
Lecture 03
gage pressure.
This topic introduces the concepts related to pressure and describes
how to calculate forces associated with distributions of pressure. The • In SI unit, gage pressure and absolute
emphasis is on fluids in hydrostatic equilibrium. pressure are identified after the units.
Hydrostatic equilibrium means that each fluid particle • P = 100 kPa gage, or P = 250 kPa abs
is in force equilibrium with the net force due to pressure • Pgage = 100 kPa, or Pabs = 250 kPa
balancing the weight of the fluid particle. When pressure is less than atmospheric, the pressure
Fluid statics is the study of fluids in which there is no can be described using vacuum pressure. Vacuum
relative motion between fluid particles. pressure is defined as the difference between
• If there is no relative motion, no shearing atmospheric pressure and actual pressure.
stresses exist, since velocity gradients, such • Vacuum pressure is positive number and
as dv/dy, are required for shearing stresses to equals the absolute value of gage pressure
be present. which will be negative.
• The only stress that exists in a normal stress, • Gage, absolute, and vacuum pressure can be
the pressure, so it is the pressure that is of related using equations labeled as the
primary interest in fluid statics. “pressure equations”:
Pressure is the ratio of normal force to area at a point.
• Pressure is a scalar that produces a resultant
force by its action on an area. The resultant
force is normal to the area and acts in a
direction toward the surface (compressive).
• Pressure caused by the molecules of the fluid
Sample Problem 1
interacting with the surface.
Find the absolute pressure in kPa at a depth of 10 m
Units of Pressure can be categorized into three (3):
below the free surface of oil of specific gravity 0.75 if the
1. Force per Area: The SI unit in the newtons barometric reading is 752 mm-Hg.
per square meter (N/m2) or Pascals (Pa). The
Sample Problem 2
traditional units include psi, which is pounds-
force per square inch (lbf/in2), and psf, which If the atmospheric pressure is 95.7 kPa and the gage
is pounds-force per square foot (lbf/ft2). attached to the tank reads 188 mm-Hg vacuum, find the
2. Liquid column height: Sometimes pressure absolute pressure within the tank.
units give an equivalent height of a column of Pressure head is the height “h” of a column of
liquid. When pressure is given in units of homogeneous liquid of specific weight (γ) that will
“height of a fluid column”, the pressure value produce an intensity of pressure P.
can be directly converted to other units such
as this:

3. Atmosphere: Sometimes pressure units are

stated in terms of atmospheres where 1 atm is
the air pressure at sea level at standard
conditions. Another common unit is the bar,
which is equal to 1atm (1.0 bar = 105 kPa). Sample Problem 3
If air had a constant specific weight of 12.2 N/m3 and
were incompressible, what would be the height of the
atmosphere if the atmospheric pressure (sea level) is
103 kPa?
Absolute, Gage, and Vacuum Pressure Sample Problem 4
Absolute pressure is referenced to regions such as Assuming specific weight of air to be constant at 12
outer space, where the pressure is essentially zero N/m', what is the approximate height of Mount Banahaw
because the region is devoid of gas. if a mercury barometer at the base of the mountain
• The pressure in a perfect vacuum is called reads 654 mm and at the same instant, another
absolute zero, and pressure measured barometer at the top of the mountain reads 480 mm.
relative to these zero pressures is termed
absolute pressure.
Transmission of Pressure: 2nd Law of Pascal Hydraulic Systems
When a force is applied to a fluid in a confined space, it Hydraulic systems leverage the principles of pressure
generates pressure. According to Pascal's law, this transmission to amplify force. For instance, in a
pressure is transmitted equally in all directions. This hydraulic press, a small force applied on a small-area
means that any change in pressure at any point in the piston results in a large force on a larger-area piston,
confined fluid will result in an equal change in pressure due to the undiminished transmission of pressure:
at every other point in the fluid. This uniform
transmission of pressure is what allows hydraulic
systems to function effectively.
• Isotropic Transmission – Pressure is Sample Problem 5
transmitted equally in all directions, regardless A 10-kN car is to be lifted by a hydraulic jack. If 400-N
of the shape of the container. force is applied in a 25-mm-diameter plunger, find the
• Incompressible Fluids - The principle required diameter of the piston.
applies most accurately to incompressible Sample Problem 6
fluids (liquids), as gases can compress and In the figure shown assume that the piston and the
expand, which might lead to slight variations. weight are the same elevation, the face of the piston
• Applications - Hydraulic lifts, brakes, and having an area of 1000 m2 and the face of the weight
jacks utilize this principle to multiply force and 10,000 m2. The intervening passages are filled with
perform work efficiently. water. What weight W can be supported by the force P
of 500 kN applied at the end of the level?

Pressure Gradient
In a fluid at rest in a gravitational field, the pressure
increases linearly with depth. This is given
by the hydrostatic pressure formula:
Principles of Fluid Statics (Part 02) Sample Problem 10
Lecture 03 In the figure shown, if the
atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa
Pressure Variations and the absolute pressure at the
Therefore; the difference in pressure between any two points in a
bottom of the tank is 231.3 kPa,
homogeneous fluid at rest is equal to the product of the specific
weight of the fluid (γ) to the vertical distance (h) between the points. what is the specific gravity of olive
oil?

Devices for Measuring Pressure:

Barometer
An instrument that is
used to measure
atmospheric pressure
is called barometer.
Also, this means that any change in pressure at point 1 The most common
would cause an equal chance at point 2. Therefore, a types are mercury
pressure applied at any point in a liquid at rest is barometer and the
transmitted equally and undiminished to every other aneroid barometer.
point in the liquid. • A mercury barometer is made by inverting a
mercury-filled tube in a container of mercury.
The pressure at the top of the mercury
barometer will be the vapor pressure of
mercury, which is very small: Pv=2.4x10-6 atm
at 20 °C.

• An aneroid barometer works mechanically.

An aneroid is an elastic bellows that has been
tightly sealed after some air was removed.
Bourdon-Tube Gage
A Bourdon-tube gage measures pressure by sensing
Let us assume that point 1 lie the deflection of a coiled tube. The tube has an elliptical
on the free liquid surface, cross section and is bent into a circular arc. When
This means that the pressure at any point “h” below a atmospheric pressure (zero gage pressure) prevails, the
free liquid surface is equal to the product of the specific tube is undeflected, and for this condition the gage
weight of the fluid (γ) and h. pointer is calibrated to read zero pressure.
Sample Problem 7 • The Bourdon-tube gage is common because it
A pressure gage 6 m above the bottom of the tank is low cost, reliable, easy to install, and
containing liquid reads 90 kPa. Another gage height 4 m available in many different pressure ranges.
reads 103 kPa. Determine the specific weight of the • There are disadvantages: dynamic pressures
liquid. are difficult to read accurately; accuracy of the
Sample Problem 8 gage can be lower than other instruments;
and the gage can be damaged by excessive
If the pressure at a point in the ocean is 60 kPa, what is
pressure pulsations.
the pressure 27 meters below this point?

Sample Problem 9
An open tank contains 5.8 m of water covered with 3.2
m of kerosene (γ = 8 kN/m3). Find the pressure at the
interface and at the bottom of the tank.
 Piezometer
A piezometer is a vertical
tube, usually transparent, in
which a liquid rise in
response to a positive gage
pressure. Pressure in the
pipe pushes the water
column to a height h, and the
gage pressure at the center
of the pipe is P=γh.
Advantages
• Simplicity direct measurement (no need for calibration)
• Accuracy
Disadvantages
• Cannot easily be used for measuring pressure in a gas
• Limited to low pressure because the column height
becomes too large at high pressures. Sample Problem 11
Manometer The water in a tank is
A manometer, pressurized by air, and
often shaped the pressure is
like the letter measured by a multifluid
“U”, is a device manometer as shown.
for measuring The tank is located on a
pressure by mountain at an altitude
raising or of 1400 m where the
lowering a atmospheric pressure is
column or liquid. 85.6 kPa. Determine the
• Figure shows that positive gage pressure in air pressure in the tank if
the pipe pushes the manometer liquid up at h1 = 0.1 m, h2 = 0.2 m,
height Δh. To use a manometer, engineers and h3 = 0.35 m. Take the densities of water, oil, and
relate the height of the liquid in the mercury to be 1000 kg/m3, 850 kg/m3, and 13,600
manometer to pressure. kg/m3, respectively.
Steps in Solving Manometer Problems Sample Problem 12
1. Decide on the fluid in feet or meter, of which A manometer connects an oil pipeline and a water
the heads are to be expressed, (water is most pipeline as shown. Determine the difference in pressure
advisable). between the two pipelines using the readings on the
2. Starting from an end point, number in order, manometer. Use sg of oil = 0.86 and sg of Hg = 13.6.
the interface of different fluids.
3. Identify points of equal pressure (taking into
account that for a homogenous fluid at rest,
the pressure along the same horizontal plane
are equal). Label these points with the same
number.
4. Proceed from level to level, adding (if going
down) or subtracting (if going up) pressure
heads as the elevation decreases or
increases, respectively with due regard for the
specific gravity of the fluids.
Total Hydrostatic Force on Surface Center of pressure – the point where the resultant
force acts.
Lecture 04
Eccentricity – distance between the center of gravity
and center of pressure
To find the location of the resultant force F, we note that
the sum of the moments of all the infinitesimal pressure
forces acting on area A must equal the moment of the
resultant force.
Let the force F act at the point (xp, yp), the center of
pressure (c.p.). The value of yp can be obtained by
equating moments about the xaxis:

Properties of Common Plane Sections

In the design of devices and objects that are

submerged, such as dams, flow obstructions, surfaces
on ships, and holding tanks, it is necessary to calculate
the magnitudes and locations of forces that act on both
plane and curved surfaces.
The total force of the liquid on the plane surface is
found by integrating the pressure over the area,

The force on a rectangular gate,with the top edge even

with the liquid surface, acts two-thirds of the way down.

The force on a plane surface is the pressure at the

centroid multiplied by the area.
Sample Problem 1 Sample Problem 4
A triangular plate, 1 meter wide at the base of 2.4 meter A submerged curve AB is one quarter of a circle of
deep, is vertically submerged in water with the vertex at radius 2 m and is located on the lower corner of a tank.
the water surface and its base parallel to the water The length of the tank perpendicular to the sketch is 4
surface. Evaluate how far, in meters, below the centroid m. Find the magnitude and location of the horizontal
of the plate is the resultant horizontal force acting on and vertical components of the total force acting on AB.
Sample Problem 5
each side of it.
The curve surface
Sample Problem 2
represented by AB in the
A rectangular plate 1 meter wide by 2.4 meters long is figure is the surface of
vertically submerged in water, the shorter edge 2 meters the quadrant of a circular
below and parallel to the water surface. Evaluate how cylinder 3 m. long.
far in meters, below the centroid of the plate is the Determine the horizontal
resultant horizontal force acting on each side of it. and vertical components
Sample Problem 3 of total hydrostatic pressure on the surface when:
A triangular gate having a horizontal base 1.0 m. long a. r = 3 m, z = 0
and an altitude of 1.5 m. is inclined at 45 from the b. r = 2 m, z = 18 m
vertical with the vertex pointing upward. The vertex of
Analysis of Dams
the gate is 2.4 m. vertically below the surface of the
• Dams are structures that block the flow of a
water.
river, stream, or other waterway. Some dams
a. Evaluate the total force on the gate, in kN.
divert the flow of river water into a pipeline,
b. Locate the point of action of the total force
canal, or channel.
from the bottom of the gate along its plane, in
• Other raise the level of inland waterways to
meters.
make them navigable by ships and barges.
c. What normal force, in kN, must be applied at
Many dams harness the energy of falling
the vertex of the gate to open it if it is hinged
water to generate electric power.
at the base?
Dams are built for the following purposes:
Forces on Curved Surfaces
1. Irrigation and drinking water
We do not use a direct method of integration to find the
2. Power supply (hydroelectric)
force due to the hydrostatic pressure on a curved
3. Navigation
surface. Rather, a free-body diagram that contains the
4. Flood control
curved surface and the liquids directly above or below
5. Multi purposes
the curved surface is identified.
Gravity Dam
Such a free-body diagram contains only plane surfaces
Gravity dams use only the force of gravity to resist water
upon which unknown fluid forces act; these unknown
pressure – that is, they hold back the water by the sheer
forces can be found as in the preceding section.
force of their weight pushing downward. To do this,
gravity dams must consist of a mass downstream or tip
it over.
Embankment Dam
An embankment dam is a gravity dam formed out of
loose rock, earth, or a combination of these materials.
The upstream and downstream slopes of embankment
dams are flatter than those of concrete gravity dams. In
essence, they more closely match the natural slope of a
The free-body diagram, which includes pile of rocks or earth.
• The water contained directly above the gate; Arch Dam
• F1 and F2 are due to the surrounding water Arch dams are concrete or masonry structures that
and are the resultant forces of the pressure curve upstream into a reservoir, stretching from one wall
distributions shown; of a river canyon to the other. This design, based on the
• The body force Fw is due to the weight of the same principles as the architectural arch and vault,
water shown transfers some water pressure onto the walls of the
• The forces Fx and Fy are the horizontal and canyon.
vertical components, respectively, of the force Buttress Dam
acting on the hinge. A buttress dam consists of a wall, or face, supported by
By summing moments of an axis passing through the several buttresses on the downstream side. Most
hinge, we can determine the force P acting on the stop. buttress dams are made of concrete that is reinforced
with steel. Buttresses are typically spaced across the
dam site every 6 to 30 m (20 to 100 ft), depending upon
the size and design of the dam.
ANALYSIS OF GRAVITY DAM
A dam is subjected to hydrostatic forces due to water
which is raised on its upstream side. These forces
cause the dam to slide horizontally on its foundation
and overturn it about its downstream edge or toe.
These tendencies are resisted by friction on the base of Sample Problem 6:
the dam and gravitational forces which causes a A concrete dam of trapezoidal crosssection, with one
moment opposite to the overturning moment. The dam face vertical has a thickness of 0.60 m. at the top and
may also be prevented from sliding by keying its base. 4.2 m. at the bottom. It is 7 m. high as and has a
horizontal base. The vertical face is subjected to a water
pressure, the water standing 6 m. above the base. The
weight of the concrete is 24 KN/m3 per meter length of
the dam, evaluate:
a. The total hydrostatic force on the dam in KN.
b. The resisting moment of the dam to
overturning in KN-m.
c. Factor of safety against overturning.

Steps of Solution

Sample Problem 7:
A masonry dam of trapezoidal cross section, with one
face vertical, has a thickness of 2 m at the top and 10
m at the bottom. It is 22 m high and has a horizontal
base. The inclined face is subjected to water pressure,
the water standing to a depth of 15 m above the base.
The specific gravity of masonry is 240. If there is no
hydrostatic uplift, where will the resultant pressure
intersect the base? Is this a good design?
Principle on Buoyancy manner that half of the sphere is on the top layer and
the other half in the bottom layer of fluids.
Lecture 05
a. Compute the weight of the spherical metal.
b. Compute the buoyant force acting on the
object.
c. Compute the tension in the wire holding the
sphere to maintain its position.
Sample Problem 3
a. What fraction of the volume of a solid object if
specific gravity 3.47 floats above the surface
of a container of mercury?
b. If the volume of the object below the liquid
surface is 0.018 m3, what us the weight of the
object?
c. What load applied vertically that would cause
About 250 B.C. Archimedes discovered the principle the object to be fully submerged?
on buoyancy which states that, “a body submerged
(partially or completely) in a fluid at rest is buoyed up
Stability of Floating Bodies
by a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid”, or
When the body undergoes an angular displacement
about horizontal axis, the shape of the immersed
where: Fb – buoyant force (N) volume changes and so the center of buoyancy moves
Vd – volume of the displaced fluid (m3) relatively to the body.
γ – specific weight of the fluid (N/m3) As a result of above observation stable can be
The buoyant force Fb, the weight of the displaced fluid, achieved, under certain, even when G is above B.
is also called as the displacement of the body or static Figure below illustrates a floating body – a boat, for
lift and acts through the centroid of the displaced fluid, example, in its equilibrium position.
known as the center of buoyancy.
If the gravity force of the body is greater than the static
lift (buoyant force), the body sinks in the fluid unless
external forces act upon the body. The difference
between the actual weight (weight in air) of the body,
Wb, and the buoyant force, Fb, is called as the
apparent weight of the body, Wb’, or
Important points to note here are:
1. The force of buoyancy Fb is equal to the
Sample Problem 1 weight of the body W.
A hollow cylinder 1.1 m in diameter and 2.4 m long 2. Center of gravity, G is above the center of
weight 3,285 N. buoyancy in the same vertical line.
a. How many kN of lead weighing 110 kN/m3 3. Figure b shows the situation after the body
must be fastened to the outside bottom to has undergone a small angular displacement
make the cylinder float vertically with 1.9m θ with respect to the vertical axis.
submerged in fresh water? 4. The center of gravity G remains unchanged
b. How many kN of lead weighing 110 kN/m3 relative to the body. (This is not always true
must be placed inside the cylinder to make for ships where some of the cargo may shift
the cylinder float vertically with 1.90 m during an angular displacement)
submerged in fresh water? 5. During the movement, the volume immersed
c. What additional load must be placed inside on the right-hand side increases while that on
the cylinder to make the top of the cylinder the left-hand side decreases. Therefore, the
flush with the water surface? center of buoyancy moves toward the right to
Sample Problem 2 its new position B’.
A container holds two layers of different liquids, one fluid
having a specific gravity of 1.2 is 200 mm deep and the
other fluid having a specific gravity of 1.5 is 250 mm
deep. A solid spherical metal having a diameter of 225
mm and a specific gravity of 7.4 is submerged such a
 MB > GB → stable (M is above G)
MB < GB → unstable (M is below G)
MB = GB → critically stable
The buoyant force is always vertical and passes through
B’ (new center of buoyancy). Sample Problem 4
A ship of 400 tons displacement floats in sea water with
The line of action of the buoyant force intersects the its axis of symmetry vertical when a weight of 50 tons is
axis GB (old vertical line through center of gravity G and midship. Moving the weight 3 m towards one side of the
old center of buoyancy B) at M. deck causes a plumb bob, suspended at the end of a
string 1 m long to move 62.5 mm. Find the metacentric
For small angles of displacement (θ), the point M height.
remains nearly constant and is called the metacenter.
Sample Problem 5
In the body described, M is above G, creating a A rectangular scow 9 m wide. 15 m long and 3.6 m high,
restoring couple that returns the body to its original has a draft in seawater of 2.4 m. Its center of gravity is
position. 2.7 m. above the bottom of the scow.
a. Determine the initial metacentric height.
If M were below G, the couple would be an overturning b. If the scow lists unit one side is just at the
couple, making the equilibrium unstable. point of submergence, determine the righting
or overturning couple.
When M coincides with G, the body reaches neutral
equilibrium, with no further movement. Sample Problem 6
A scow 15 m long, 9 m wide and 4.5 m high has a draft
Stability of a floating body depends on the relative of 2.7 m. Its center of gravity is at the center of the scow
position of M and G, not just B and G. both longitudinally and transversely. If the scow is tipped
transversely until one side is just on the point of
The distance from G to the metacenter along GB is submergence, determine the righting couple.
called the metacentric height (MG).