Module 2: Research Techniques I

Sample DeterminationDefinition: The process of selecting a subset of

individuals or units from a larger population to participate in the research study. This subset,
or sample, is used to draw conclusions about the entire population.Purpose: To obtain a
representative subset that reflects the characteristics of the population, ensuring the findings
are valid and generalizable.

Types of Sampling:Probability Sampling:Definition: A sampling technique

where each member of the population has a known and non-zero chance of being selected.
This method allows for the use of statistical theory to make inferences about the population
from the sample.Examples:Simple Random Sampling: Every member of the population
has an equal chance of being selected.Example: A researcher wants to survey 100 students
from a university with 1,000 students. Each student is assigned a number, and 100 numbers
are randomly chosen using a computer program.Stratified Sampling: The population is
divided into subgroups (strata) based on specific characteristics, and random samples are
taken from each stratum.Example: To understand student satisfaction across different
majors, the researcher divides the student body into strata based on major (e.g.,
Engineering, Business, Arts) and randomly selects students from each major.Systematic
Sampling: Every nth member of the population is selected.Example: If a researcher needs
to survey 200 out of 2,000 employees, they might select every 10th employee on a list of all
employees.Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters (usually based on
geographical locations or groups), and entire clusters are randomly selected.Example: A
researcher wants to study classroom performance across several schools. They randomly
select a few schools (clusters) and then survey all the students within those schools.

Non-Probability Sampling:Definition: A sampling technique where not all

members of the population have a known or equal chance of being selected. This method
does not allow for the use of statistical theory to infer population characteristics from the
sample.Examples:Convenience Sampling: Selecting individuals who are easiest to
reach.Example: A researcher surveys people in a shopping mall because they are easily
accessible, rather than sampling from a broader population.Judgmental Sampling:
Selecting individuals based on the researcher’s judgment and expertise.Example: For a
study on expert opinions in climate science, the researcher selects well-known climate
scientists based on their expertise.Snowball Sampling: Existing study subjects recruit
future subjects from their acquaintances.Example: A researcher studying rare disease
patients asks initial participants to refer other patients they know.
 Sample Size: Determined based on factors such as the research objectives,
population size, and required precision of the results.Example: To ensure statistical
significance, a study might require a sample size of 300 participants out of a
population of 10,000.
 Data TabulationDefinition: The process of organizing and summarizing collected
data to facilitate analysis.Components:Coding: Assigning numerical or categorical codes to
qualitative responses to standardize data entry and facilitate analysis.Example: In a survey
about dietary habits, responses such as "Vegetarian," "Vegan," and "Omnivore" are coded
as 1, 2, and 3 respectively for easier analysis.Decoding: Translating coded data back into
its original form for interpretation.Example: If the code “2” represents “Vegan,” then
decoding would involve converting the numerical code back to “Vegan” in the final report.
Data Entry: Inputting coded data into a database or spreadsheet.Example: Entering survey
responses into a statistical software program like SPSS or Excel for analysis.
Tabulation: Creating tables to summarize and display data, showing the frequency or
percentage of responses for different variables.Example: A frequency distribution table
showing the number of respondents who prefer each type of diet: 50 vegetarian, 30 vegan,
and 20 omnivore.Purpose: To simplify data handling and enhance the clarity of data
presentation, making it easier to identify patterns and trends.

Quantitative Data AnalysisDefinition: The process of analyzing numerical

data to identify patterns, relationships, and trends.
Techniques:Descriptive Statistics: Summarizes the main features of a dataset.
Measures of Central Tendency:Mean: Average value of a dataset.Example: The average
score of 50 students on a math test is 75%.Median: Middle value when data is
ordered.Example: The median income of a sample of 10 households is $55,000.Mode:
Most frequently occurring value.Example: The mode of survey responses on favorite ice
cream flavor is "Chocolate."
Measures of Dispersion:Range: Difference between the highest and lowest
values.Example: The range of test scores from 60 to 90 is 30.Variance and Standard
Deviation: Measures of how spread out the data is.Example: A standard deviation of 10 in
test scores indicates variability around the mean score.
 Inferential Statistics: Makes inferences or predictions about a population based on
a sample.Hypothesis Testing: Tests hypotheses using statistical methods.Example:
Conducting a t-test to determine if there is a significant difference in average test
scores between two teaching methods.Regression Analysis: Examines
relationships between variables.Example: Using linear regression to predict a
student’s future academic performance based on their current grades and study
habits.
 Data Visualization: Uses graphs and charts to present data in a visual
format.Example: Creating a bar chart to show the distribution of survey responses or
a scatter plot to illustrate the relationship between study hours and exam scores.
 Qualitative Data AnalysisDefinition: The process of analyzing non-
numerical data to gain insights into underlying meanings, themes, and patterns.
 Techniques:Thematic Analysis: Identifying and analyzing themes or patterns within
qualitative data.Example: Analyzing interview transcripts to identify common themes
about employee satisfaction, such as "work-life balance" and "career
growth."Content Analysis: Systematic coding and categorizing of text to identify the
frequency of themes or concepts.Example: Coding newspaper articles to count the
number of times specific terms like “climate change” or “sustainability” are
mentioned.Narrative Analysis: Examining the stories and personal narratives
provided by participants.Example: Analyzing personal accounts of patients’
experiences with a new treatment to understand their perspectives and
concerns.Grounded Theory: Developing theories based on data collected during the
research process.Example: Using data from focus groups to develop a theory about
factors influencing consumer behavior, which is then refined through further data
collection and analysis.Purpose: To understand complex phenomena, gain insights
into participants’ perspectives, and explore contextual factors influencing behavior.

Focused Group Discussions (FGDs)Definition: A qualitative

research method where a small group of people, guided by a facilitator, discuss
specific topics or issues in depth. FGDs are designed to generate rich, detailed data
through group interaction.Purpose: To explore participants' attitudes, perceptions,
and experiences on a particular topic, generating insights that may not be captured
through individual interviews or surveys.
 Characteristics:Group Dynamics: Interaction among participants can stimulate
memories and ideas, providing deeper insights.Facilitation: A skilled moderator
guides the discussion to ensure all topics are covered and all participants have the
opportunity to contribute.Example: A company conducts FGDs with different
customer groups to understand their perceptions of a new product and identify
potential areas for improvement.Advantages:Rich Data: Provides in-depth
understanding of participants' views.Flexibility: Can adapt to the flow of discussion
and explore emerging topics.Disadvantages:Group Influence: Dominant
participants may skew the discussion.Analysis Complexity: Data analysis can be
time-consuming and complex due to the qualitative nature of the data.
EthnographyDefinition: A qualitative research method that involves the systematic
study of people and cultures in their natural environment. Ethnographers immerse
themselves in the community or context being studied to gain a deep understanding of social
practices and cultural phenomena.Purpose: To provide a comprehensive and nuanced
understanding of social interactions, behaviors, and cultural norms within a specific group or
community.Characteristics:Participant Observation: The researcher actively engages in
the daily life of the study population, observing and participating in their
activities.Longitudinal Study: Often involves extended periods of observation to capture the
dynamics of the setting over time.Example: An ethnographer spends several months living
with a remote indigenous community to study their traditions, daily practices, and social
structures.
Advantages:Depth of Understanding: Offers an in-depth view of the studied group’s
cultural practices and social interactions.Contextual Insight: Provides context and
background that helps explain behaviors and practices.Disadvantages:Time-Consuming:
Requires a significant amount of time to collect and analyze data.Researcher Bias: The
researcher's presence and interpretation can influence the findings.

Likert ScaleDefinition: A psychometric scale commonly used in surveys to measure

attitudes, opinions, and perceptions. Respondents indicate their level of agreement or
disagreement with a series of statements.Purpose: To quantify subjective data and allow for
statistical analysis of attitudes and opinions.Characteristics:Scale Points: Typically ranges
from 5 to 7 points, with options such as "Strongly Agree," "Agree," "Neutral," "Disagree," and
"Strongly Disagree."Quantitative Analysis: Responses can be analyzed using statistical
methods to identify trends, correlations, and patterns.Example: A survey using a Likert
Scale to assess employee satisfaction might include statements like, “I am satisfied with my
work environment,” with response options ranging from "Strongly Agree" to "Strongly
Disagree."
Advantages:Ease of Use: Simple for respondents to understand and complete.Versatility:
Can be used to measure a wide range of attitudes and opinions.Disadvantages:Central
Tendency Bias: Respondents may avoid extreme responses, skewing results.Lack of
Depth: Does not provide detailed explanations behind responses.